Examine individual changes

'{{further|Early Christianity|History of early Christianity}} {{merge from|Apostolic Age|discuss=Talk:Christianity in the 1st century#Merge with Apostolic Age|date=April 2019}} [[File:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg|thumb|''The Sermon On the Mount''. Carl Bloch (1834–1890)]] '''Christianity in the 1st century''' deals with the formative years of the [[Early Christianity|Early Christian]] community. The earliest followers of [[Jesus]] were composed principally from apocalyptic [[Jewish religious movements#Sects in the Second Temple period|Jewish sects]] during the late [[Second Temple period]] of the 1st century. They were [[Jewish Christians]], who strictly adhered to the [[Halakha|Jewish law]]. [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]] had an early Christian community, which was led by [[James, brother of Jesus|James the Just]], Peter, and John.<ref name="McGrath, p.174">McGrath, p. 174</ref> [[Paul the Apostle]], a pious Jew who had persecuted the early Christians, [[Conversion of Paul|converted]] c. AD 33–36<ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Bromiley | first1 = Geoffrey William | title = International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: A-D (International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (W.B.Eerdmans)) | year = 1979 | publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company | location = | isbn = 0-8028-3781-6 | page = 689 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Barnett | first1 = Paul | title = Jesus, the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times | year = 2002 | publisher = InterVarsity Press | location = | isbn = 0-8308-2699-8 | page = 21 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1 = L. Niswonger | first1 = Richard | title = New Testament History | year = 1993 | publisher = Zondervan Publishing Company | location = | isbn = 0-310-31201-9 | page = 200 }}</ref> and started to proselytize among the [[Gentile]]s. According to Paul, Gentile converts could be allowed exemption from most [[Mitzvot|Jewish commandments]], arguing that all are justified by faith in Jesus. This led to a gradual [[Split of early Christianity and Judaism|split of early Christianity from Judaism]], as Christianity became a predominantly [[Gentile]] religion. ==Etymology== Early Jewish Christians referred to themselves as 'The Way' ({{lang|grc|της οδου}}), probably coming from {{bibleref|Isaiah|40:3|NIV}}, "prepare the way of the Lord."<ref group=web name="Hurtado.the_way">Larry Hurtado (August 17, 2017 ), [https://larryhurtado.wordpress.com/2017/08/17/paul-the-pagans-apostle/ ''"Paul, the Pagans’ Apostle"'']</ref>{{refn|group=note|It appears in the Acts of the Apostles, {{bibleref|Acts|9:2|NKJV}}, {{bibleref|Acts|19:9|NKJV}} and {{bibleref|Acts|19:23|NKJV}}). Some [[English translations of the bible|English translations of the New Testament]] capitalize 'the Way' (e.g. the [[New King James Version]] and the [[English Standard Version]]), indicating that this was how 'the new religion seemed then to be designated' <ref>[[Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary]] on Acts 19, http://biblehub.com/commentaries/jfb//acts/19.htm accessed 8 October 2015</ref> whereas others treat the phrase as indicative—'the way',<ref>Jubilee Bible 2000</ref> 'that way' <ref>[[American King James Version]]</ref> or 'the way of the Lord'.<ref>[[Douai-Rheims Bible]]</ref> The [[Syriac language|Syriac]] version reads, "the way of God" and the [[Vulgate|Vulgate Latin]] version, "the way of the Lord".<ref>Gill, J., ''Gill's Exposition of the Bible'', commentary on Acts 19:23 http://biblehub.com/commentaries/gill/acts/19.htm accessed 8 October 2015</ref>}} According to {{bibleref|Acts|11:26|NIV}}, the term "Christian" ({{Lang-el|Χριστιανός}}) was first used in reference to Jesus's [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciples]] in the city of [[Early centers of Christianity#Antioch|Antioch]], meaning "followers of Christ," by the non-Jewish inhabitants of Antioch.<ref>E. Peterson (1959), "Christianus." In: ''Frühkirche, Judentum und Gnosis'', publisher: Herder, Freiburg, pp. 353–72</ref> The earliest recorded use of the term "Christianity" ({{Lang-el|Χριστιανισμός|links=no}}) was by [[Ignatius of Antioch]], in around 100&nbsp;AD.{{sfn|Elwell|Comfort|2001|pp=266, 828}} ==Origins== {{Main|Origins of Christianity}} ===Jewish-Hellenistic background=== {{Main|Second Temple Judaism|Hellenistic Judaism|Jewish eschatology|Covenant (biblical)|Messiah in Judaism}} Christianity arose in the syncretistic Hellenistic world of the first century CE, which was dominated by Roman law and Greek culture.{{sfn|Mack|1995}} [[Hellenistic culture]] had a profound impact on the customs and practices of Jews, both in [[Palestine (region)#Classical antiquity|Roman Palestine]] and in the [[Jewish diaspora#Under the Roman Empire|Diaspora]]. The inroads into Judaism gave rise to Hellenistic Judaism in the Jewish diaspora which sought to establish a [[Judaism|Hebraic-Jewish religious tradition]] within the culture and language of [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenism]]. Hellenistic Judaism spread to [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] from the 3rd century BCE, and became a notable ''[[religio licita]]'' after the [[Roman conquest of Greece]], [[Asia (Roman province)|Anatolia]], [[Roman Syria|Syria]], [[Roman Judea|Judea]], and [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]], until its decline in the 3rd century parallel to the rise of [[Gnosticism]] and Early Christianity. Palestinian Judaism at this time was divided into antagonistic factions. The main camps were the [[Pharisees]], [[Saducees]], [[Essenes]] and [[Zealots]].{{r|group=web|"Shiffman"}}{{r|group=web|"JVL"}} This led to further unrest, and the 1st century BC and 1st century AD saw a number of charismatic religious leaders, contributing to what would become the [[Mishnah]] of [[rabbinic Judaism]], including [[Yohanan ben Zakkai]] and [[Hanina ben Dosa]]; and the [[ministry of Jesus]], which would lead to the emergence of the first [[Jewish Christians|Jewish Christian community]].{{r|group=web|"Shiffman"}}{{r|group=web|"JVL"}} A central concern in 1st century Judaism was the [[Covenant (biblical)|covenant with God]], and the status of the [[Jews as the chosen people]].{{sfn|Ehrman|2012|p=272}} Many Jews believed that this covenant would be renewed with the coming of the Messiah. The Law was given by God to guide them in their worship of the Lord and in their interctions with each other, "the greatest gift God had given his people."{{sfn|Ehrman|2012|p=273}} The [[Messiah in Judaism|Jewish messiah]] concept has its root in the [[apocalyptic literature]] of the 2nd century BC to 1st century BC, promising a future leader or [[monarch|king]] from the [[Davidic line]] who is expected to be anointed with [[holy anointing oil]] and rule the Jewish people during the [[Messianic Age]] and [[world to come]].{{r|group=web|"Immanuel.Moshiah ben Yossef"}}{{r|group=web|"JVL.Blidstein.Messiah"}}{{r|group=web|"JVL.Telushkin.Messiah"}} The Messiah is often referred to as "King Messiah" ({{lang-he|מלך משיח|translit=melekh mashiach}}) or ''malka meshiḥa'' in Aramaic.{{r|group=web|"JVL.Flusser.Second Temple Period"}} ===Life and ministry of Jesus === {{Gospel Jesus}} [[File:Giambattista Tiepolo - The Crucifixion.jpg|thumb|left|18th-century painting, ''The Crucifixion'', by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]].]] {{Main|Ministry of Jesus|Life of Jesus in the New Testament|Historicity of Jesus|Historical Jesus|Quest for the Historical Jesus}} In the [[canonical gospels]], the ministry of Jesus begins with [[Baptism of Jesus|his baptism]] in the countryside of [[Judea (Roman province)|Roman Judea]] and [[Transjordan (Bible)|Transjordan]], near the [[Jordan River]], and ends in [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]], following the [[Last Supper]] with his [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciples]]. <ref name=Alister16 >''Christianity: an introduction'' by Alister E. McGrath 2006 {{ISBN|978-1-4051-0901-7}} pp. 16–22</ref> The [[Gospel of Luke]] ({{Bibleref2|Luke|3:23}}) states that [[Jesus]] was "about 30 years of age" at the start of his [[Christian ministry|ministry]].<ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=ChronosPaul >[[Paul L. Maier]] "The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus" in ''Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chronological studies'' by Jerry Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi 1989 {{ISBN|0-931464-50-1}} pp. 113–129</ref> A [[chronology of Jesus]] typically has the date of the start of his ministry estimated at around AD 27–29 and the end in the range AD 30–36.<ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Barnett19 >''Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times'' by Paul Barnett 2002 {{ISBN|0-8308-2699-8}} pp. 19–21</ref>{{efn|name=sourceexplain}} Jesus' early Galilean ministry begins when after his baptism, he goes [[Return of Jesus to Galilee|back to Galilee]] from his time in the [[Temptation of Jesus|Judean desert]].<ref name="Matthew' p. 71">''The Gospel according to Matthew'' by Leon Morris {{ISBN|0-85111-338-9}} p. 71</ref> In this early period he preaches around [[Galilee]] and recruits [[first disciples of Jesus|his first disciples]] who begin to travel with him and eventually form the core of the [[Early Christianity|early Church]].<ref name=Alister16 /><ref name=Redford117 >''The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels'' by Douglas Redford 2007 {{ISBN|0-7847-1900-4}} pp. 117–130</ref> The major Galilean ministry which begins in [[Matthew 8]] includes the [[Commissioning the twelve Apostles|commissioning of the Twelve Apostles]], and covers most of the ministry of Jesus in Galilee.<ref name="New Testament' p. 324">''A theology of the New Testament'' by George Eldon Ladd 1993ISBN p. 324</ref><ref name=Redford143 >''The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels'' by Douglas Redford 2007 {{ISBN|0-7847-1900-4}} pp. 143–160</ref> The final Galilean ministry begins after the [[death of John the Baptist]] as Jesus prepares to go to Jerusalem.<ref name="Steven L. Cox pp. 97-110">Steven L. Cox, Kendell H Easley, 2007 ''Harmony of the Gospels'' {{ISBN|0-8054-9444-8}} pp. 97–110</ref><ref name=Redford165 >''The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels'' by Douglas Redford 2007 {{ISBN|0-7847-1900-4}} pp. 165–180</ref> In the later Judean ministry Jesus starts his final journey to Jerusalem through Judea.<ref name=KingsburyMark /><ref name=Barton132 /><ref name="Steven L. Cox pp. 121-135">Steven L. Cox, Kendell H Easley, 2007 ''Harmony of the Gospels'' {{ISBN|0-8054-9444-8}} pp. 121–135</ref><ref name="Jesus pp. 189-207">''The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels'' by Douglas Redford 2007 {{ISBN|0-7847-1900-4}} pp. 189–207</ref> As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem, in the later [[Perea (Bible)|Perean]] ministry, about one third the way down from the [[Sea of Galilee]] (actually a freshwater lake) along the River Jordan, he returns to the area where he was baptized.<ref name="Steven L. Cox p. 137">Steven L. Cox, Kendell H Easley, 2007 ''Harmony of the Gospels'' {{ISBN|0-8054-9444-8}} p. 137</ref><ref name="Jesus pp. 211-229">''The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels'' by Douglas Redford 2007 {{ISBN|0-7847-1900-4}} pp. 211–229</ref><ref name="Bible' p. 929">''Mercer dictionary of the Bible'' by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 {{ISBN|0-86554-373-9}} p. 929</ref> The final ministry in Jerusalem is sometimes called the [[Passion Week]] and begins with Jesus' [[triumphal entry into Jerusalem]].<ref name=Cox155 /> [[The gospel]]s provide more details about the final ministry than the other periods, devoting about one third of their text to the [[Holy Week|last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem]].<ref name=Turner613 >''Matthew'' by David L. Turner 2008 {{ISBN|0-8010-2684-9}} p. 613</ref> The main sources of information regarding Jesus' life and teachings are the four [[canonical gospels]], and to a lesser extent the [[Pauline epistles]] and the [[New Testament apocrypha]].{{r|group=web|"EB.Sanders.Pelikan.Jesus"}} The Gospels are theological documents, which "provide information the authors regarded as necessary for the religious development of the Christian communities in which they worked."{{r|group=web|"EB.Sanders.Pelikan.Jesus"}} They consist of short passages, ''[[pericope]]s'', which the Gospel-authors arranged in various ways as suited their aims.{{r|group=web|"EB.Sanders.Pelikan.Jesus"}} In the [[Synoptic Gospels]] [[Jewish eschatology]] stands central.{{r|group=web|"EB.Sanders.Pelikan.Jesus"}} After being [[Baptism of Jesus|baptized by John the Baptist]], Jesus teaches extensively for a year, or maybe just a few months,{{r|group=web|"EB.Sanders.Pelikan.Jesus"}}{{refn|group=note|Sanders and Pelikan: "Besides presenting a longer ministry than do the other Gospels, John also describes several trips to Jerusalem. Only one is mentioned in the Synoptics. Both outlines are plausible, but a ministry of more than two years leaves more questions unanswered than does one of a few months."{{r|group=web|"EB.Sanders.Pelikan.Jesus"}}}} about the coming [[Kingdom of God]] (or, in Matthew, the [[Kingdom of Heaven (Gospel of Matthew)|Kingdom of Heaven]]), in [[aphorism]]s and [[parable]]s, using [[simile]]s and [[figures of speech]]. {{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=316–46}}{{r|group=web|"EB.Sanders.Pelikan.Jesus"}} In the Gospel of John, Jesus himself is the main subject.{{r|group=web|"EB.Sanders.Pelikan.Jesus"}} Contemporary scholarship, representing the [[Quest for the historical Jesus#Third quest|third quest for the historical Jesus]] places Jesus firmly in the Jewish tradition,<ref name = "TM1998">Theissen, Gerd and Annette Merz. The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Fortress Press. 1998. translated from German (1996 edition)</ref> and the most prominent view of Jesus is as a Jewish apocalyptic or eschatological teacher.<ref>[[Bart D. Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart D.]] [[Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium]]. Oxford University Press, 1999. {{ISBN|978-0195124743}}.</ref>{{refn|group=note|[[Christian eschatology]] relates to 'last things', such as [[death]], the [[End time|end of the world]] and the [[Last Judgment|judgement of humanity]]. [[Eschatological]] passages are found in the [[Nevi'im|Old Testament Prophets]], such as [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] and [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]; and in the New Testament, such as the [[Olivet discourse]] and the parable of [[The Sheep and the Goats]] in the [[Gospel of Matthew]], in the [[General epistles]], the [[Pauline epistles]], and the [[Book of Revelation]]. Jesus prophesied that the end of the world and the Day of Judgement were imminent in sayings such as, "Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand," ([[Matthew 3:2]], [[Matthew 4:17]], [[Mark 1]]:15)<ref>{{bibleverse||Matt|3:2|ESV}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse||Matt|4:17}}; {{bibleverse||Mark|1:15|ESV}}</ref> and "this generation will not pass away until all these things take place"<ref>{{bibleverse||Matt|24:34}}</ref>}} A primary criterion used to discern historical details in the "third quest" is that of plausibility, relative to Jesus' Jewish context and to his influence on Christianity.{{sfn|Dunn|2005}} The Synoptics present different views on the Kingdom of God.{{r|group=web|"EB.Sanders.Pelikan.Jesus"}} While the Kingdom is essentially described as [[eschatology|eschatological]], becoming reality in the near future, some texts present the Kingdom as already being present, while other texts depict the Kingdom as a place in heaven that one enters after death, or as the presence of God on earth.{{r|group=web|"EB.Sanders.Pelikan.Jesus"}}{{refn|group=note|The Kingdom is described as both imminent ([[s:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#1:15|Mark 1:15]]) and already present in the ministry of Jesus ({{bibleref2|Luke|17:21}}) Jesus promises inclusion in the Kingdom for those who accept his message ({{bibleref2|Mark|10:13–27}})}}. Jesus talks as expecting the coming of the "[[Son of man|Son of Man]]" from heaven, an [[Apocalypse|apocalyptic]] figure who would initiate "the coming judgment and the redemption of Israel."{{r|group=web|"EB.Sanders.Pelikan.Jesus"}} According to Davies, the [[Sermon on the Mount]] presents Jesus as the new Moses who brings a New Law, the Messianic Torah.{{sfn|Lawrence|2017|p=60}} His ministry was ended by his [[Crucifixion of Jesus|execution by crucifixion]]. His early followers believed that three days after his death, [[Resurrection of Jesus|Jesus rose]] bodily from the dead and was exaltated to Divine status.{{sfn|Grant|1977|p=176}}{{sfn|Maier|1975|p=5}}<ref>Van Daalen, p.41</ref><ref>Kremer, pp.49–50</ref>{{sfn|Ehrman|2014}} Paul's letters and the Gospels document a number of [[Post-Resurrection appearances of Jesus|post-resurrection appearances]]<ref>Gundry</ref><ref>Weiss, p.345</ref><ref>Davies, pp.305–308</ref><ref>Wilckens, pp.128–131</ref><ref>Smith, p.406</ref> and the resurrection of Jesus "signalled for earliest believers that the days of eschatological fulfilment were at hand."<ref group=web name="Hurtado.2018.Fredriksen">Larry Hurtado (December 4, 2018 ), [https://larryhurtado.wordpress.com/2018/12/04/when-christians-were-jews-paula-fredriksen-on-the-first-generation/ ''"When Christians were Jews": Paula Fredriksen on "The First Generation"]</ref> The resurrection was also seen as the [[Session of Christ|exaltation of Jesus]], "the action in which God designated Jesus as the unique divine Son, Lord, and monarch who is to preside in the submission of all things to God’s kingdom,"<ref group=web name="Hurtado.2018.Fredriksen"/> forming the basis and impetus of the Christian faith and devotion.<ref>Johnson, p.136</ref><ref>Ludemann, p.8</ref><ref>Wright, p.26</ref><ref group=web name="Hurtado.2018.Fredriksen"/> His followers expected Him to return in the near future, ushering in the Kingdom of God.{{r|group=web|"EB.Sanders.Pelikan.Jesus"}} ==Apostolic Age== [[File:Jerusalem Cenacle BW 5.JPG|thumb|The [[Cenacle]] on [[Mount Zion]], claimed to be the location of the [[Last Supper]] and [[Pentecost]]. [[Bargil Pixner]]<ref name="Pixner">Bargil Pixner, ''The Church of the Apostles found on Mount Zion'', [[Biblical Archaeology Review]] 16.3 May/June 1990, [http://www.centuryone.org/apostles.html centuryone.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180309011150/http://www.centuryone.org/apostles.html |date=2018-03-09 }}</ref> claims the original Church of the Apostles is located under the current structure.]] {{Main|Apostolic Age|Acts of the Apostles|Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles}} The years following Jesus until the death of the last of the [[Twelve Apostles]] is called the Apostolic Age, after the [[Christian mission|missionary activities]] of the apostles.<ref>August Franzen, ''Kirchengeschichte'', Freiburg, 1988: 20</ref> According to the [[Acts of the Apostles]], the [[First Christian church|Jerusalem church]] began at [[Pentecost]] with some 120 believers,<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|1:13-15|NIV}}</ref> in an "upper room," believed by some to be the [[Cenacle]], where the apostles received the [[Holy Spirit]] and emerged from hiding following the death and resurrection of Jesus to preach and spread his message.{{sfn|Vidmar|2005|p=19-20}}<ref name="Schreck130">Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), p.130</ref> Paul's [[Conversion of Paul the Apostle|conversion on the Road to Damascus]] is first recorded in {{bibleverse||Acts|9:13-16}}. Peter [[baptize]]d the Roman [[Cornelius the Centurion|centurion Cornelius]], traditionally considered the first Gentile convert to Christianity, in {{bibleverse|Acts||10}}. Based on this, the [[Early centers of Christianity#Antioch|Antioch church]] was founded. It is also believed that it was there that the term [[Christians|Christian]] was coined.<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts||11:26}}</ref> ==Jewish Christianity== {{Main|Jewish Christian}} After the death of Jesus, "Christianity [...] emerged as a sect of Judaism in Roman Palestine."{{sfn|Burkett|2002|p=3}} The first Christians were all [[Jews]], either by birth or [[conversion to Judaism|conversion]] ("[[proselyte]]s" in Biblical terminology),{{refn|group=note|name="proselyte"|[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12481c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Proselyte]: "The English term "proselyte" occurs only in the New Testament where it signifies a convert to the Jewish religion ({{bibleverse||Matthew|23:15|NAB}}; {{bibleverse||Acts|2:11|NAB}}; {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|6:5|NAB}}; etc.), though the same Greek word is commonly used in the [[Septuagint]] to designate a foreigner living in [[Judea]]. The term seems to have passed from an original local and chiefly political sense, in which it was used as early as 300 BC, to a technical and religious meaning in the Judaism of the New Testament epoch."}} who constituted a [[Second Temple Judaism|Second Temple]] Jewish sect with an [[Apocalypticism|apocalyptic]] [[eschatology]]. ===Beliefs and practices=== Jewish Christians were fully faithful religious Jews, only differing in their acceptance of Jesus as the resurrected [[messiah]].{{sfn|McGrath|2006|p=174}}{{sfn|Cohen|1987|p=167–168}}{{refn|group=note|According to [[Shaye J.D. Cohen]], Jesus's failure to establish an independent Israel, and his death at the hands of the Romans, caused many Jews to reject him as the Messiah.{{sfn|Cohen|1987|p=168}} Jews at that time were expecting a military leader as a Messiah, such as Bar Kohhba.}} They believed [[Yahweh]] to be the only true God,<ref>{{cite book|editor=G. Bromiley|title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, "God"|isbn=0-8028-3782-4|series=Fully Revised|volume=Two: E-J|year=1982|publisher=Eerdmans Publishing Company|pages=497–499}}</ref> the god of Israel, and considered Jesus to be the [[messiah]] ([[Christ]]), as prophesied in the [[Hebrew Bible|Jewish scriptures]], which they held to be authoritative and sacred. They held faithfully to the Torah,{{refn|group=note|Perhaps also [[Halacha|Jewish law]] which was being formalized at the same time}} including acceptance of [[Proselytes|Gentile converts]] based on a version of the [[Seven Laws of Noah|Noachide laws]].{{refn|group=note|{{bibleverse||Acts|15}} and {{bibleverse||Acts|21}}}} They employed mostly the [[Septuagint]] or [[Targum]] translations of the Hebrew scriptures. The Book of Acts reports that the early followers continued daily [[Second Temple|Temple]] attendance and [[List of Jewish prayers and blessings|traditional Jewish home prayer]]. Other passages in the New Testament gospels reflect a similar observance of traditional Jewish piety such as [[fasting]], reverence for the [[Torah]] and observance of [[Jewish holiday|Jewish holy days]].<ref>White (2004), p.127</ref><ref>Ehrman (2005), p.187.</ref> ===The Jerusalem ''ekklēsia''=== [[File:Saint James the Just.jpg|thumb|left|[[James, brother of Jesus|James the Just]], whose judgment was adopted in the [[Apostolic Decree]] of {{bibleverse||Acts|15:19-29|NRSV}}, "...we should write to them [Gentiles] to abstain only from [[Idolatry and Christianity|things polluted by idols]] and from [[fornication]] and from whatever has been strangled and from [[Taboo food and drink#Blood|blood]]..." ([[NRSV]])]] {{Main|Jerusalem in Christianity}} {{See also|Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles}} The [[New Testament]]'s Acts of the Apostles and [[Epistle to the Galatians]] record that an early Jewish Christian community{{refn|group=note|Hurtado: "She refrains from referring to this earliest stage of the "Jesus-community" as early "Christianity" and {{sic|comprised |hide=y|of}} "churches," as the terms carry baggage of later developments of "organized institutions, and of a religion separate from, different from, and hostile to Judaism" (185). So, instead, she renders ekklēsia as "assembly" (quite appropriately in my view, reflecting the quasi-official connotation of the term, often both in the LXX and in wider usage)."<ref group=web name="Hurtado.Fredriksen.2018"/>}} [[First Christian church|centered on Jerusalem]], and that its leaders included [[Saint Peter|Peter]], [[James (brother of Jesus)|James, the "brother of Jesus"]], and [[John the Apostle]].<ref>{{bibleverse||Galatians|2:9|NIV}}, {{bibleverse||Acts|1:13|NIV}}</ref> Legitimised by [[Resurrection of Jesus|Jesus' appearance]], Peter was the first leader of the Jerusalem ''ekklēsia''.{{sfn|Pagels|2005|p=45}}{{sfn|Lüdemann|Özen|1996|p=116}} He was soon eclipsed in this leadership by James the Just, "the Brother of the Lord,"{{sfn|Pagels|2005|p=45-46}}{{sfn|Lüdemann|Özen|1996|p=116-117}} which may explain why the early texts contain scarce information about Peter.{{sfn|Lüdemann|Özen|1996|p=116-117}} According to Lüdemann, in the discussions about the [[Paul and Judaism|strictness of adherence]] to the Jewish Law, the more conservative faction of James the Just took the overhand over the more liberal position of Peter, who soon lost influence.{{sfn|Lüdemann|Özen|1996|p=116-117}} The Jerusalem community "held a central place among all the churches," as witnessed by Paul's writings.{{sfn|Hurtado|2005|p=160}} The [[Desposyni|relatives of Jesus]] were accorded a special position within this community, as displayed by the leadership of [[James, brother of Jesus|James the Just]] in Jerusalem.{{sfn|Taylor|1993|p=224}} According to a tradition recorded by [[Eusebius]] and [[Epiphanius of Salamis]], the Jerusalem church [[Flight to Pella|fled to Pella]] at the outbreak of the Great Jewish Revolt (AD 66–70).<ref>Eusebius, Church History 3, 5, 3; Epiphanius, Panarion 29,7,7–8; 30, 2, 7; On Weights and Measures 15. On the flight to Pella see: Bourgel, Jonathan, "The Jewish Christians’ Move from Jerusalem as a pragmatic choice", in: Dan Jaffe (ed), Studies in Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity, (Leyden: Brill, 2010), pp. 107–138 <https://www.academia.edu/4909339/THE_JEWISH_CHRISTIANS_MOVE_FROM_JERUSALEM_AS_A_PRAGMATIC_CHOICE>; P. H. R. van Houwelingen, "Fleeing forward: The departure of Christians from Jerusalem to Pella," Westminster Theological Journal 65 (2003), 181–200.</ref> ==Emerging Church== === Growth of early Christianity === [[File:Krist spred 1.jpg|thumb|right|Spread of Christianity in 100 C.E.]] {{see also|Great Commission|Early centers of Christianity}} The [[Great Commission]] is the instruction of the [[Resurrection appearances of Jesus|resurrected Jesus Christ]] to his [[disciple (Christianity)|disciples]] to spread [[The gospel|his teachings]] to all the [[nation]]s of the world. The most famous version of the Great Commission is in {{bibleref2|Matthew|28:16–20}}, where on a mountain in [[Galilee]] Jesus calls on his followers to make disciples of and [[baptize]] all nations in the name of the [[God the Father|Father]], the [[God the Son|Son]], and the [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|Holy Spirit]]. [[Christian mission]]ary activity [[early centers of Christianity|spread Christianity]] to cities in the [[Greek primacy|predominantly]] [[Greek language|Greek]]-speaking [[Early centers of Christianity#Eastern Roman Empire|eastern half of the Roman Empire]], and then throughout the [[Hellenistic]] world and even beyond the [[Roman Empire]].{{sfn|Vidmar|2005|p=19-20}}<ref name="Hitchcock 281"/><ref name=bokenkotter18/><ref>Franzen 29</ref>{{refn|group=note|Ecclesiastical historian [[Henry Hart Milman]] writes that in much of the first three centuries, even in the Latin-dominated western empire: "the Church of Rome, and most, if not all the Churches of the West, were, if we may so speak, Greek religious colonies [see [[Greek colonies]] for the background]. Their language was Greek, their organization Greek, their writers Greek, their scriptures Greek; and many vestiges and traditions show that their ritual, their Liturgy, was Greek."<ref name="Greek Orthodox Christianity">{{cite web|url=http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-orthodox-history.asp|title=Greek Orthodoxy - From Apostolic Times to the Present Day|work=ellopos.net}}</ref>}} Apostles and preachers [[Dispersion of the Apostles|traveled]] to [[Jewish Diaspora|Jewish communities]] around the [[Mediterranean Sea]], and attracted Jewish converts.<ref name=bokenkotter18>Bokenkotter, p. 18.</ref> Within 10 years of the death of Jesus, apostles had spread Christianity from [[First Christian church|Jerusalem]] to [[Antioch]], [[Ephesus]], [[Corinth]], [[Thessalonica]], [[Cyprus]], [[Crete]], [[Alexandria]] and Rome.<ref name=duffy3>Duffy, p. 3.</ref>{{sfn|Vidmar|2005|p=19-20}}<ref name="Hitchcock 281" /><ref name="Bokenkotter18" /> Paul was responsible for bringing Christianity to [[Ephesus]], [[Corinth]], [[Philippi]], and [[Thessalonica]].<ref name="autogenerated2005">"Paul, St" Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005.</ref> Over 40 churches were established by 100,<ref name="Hitchcock 281">Hitchcock, ''Geography of Religion'' (2004), p.281</ref><ref name="Bokenkotter18">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'' (2004), p. 18</ref> most in [[Early centers of Christianity#Anatolia|Asia Minor]], such as the [[seven churches of Asia]], and some in Greece and Italy. Early Christian beliefs were proclaimed in ''[[kerygma]]'' (preaching), some of which are preserved in [[New Testament]] scripture. The early Gospel message spread [[oral gospel traditions|orally]], probably originally in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]],{{sfn|Ehrman|2012|pp=87–90}} but almost immediately also in [[Koine Greek|Greek]].<ref>{{cite book|last1= Jaeger|first1= Werner|title= Early Christianity and Greek Paideia|date= 1961|publisher= Harvard University Press|isbn= 9780674220522|pages= 6, 108–09|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=kYfAUnFMhPMC&pg=PA108|accessdate= 26 February 2015}}</ref> Christian groups and congregations first organized themselves loosely. In [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]]'s time there were no precisely delineated functions yet for [[bishops]], [[Elder (Christianity)|elders]], and [[deacons]].<ref name="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref>{{refn|groupo=note|Despite its mention of bishops, there is no clear evidence in the New Testament that supports the concepts of dioceses and monepiscopacy, i.e. the rule that all the churches in a geographic area should be ruled by a single bishop. According to [[Ronald Y. K. Fung]], scholars point to evidence that Christian communities such as Rome had many bishops, and that the concept of monepiscopacy was still emerging when Ignatius was urging his tri-partite structure on other churches.<ref>Ronald Y.K. Fung as cited in {{cite book|author1=John Piper|author2=Wayne Grudem|title=Recovering Biblical Manhood and Womanhood: A Response to Evangelical Feminism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DECfuM4_YuoC&pg=PA254|accessdate=28 October 2012|date=8 August 2006|publisher=Crossway|isbn=978-1-4335-1918-5|page=254}}</ref>}} ===Beliefs=== ====Creeds and salvation==== The sources for the beliefs of the apostolic community include [[Oral gospel traditions|oral traditions]] (which included sayings attributed to Jesus, parables and teachings),<ref>{{cite book |last = Burkett |first = Delbert |title = An introduction to the New Testament and the origins of Christianity |year = 2002 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |isbn = 978-0-521-00720-7 |url = |ref = harv}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last = Dunn |first = James D. G. |title = The Oral Gospel Tradition |year = 2013 |publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |isbn = 978-0-8028-6782-7 |url = |ref = harv}}</ref> the Gospels, the New Testament [[NT epistles|epistles]] and possibly lost texts such as the [[Q source]]<ref>Horsley, Richard A., ''Whoever Hears You Hears Me: Prophets, Performance and Tradition in Q'', Horsley, Richard A. and Draper, Jonathan A. (eds.), Trinity Press, 1999, {{ISBN|978-1-56338-272-7}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=n66bw8rUz5QC&pg=PA150 "Recent Studies of Oral-Derived Literature and Q"], pp. 150–74</ref><ref>Dunn, James D. G., ''Jesus Remembered'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2003, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3931-2}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=G4qpnvoautgC&pg=PA192 "Oral Tradition"], pp. 192–210</ref><ref>Mournet, Terence C., ''Oral Tradition and Literary Dependency: Variability and Stability in the Synoptic Tradition and Q'', Mohr Siebeck, 2005, {{ISBN|978-3-16-148454-4}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=IJUy8mw4ZPwC&pg=PA54 "A Brief History of the Problem of Oral Tradition"], pp. 54–99</ref> and the writings of [[Papias of Hierapolis|Papias]]. The texts contain the earliest [[Creed#Christian Creeds|Christian creed]]s<ref>{{cite book |last= Cullmann|first= Oscar|date= 1949|title= The Earliest Christian Confessions|translator= J. K. S. Reid|location= London|publisher= Lutterworth|page= |isbn= |author-link= Oscar Cullmann}}</ref> expressing belief in the risen Jesus, such as {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|15:3–41}}:<ref>Neufeld, p.47</ref> {{quote|[3] For I handed on to you as of first importance what I in turn had received: that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the scriptures, [4] and that he was buried, and that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the scriptures,{{refn|group=note|name="third day"|See [http://ourrabbijesus.com/articles/resurrection-on-the-third-day/ ''Why was Resurrection on “the Third Day”? Two Insights''] for explanations on the phrase "third day." According to Pinchas Lapide, "third day" may refer to {{bibleref2|Hosea|6:1-2}}:<br><br>"Come, let us return to the Lord;<br>for he has torn us, that he may heal us;<br>he has struck us down, and he will bind us up.<br>After two days he will revive us;<br>on the third day he will raise us up,<br>that we may live before him."<br><br>See also {{bibleref2|2 Kings|20:8}}: "Hezekiah said to Isaiah, “What shall be the sign that the Lord will heal me, and that I shall go up to the house of the Lord on the third day?”"}} [5] and that he appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve. [6] Then he appeared to more than five hundred brothers and sisters at one time, most of whom are still alive, though some have died. [7] Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles.<ref>oremus Bible Browser, [http://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1+Corinthians+15:3%E2%80%9315:41&version=nrsv 1 Corinthians ''15:3–15:41'']</ref>}} The creed has been dated by some scholars as originating within the Jerusalem apostolic community no later than the 40s,<ref>O' Collins, p.112</ref><ref>Hunter, p.100</ref> and by some to less than a decade after Jesus' death,<ref>Pannenberg, p.90</ref><ref>Cullmann, p.66</ref> while others date it to about 56.<ref>{{cite book |last= Perkins|first= Pheme|date= 1988|title= Reading the New Testament: An Introduction (originally published 1978)|url= |location= Mahwah NJ|publisher= Paulist Press|page= 20|isbn= 978-0809129393|author-link= Pheme Perkins}}</ref> Other early creeds include {{bibleverse|1|John|4:2}}, {{bibleverse|2|Timothy|2:8}}<ref>Bultmann, ''Theology of the New Testament'' vol 1, pp. 49, 81</ref> {{bibleverse||Romans|1:3–4}}<ref>Pannenberg, pp.118, 283, 367</ref> and {{bibleverse|1|Timothy|3:16}}. ====Christology==== {{Main|Christology|Divinity of Christ}} Two fundamentally different Christologies developed in the early Church, namely a "low" or [[Adoptionism|adoptionist]] Christology, and a "high" or "incarnation Christology."{{sfn|Ehrman|2014|p=125}} The chronology of the development of these early Christologies is a matter of debate within contemporary scholarship.{{sfn|Loke|2017}}{{sfn|Ehrman|2014}}{{sfn|Talbert|2011|p=3-6}}<ref group=web name="Hurtado.2017">Larry Hurtado, [https://larryhurtado.wordpress.com/2017/10/09/the-origin-of-divine-christology/ ''The Origin of “Divine Christology”?'']</ref> The "low Christology" or "adoptionist Christology" is the belief "that God exalted Jesus to be his Son by raising him from the dead,"{{sfn|Ehrman|2014|p=120; 122}} thereby raising him to "divine status."<ref group=web name=BE_2013.02.14>{{cite web|last1=Ehrman|first1=Bart D.|authorlink1=Bart D. Ehrman|title=Incarnation Christology, Angels, and Paul |url=https://ehrmanblog.org/incarnation-christology-angels-and-paul-for-members/|website=The Bart Ehrman Blog|accessdate=May 2, 2018|date=February 14, 2013}}</ref> According to the "evolutionary model"{{sfn|Netland|2001|p=175}} c.q. "evolutionary theories,"{{sfn|Loke|2017|p=3}} the Christological understanding of Christ developed over time,{{sfn|Mack|1995}}{{sfn|Ehrman|2003}}<ref name="Ehrman_HJBG_CG">Bart Ehrman, ''How Jesus became God'', Course Guide</ref> as witnessed in the Gospels,{{sfn|Ehrman|2014}} with the earliest Christians believing that Jesus was a human who was exalted, c.q. [[Adoptionism|adopted]] as God's Son,{{sfn|Loke|2017|p=3-4}}{{sfn|Talbert|2011|p=3}} when he was resurrected.<ref name="Ehrman_HJBG_CG"/><ref>Geza Vermez (2008), ''The Resurrection'', p.138-139</ref> Later beliefs shifted the exaltation to his baptism, birth, and subsequently to the idea of his eternal existence, as witnessed in the Gospel of John.<ref name="Ehrman_HJBG_CG"/> This evolutionary model was very influential, and the "low Christology" has long been regarded as the oldest Christology.{{sfn|Bird|2017|p=ix, xi}}{{sfn|Ehrman|2014|p=132}}<ref group=web name=BE_2013.02.14/>{{refn|group=note|Ehrman:<br>* "The earliest Christians held exaltation Christologies in which the human being Jesus was made the Son of God—for example, at his resurrection or at his baptism—as we examined in the previous chapter."{{sfn|Ehrman|2014|p=132}}<br>* Here I’ll say something about the oldest Christology, as I understand it. This was what I earlier called a “low” Christology. I may end up in the book describing it as a “Christology from below” or possibly an “exaltation” Christology. Or maybe I’ll call it all three things [...] Along with lots of other scholars, I think this was indeed the earliest Christology.<ref group=web>[Bart Ehrman (6 feb 2013), [https://ehrmanblog.org/the-earliest-christology-for-members/ ''The Earliest Christology'']</ref>}} The other early Christology is "high Christology," which is "the view that Jesus was a pre-existent divine being who became a human, did the Father’s will on earth, and then was taken back up into heaven whence he had originally come,"<ref group=web name=BE_2013.02.14/>{{sfn|Ehrman|2014|p=122}} and from where he [[Christophany|appeared on earth]]. According to Hurtado, a proponent of an [[Early High Christology]], the devotion to Jesus as divine originated in early Jewish Christianity, and not later or under the influence of pagan religions and Gentile converts.{{sfn|Hurtado|2005|p=650}} The Pauline letters, which are the earliest Christian writings, already show "a well-developed pattern of Christian devotion [...] already conventionalized and apparently uncontroversial."{{sfn|Hurtado|2005|p=155}} ===Practices=== Early Christianity continued Judaic practices: [[baptism]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=222&letter=B&search=Baptism|title=BAPTISM - JewishEncyclopedia.com|work=jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> Jewish [[liturgy|liturgical]], a set of scriptural readings adapted from [[synagogue]] practice, use of [[Religious music|sacred music]] in hymns and prayer, and [[asceticism|ascetic]] practices. A novel element was the worship of Jesus as Lord.{{sfn|Dunn|2005}} ====Baptism==== {{main|Baptism in early Christianity}} Early Christian beliefs regarding baptism probably predate the New Testament writings. It seems certain that numerous Jewish sects and certainly Jesus's disciples practised baptism. [[John the Baptist]] had baptized many people, before baptisms took place in the name of Jesus Christ. Paul likened baptism to being buried with Christ in his death.{{refn|group=note|Romans 6:3–4; Colossians 2:12}} ====Communal meals and Eucharist==== {{Main|Agape feast|Eucharist}} Communal meals originated in the [[early Church]].<ref name="2006Coveney">{{cite book|last=Coveney|first=John|title=Food, Morals and Meaning: The Pleasure and Anxiety of Eating|date=27 September 2006|publisher=Routledge|language=English|isbn=9781134184484|page=74|quote=For the early Christians, the ''agape'' signified the importance of fellowship. It was a ritual to celebrate the joy of eating, pleasure and company.}}</ref><ref name="Burns2012">{{cite book|last=Burns|first=Jim|title=Uncommon Youth Parties|date=10 July 2012|publisher=Gospel Light Publications|language=English|isbn=9780830762132|page=37|quote=During the days of the Early Church, the believers would all gather together to share what was known as an agape feast, or "love feast." Those who could afford to bring food brought it to the feast and shared it with the other believers.}}</ref> The [[Eucharist]] was often a part of the Lovefeast, but between the latter part of the 1st century A.D. and 250 A.D. the two became separate rituals.<ref name="WallsCollins2017">{{cite book|last1=Walls|first1=Jerry L.|last2=Collins|first2=Kenneth J.|title=Roman but Not Catholic: What Remains at Stake 500 Years after the Reformation|date=17 October 2010|publisher=[[Baker Academic]]|language=English|isbn=9781493411740|page=169|quote=So strong were the overtones of the Eucharist as a meal of fellowship that in its earliest practice it often took place in concert with the Agape feast. By the latter part of the first century, however, as Andrew McGowan points out, this conjoined communal banquet was separated into "a morning sacramental ritual [and a] prosaic communal supper."}}</ref><ref name="Davies1999">{{cite book|last=Davies|first=Horton|title=Bread of Life and Cup of Joy: Newer Ecumenical Perspectives on the Eucharist|date=29 January 1999|publisher=[[Wipf & Stock Publishers]]|language=English|isbn=9781579102098|page=18|quote=Agape (love feast), which ultimately became separate from the Eucharist...}}</ref><ref name="Daughrity2016">{{cite book|last=Daughrity|first=Dyron|title=Roots: Uncovering Why We Do What We Do in Church|date=11 August 2016|publisher=ACU Press|language=English|isbn=9780891126010|page=77|quote=Around AD 250 the lovefeast and Eucharist seem to separate, leaving the Eucharist to develop outside the context of a shared meal.}}</ref> Thus, in modern times the Lovefeast refers to a Christian ritual meal distinct from the Lord's Supper.<ref name="ODCC">{{Citation | place = Oxford | title = Dictionary of the Christian Church | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-19-280290-3 | type = article | contribution = agape}}</ref> The ''Eucharist'' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|juː|k|ər|ɪ|s|t}}; also called ''Holy Communion'' or the ''Lord's Supper'',<!-- Along with "Eucharist" these two names are the most common and should appear here. Do not add other names to the lead --> among other names) is a [[Christianity|Christian]] [[rite]] that is considered a [[sacrament]] in most churches, and as an [[Ordinance (Christianity)|ordinance]] in others. According to the [[New Testament]], the rite was instituted by [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]] during the [[Last Supper]]; giving his disciples bread and wine during the [[Passover]] [[Passover Seder|meal]], Jesus commanded his followers to "do this in memory of me" while referring to the bread as "my body" and the cup of wine as "the new covenant in my blood".<ref>{{bibleref2|Luke 22:20}}</ref><!--Do not capitalise pronouns--><ref name="EB">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9033174/Eucharist |title=Encyclopædia Britannica, s.v. Eucharist |publisher=Britannica.com |date=2008-04-10 |accessdate=2019-05-20}}</ref><ref>Ignazio Silone, ''Bread and Wine'' (1937).</ref> Through the Eucharistic celebration [[Christians]]<!--link to Christians as a people, not Christianity the religion--> remember both [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Christ's sacrifice]] of himself on the cross and his commission of the apostles at the Last Supper.<ref name="Methcat">{{cite book|title=A Catechism for the use of people called Methodists|date=2000|publisher=Methodist Publishing House|location=Peterborough, England|isbn=978-1858521824|page=26}}</ref> ====Liturgy==== During the first three centuries of Christianity, the [[Divine Liturgy|Liturgical]] ritual was rooted in the Jewish [[Passover]], [[Siddur]], [[Passover Seder|Seder]], and [[synagogue]] services, including the singing of [[hymn]]s (especially the [[Psalms]]) and reading from the [[scriptures]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=475&letter=L&search=Liturgy#1418|title=LITURGY - JewishEncyclopedia.com|work=jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> Most early Christians did not own a copy of the works that later became the [[Christian Bible]] or other church works accepted by some but not canonized, such as the writings of the [[Apostolic Fathers]], or other works today called [[New Testament apocrypha]]. Similar to Judaism, much of the original church [[liturgy|liturgical]] services functioned as a means of learning these ''Scriptures'', which initially centered around the [[Septuagint]] and the [[Targums]]. A final uniformity of liturgical services may have become solidified after the church established a [[Biblical canon]], possibly based on the [[Apostolic Constitutions]] and [[Clementine literature]]. [[Pope Clement I|Clement]] (d.99) writes that [[liturgy|liturgies]] are "to be celebrated, and not carelessly nor in disorder" but the final uniformity of liturgical services only came later, though the ''[[Liturgy of St James]]'' is traditionally associated with James the Just.<ref>The traditional title is: [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf07.xii.ii.html ''The Divine Liturgy of James the Holy Apostle and Brother of the Lord'']; [[Ante-Nicene Fathers]] by [[Philip Schaff]] in the public domain</ref> ====Sabbath==== {{Main|Sabbath in Christianity}} At first, Christians continued to worship alongside Jewish believers, but within twenty years of Jesus' death, Sunday (the [[Lord's Day]]) was being regarded as the [[Sabbath in Christianity|primary day of worship]].<ref>Davidson, p.115</ref> ===Paul and the inclusion of Gentiles=== [[Image:StPaul ElGreco.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Paul the Apostle|Saint Paul]]'', by [[El Greco]]]] [[File:Pope-peter pprubens.jpg|thumb|left|''[[St. Peter]]'', by [[Peter Paul Rubens|Rubens]]]] {{Main|Paul the Apostle}} ====Conversion==== {{Main|Conversion of Paul}} Paul's influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than that of any other [[authorship of the New Testament|New Testament author]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/> According to the New Testament, Saul of Tarsus first persecuted the early [[Jewish Christian]]s, but then [[Conversion of Paul the Apostle|converted]]. He adopted the name Paul and started [[Proselytism|proselytizing]] among the [[Gentile]]s, adopting the title "Apostle to the Gentiles." Paul was in contact with the early Christian community in [[First Christian church|Jerusalem]], led by [[James the Just]].{{sfn|Mack|1997}} According to Mack, he may have been converted to another early strand of Christianity, with a High Christology.{{sfn|Mack|1997|p=109}} Fragments of their beliefs in an exalted and deified Jesus, what Mack called the "Christ cult," can be found in the writings of Paul.{{sfn|Mack|1997}}{{refn|group=note|According to Mack, "Paul was converted to a Hellenized form of some Jesus movement that had already developed into a Christ cult. [...] Thus his letters serve as documentation for the Christ cult as well."{{sfn|Mack|1988|p=98}}}} Yet, Hurtado notes that Paul valued the linkage with "Jewish Christian circles in Roman Judea," which makes it likely that his Christology was in line with, and indebted to, their views.{{sfn|Hurtado|2005|p=156-157}} Hurtado further notes that "[i]t is widely accepted that the tradition that Paul recites in [Corinthians] 15:1-71 must go back to the Jerusalem Church."{{sfn|Hurtado|2005|p=168}} ====Inclusion of Gentiles==== [[File:Broad overview of geography relevant to paul of tarsus.png|thumb|[[Mediterranean Basin]] geography relevant to Paul's life, stretching from [[First Christian church|Jerusalem]] in the lower right to [[Early centers of Christianity#Rome|Rome]] in the upper left.]] {{Main|Paul the Apostle and Judaism|New Perspective on Paul|Pauline Christianity}} {{See also|Circumcision in the Bible}} Paul was responsible for bringing Christianity to [[Ephesus]], [[Corinth]], [[Philippi]], and [[Thessalonica]].<ref name="autogenerated2005"/> According to Hurtado, "Paul saw Jesus’ resurrection as ushering in the eschatological time foretold by biblical prophets in which the pagan 'Gentile' nations would turn from their idols and embrace the one true God of Israel (e.g., Zechariah 8:20-23), and Paul saw himself as specially called by God to declare God's eschatological acceptance of the Gentiles and summon them to turn to God."<ref group=web name="Hurtado2017.Paul">[Larry Hurtado (August 17, 2017 ), [https://larryhurtado.wordpress.com/2017/08/17/paul-the-pagans-apostle/ ''"Paul, the Pagans’ Apostle"'']</ref> According to [[Krister Stendahl]], the main concern of Paul's writings on Jesus' role, and salvation by faith, is the problem of the inclusion of gentile (Greek) Torah observers into God's covenant.{{sfn|Stendahl|1963}}{{sfn|Dunn|1982|p=n.49}}{{sfn|Finlan|2001|p=2}}<ref group=web name="Westerholm.2015">Stephen Westerholm (2015), [http://www.directionjournal.org/44/1/new-perspective-on-paul-in-review.html ''The New Perspective on Paul in Review''], Direction, Spring 2015 · Vol. 44 No. 1 · pp. 4–15</ref> The inclusion of Gentiles into early Christianity posed a problem for the Jewish identity of some of the early Christians. Many of the Jewish Christians were fully faithful religious Jews, only differing in their acceptance of Jesus as the Messiah. Observance of the Jewish commands, including circumcision, was regarded as a token of the membership of this covenant, and the early Jewish Christians insisted on keeping those observances.{{sfn|McGrath|2006|p=174}} Gentiles were, by definition, not part of Israel, God's chosen people, and the new converts did not follow all "Jewish Law"{{refn|group=note|Generally understood to mean [[613 Mitzvot|Mosaic Law]] as the ''[[Halakha]]'' was still being formalized at the time}} and refused to be [[Religious male circumcision|circumcised]],<ref name=bokenkotter19>Bokenkotter, p. 19.</ref> as circumcision was considered repulsive during the period of [[Hellenization]] of the [[Eastern Mediterranean]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=514&letter=C&search=circumcision#2|title=CIRCUMCISION - JewishEncyclopedia.com|work=jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| last = Hodges| first = Frederick, M.| year = 2001| title = The Ideal Prepuce in Ancient Greece and Rome: Male Genital Aesthetics and Their Relation to Lipodermos, Circumcision, Foreskin Restoration, and the Kynodesme| journal = The Bulletin of the History of Medicine| volume = 75| issue = Fall 2001| pages = 375–405| url = http://www.cirp.org/library/history/hodges2/| format = PDF| accessdate = 2007-07-24| doi = 10.1353/bhm.2001.0119| pmid=11568485}}</ref> Paul objected strongly to the insistence on keeping all of the Jewish commands, considering it a great threat to his doctrine of salvation through faith in Jesus.{{sfn|McGrath|2006|p=174-175}} According to Fredriksen, Paul's opposition to male circumcison for Gentiles is in line with Old Testament predictions that "in the last days the gentile nations would come to the God of Israel, as gentiles (e.g., Zechariah 8:20-23), not as proselytes to Israel."<ref group=web name="Hurtado.Fredriksen.2018">Larry Hurtado (December 4, 2018 ), [https://larryhurtado.wordpress.com/2018/12/04/when-christians-were-jews-paula-fredriksen-on-the-first-generation/ ''“When Christians were Jews”: Paula Fredriksen on “The First Generation”'']</ref> For Paul, Gentile male circumcison was therefore an affront to God's intentions.<ref group=web name="Hurtado.Fredriksen.2018"/> According to Hurtado, "Paul saw himself as what Munck called a salvation-historical figure in his own right," who was "personally and singularly deputized by God to bring about the predicted ingathering (the “fullness”) of the nations (Romans 11:25)."<ref group=web name="Hurtado.Fredriksen.2018"/> For Paul, Jesus' death and resurrection solved the problem of the exclusion of the gentles from God's covenant,{{sfn|Mack|1997|p=91-92}} since the faithfull are redeemed by [[Participation in Christ|participation in Jesus' death and rising]]. In the Jerusalem ''ekklēsia'', from which Paul received the creed of 1 Corinthisnas 15:1-7, the phrase "died for our sins" probably was an apologetic rationale for the death of Jesus as being part of God's plan and purpose, as evidenced in the scriptures. For Paul, it gained a deeper significance, providing "a basis for the salvation of sinful Gentiles apart from the Torah."{{sfn|Hurtado|2005|p=131}} According to Sanders, Paul argued that "those who are baptized into Christ are baptized into his death, and thus they escape the power of sin [...] he died so that the believers may die with him and consequently live with him."<ref group=web name="EB.Paul">E.P. Sanders, [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Paul-the-Apostle ''Saint Paul, the Apostle''], Encyclopedia Britannica]</ref> By this participation in Christ's death and rising, "one receives forgiveness for past offences, is liberated from the powers of sin, and receives the Spirit."{{sfn|Charry|1999|p=35-36}} Paul insists that salvation is received by the grace of God; according to Sanders, this insistence is in line with Judaism of ca. 200 NCE until 200 CE, which saw God's covenant with Israel as an act of grace of God. Observance of the Law is needed to maintain the covenant, but the covenant is not be earned by observing the Law, but by the grace of God.<ref group=web name="Cooper.2014">Jordan Cooper, [https://www.patheos.com/blogs/justandsinner/krister-stendahl-and-the-new-perspective-on-paul/ ''E.P. Sanders and the New Perspective on Paul'']</ref> These divergent interpretations have a prominent place in both Paul's writings and in Acts. According to Paul, fourteen years after his conversion he [[Council of Jerusalem|visited the "Pillars of Jerusalem"]] to compare his Gospel with theirs. According to Paul, in his letter to the Galatians,{{refn|group=note|Four years after the Council of Jerusalem, Paul wrote to the Galatians about the issue, which had become a serious controversy in their region. There was a burgeoning movement of [[Judaizers]] in the area that advocated adherence to traditional Mosaic laws, including circumcision. According to McGrath, Paul identified [[James, brother of Jesus|James the Just]] as the motivating force behind the movement. Paul considered it a great threat to his doctrine of salvation through faith and addressed the issue with great detail in {{bibleref|Galatians|3|NRSV}}.{{sfn|McGrath|2006|p=174-175}}}} they agreed that his mission was to be among the Gentiles. According to Acts, Paul made an argument that circumcision was not a necessary practice, vocally supported by Peter, as documented in {{bibleref|Acts|15|NRSV}}.{{sfn|McGrath|2006|p=174}}<ref name="McManners37">McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'' (2002), p.37</ref>{{refn|group=note|According to 19th-century German theologian [[F. C. Baur]] early Christianity was dominated by the conflict between [[Saint Peter|Peter]] who was [[Biblical law in Christianity#The Torah Submissive view|law-observant]], and [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]] who advocated partial or even complete [[Antinomianism|freedom from the law]].{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} Scholar [[James D. G. Dunn]] has proposed that Peter was the "bridge-man" between the two other prominent leaders: Paul and James the Just. Paul and James were both heavily identified with their own "brands" of Christianity. Peter showed a desire to hold on to his Jewish identity, in contrast with Paul. He simultaneously showed a flexibility towards the desires of the broader Christian community, in contrast to James. [[Marcion]] and his followers stated that the polemic against false apostles in [[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]] was aimed at Peter, [[James, brother of Jesus|James]] and [[John the Evangelist|John]], the "Pillars of the Church", as well as the "false" gospels circulating through the churches at the time. [[Irenaeus]] and [[Tertullian]] argued against Marcionism's elevation of Paul and stated that Peter and Paul were equals among the apostles. Passages from Galatians were used to show that Paul respected Peter's office and acknowledged a shared faith.<ref>Keck (1988).</ref><ref>Pelikan (1975). p. 113.</ref>}} The inclusion of Gentiles is reflected in [[Luke-Acts]], which is an attempt to answer a theological problem, namely how the Messiah of the Jews came to have an overwhelmingly non-Jewish church; the answer it provides, and its central theme, is that the message of Christ was sent to the Gentiles because the [[Rejection of Jesus|Jews rejected it]].{{sfn|Burkett|2002|p=263}} ==Persecutions== {{See also|Persecution of Christians in the New Testament|Anti-Christian policies in the Roman Empire|Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire}} Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire occurred sporadicly over a period of over two centuries. For most of the first three hundred years of Christian history, Christians were able to live in peace, practice their professions, and rise to positions of responsibility.{{sfn|Moss|2013|p=129}} Sporadic percecution took place as the result of local pagan populations putting pressure on the imperial authorities to take action against the Christians in their midst, who were thought to bring misfortune by their refusal to honour the gods.{{sfn|Croix|2006|pp=105–152}} Only for approximately ten out of the first three hundred years of the church's history were Christians executed due to orders from a Roman emperor.{{sfn|Moss|2013|p=129}} The first persecution of Christians organised by the Roman government took place under the emperor [[Nero]] in 64 AD after the [[Great Fire of Rome]].{{sfn|Croix|1963|pp=105–152}} There was no empire-wide persecution of Christians until the reign of [[Decius]] in the third century.<ref group=web name=martin>Martin, D. 2010. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v1Bh_SAEU90 "The "Afterlife" of the New Testament and Postmodern Interpretation''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608093412/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v1Bh_SAEU90 |date=2016-06-08 }} ([https://cosmolearning.org/video-lectures/the-afterlife-of-the-new-testament-and-postmodern-interpretation-6819/ lecture transcript] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812141627/https://cosmolearning.org/video-lectures/the-afterlife-of-the-new-testament-and-postmodern-interpretation-6819/ |date=2016-08-12 }}). Yale University.</ref> The [[Edict of Serdica]] was issued in 311 by the Roman emperor [[Galerius]], officially ending the [[Diocletianic persecution]] of [[Christianity]] in the East. With the passage in 313 AD of the [[Edict of Milan]], in which the [[Roman Emperor]]s [[Constantine the Great]] and [[Licinius]] legalised the [[Christianity|Christian]] religion, persecution of Christians by the Roman state ceased.<ref group=web name=ReligionFacts>{{cite web |title=Persecution in the Early Church |url=http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/history/persecution.htm |publisher=Religion Facts |accessdate=2014-03-26}}</ref> ==Development of the Biblical canon== {{Main|Development of the Christian biblical canon}} The early Christians likely did not have their own copy of Scriptural and other church works. Much of the original church liturgical services functioned as a means of learning [[Christian theology]] later expressed in these works. ===Old Testament=== {{Main|Development of the Old Testament canon}} The [[Biblical canon]] began with the Jewish [[Scriptures]]. The [[Koine Greek]] translation of the Jewish scriptures, later known as the ''[[Septuagint]]''<ref>McDonald & Sanders, p.72</ref> and often written as "LXX," was the dominant translation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/swete/greekot/Page_112.html |title=Swete's Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, p. 112 |publisher=Ccel.org |date= |accessdate=2019-05-20}}</ref> It arose from [[Hellenistic Judaism]], and included the [[biblical apocrypha]].{{refn|group=note|[[Jerome]] (347-420) expressed his preference for adhering strictly to the Hebrew text and canon, but his view held little currency even in his own day. It was not until the [[Protestant Reformation]] that substantial numbers of Christians began to reject those books of the Septuagint which are not found in the Jewish [[Masoretic Text]], referring to them as [[biblical apocrypha]]. In addition, some New Testament books were also disputed, known as the [[Antilegomena]].}} The first five books, known as the Torah or Pentateuch, were translated mid-3rd century BCE, and the remaining texts were translated in the 2nd century BCE. Eventually, the texts became also available as [[Aramaic]] [[Targums]]. Perhaps the earliest Christian canon is the ''Bryennios List'', dated to around 100, which was found by [[Philotheos Bryennios]] in the [[Codex Hierosolymitanus]]. The list is written in [[Koine Greek]], [[Aramaic]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]].<ref>published by J. P. Audet in [http://jts.oxfordjournals.org ''JTS''] 1950, v1, pp. 135–154, cited in [http://www.ibri.org/DVD-1/RRs/RR013/13jamnia.html ''The Council of Jamnia and the Old Testament Canon''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210102404/http://www.ibri.org/DVD-1/RRs/RR013/13jamnia.html |date=February 10, 2007 }}, Robert C. Newman, 1983.</ref> In the 2nd century, [[Melito of Sardis]] called the Jewish scriptures the "[[Old Testament]]"<ref>''A dictionary of Jewish-Christian relations'', Dr. Edward Kessler, Neil Wenborn, Cambridge University Press, 2005, {{ISBN|0-521-82692-6}}, p.316</ref> and also specified an early [[Melito's canon|canon]]. ===New Testament=== {{Books of the New Testament}} {{Main|Development of the New Testament canon}} The [[Canon of the New Testament|New Testament]] (often compared to the [[New Covenant]]) is the second major division of the Christian Bible. It includes the [[Canonical Gospels]], [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]], letters of the [[Apostle (Christian)|Apostles]], and [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]]. The original texts were written by various authors, most likely sometime between c. AD 45 and 120 AD,<ref name="Ehrman120ce">{{cite book |author=Bart D. Ehrman |title=The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ |year=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-508481-8 |page=8 |quote=The New Testament contains twenty-seven books, written in Greek, by fifteen or sixteen different authors, who were addressing other Christian individuals or communities between the years 50 and 120 (see box 1.4). As we will see, it is difficult to know whether any of these books was written by Jesus' own disciples.}}</ref> in [[Koine Greek]], the [[lingua franca]] of the eastern part of the Roman Empire, though there is also a minority argument for [[Aramaic primacy]]. The name was given by either by [[Tertullian]] or [[Marcion]] in the 2nd century.<ref>McDonald & Sanders p.310</ref> but they were not defined as "canon" until the 4th century. ==Early orthodox writings- Apostolic Fathers== The [[Church Fathers]] are the early and influential [[theology|theologians]] and writers in the [[Christian Church]], particularly those of the first five centuries of Christian history. The earliest Church Fathers, within two generations of the Twelve apostles of Christ, are usually called [[Apostolic Fathers]] for reportedly knowing and studying under the apostles personally. Important Apostolic Fathers include [[Clement of Rome]] (d. AD 99),<ref name="CC">[[Will Durant|Durant, Will]]. ''Caesar and Christ''. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972</ref> [[Ignatius of Antioch]] (d. AD 98 to 117) and [[Polycarp of Smyrna]] (AD 69-155). Their writings include the [[Epistle of Barnabas]] and the [[Epistles of Clement (disambiguation)|Epistles of Clement]]. The [[Didache]] and [[Shepherd of Hermas]] are usually placed among the writings of the Apostolic Fathers although their authors are unknown. Taken as a whole, the collection is notable for its literary simplicity, religious zeal and lack of Hellenistic philosophy or rhetoric. They contain early thoughts on the organisation of the Christian ''ekklēsia'', and witness the development of an early Church structure. In his letter [[1 Clement]], [[Clement of Rome]] calls on the Christians of Corinth to maintain harmony and order.<ref name="CC"/> Some see his epistle as an assertion of Rome's authority over the church in Corinth and, by implication, the beginnings of [[papal supremacy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04012c.htm|title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Pope St. Clement I|work=newadvent.org}}</ref> Clement refers to the leaders of the Corinthian church in his letter as bishops and [[presbyter]]s interchangeably, and likewise states that the bishops are to lead God's flock by virtue of the chief shepherd (presbyter), Jesus Christ. [[Ignatius of Antioch]] advocated the authority of the apostolic episcopacy (bishops).<ref>[[Letter to the Magnesians (Ignatius)|Magnesians]] 2, 6–7, 13, [[Letter to the Trallians|Trallians]] 2–3, [[Letter to the Smyrnaeans|Smyrnaeans]] 8–9</ref> The [[Didache]] (late 1st century)<ref name=Draper2006>Draper, JA (2006), ''The Apostolic Fathers: the Didache'', Expository Times, Vol.117, No.5, p.178</ref> is an anonymous Jewish-Christian work. It is a pastoral manual dealing with Christian lessons, rituals, and Church organization, parts of which may have constituted the first written [[catechism]], "that reveals more about how Jewish-Christians saw themselves and how they adapted their Judaism for Gentiles than any other book in the Christian Scriptures."<ref>Aaron Milavec, p. vii</ref> == Split of Early Christianity and Judaism == ===Split with Judaism=== {{Main|Split of early Christianity and Judaism}} {{See also|Schisms among the Jews|List of events in early Christianity}} There was a slowly growing chasm between Christians and Jews, rather than a sudden split. Even though it is commonly thought that Paul established a Gentile church, it took centuries for a complete break to manifest. However, certain events are perceived as pivotal in the growing rift between [[Judaism and Christianity]]. The [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|destruction of Jerusalem]] and the consequent dispersion of Jews and Jewish Christians from the city (after the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]]) ended any pre-eminence of the Jewish-Christian leadership in Jerusalem. Early Christianity grew further apart from Judaism to establish itself as a predominantly Gentile religion, and [[Early centers of Christianity#Antioch|Antioch]] became the first Gentile Christian community with stature.<ref>Franzen, p.25</ref> The [[Council of Jamnia]] c. 85 is often stated to have condemned all who claimed the Messiah had already come, and Christianity in particular. However, the formulated prayer in question (birkat ha-minim) is considered by other scholars to be unremarkable in the history of Jewish and Christian relations. There is a paucity of evidence for Jewish persecution of "heretics" in general, or Christians in particular, in the period between 70 and 135. It is probable that the condemnation of Jamnia included many groups, of which the Christians were but one, and did not necessarily mean excommunication. That some of the later church fathers only recommended against synagogue attendance makes it improbable that an anti-Christian prayer was a common part of the synagogue liturgy. Jewish Christians continued to worship in synagogues for centuries.<ref>Wylen (1995), p.190.</ref><ref>Wright, pp.164-165.</ref> [[File:Nerva Fiscus Iudaicus coin.jpg|thumb|A coin issued by [[Nerva]] reads<br />''[[Fiscus Judaicus|fisci Judaici]] [[calumnia (Roman law)|calumnia]] sublata'',<br />"abolition of [[malicious prosecution]] in connection with the Jewish tax"<ref>As translated by Molly Whittaker, ''Jews and Christians: Graeco-Roman Views'', (Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 105.</ref>]] During the late 1st century, Judaism was a legal religion with the protection of [[Roman law]], worked out in compromise with the Roman state over two centuries. Observant Jews had special rights, including the privilege of abstaining from civic pagan rites. Christians were initially identified with the Jewish religion by the Romans, but as they became more distinct, Christianity became a problem for Roman rulers. Emperor [[Nerva]] decreed that Christians did not have to pay the [[Fiscus Iudaicus|annual tax upon the Jews]], effectively recognizing them as distinct from [[Rabbinic Judaism]]. This opened the way to Christians being persecuted for disobedience to the emperor as they continued to refuse to worship the [[Imperial cult (ancient Rome)|state pantheon]]. From c. 98 onwards a distinction between Christians and Jews in Roman literature becomes apparent. For example, [[Pliny the Younger]] postulates that Christians are not Jews since they do not pay the tax, in his letters to [[Trajan]].<ref>Wylen, pp.190-192.</ref><ref>Dunn, pp.33-34.</ref> Christianity was not legalized until the 313 [[Edict of Milan]]. ===Rejection of Jewish Christianity=== Jewish Christians constituted a separate community from the [[Pauline Christianity|Pauline Christians]] but maintained a similar faith, differing only in practice. In Christian circles, "[[Nazarene (sect)|Nazarene]]" later came to be used as a label for those faithful to Jewish law, in particular for a certain sect. These Jewish Christians, originally the central group in Christianity, were not at first declared to be unorthodox but were later excluded and denounced. The Nazarenes, holding to orthodoxy except in their adherence to Jewish law, were not deemed heretical until the dominance of [[orthodoxy]] in the [[Christianity in the 4th century|4th century]]. The Ebionites may have been a splinter group of Nazarenes, with disagreements over Christology and leadership. They were considered by Gentile Christians to have unorthodox beliefs, particularly in relation to their views of Christ and Gentile converts. After the condemnation of the Nazarenes, "Ebionite" was often used as a general pejorative for all related "heresies".<ref name="Tabor 1998">Tabor (1998).</ref><ref>Esler (2004), pp.157-159.</ref> There was a post-Nicene "double rejection" of the Jewish Christians by both Gentile Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism. It is believed that there was no direct confrontation or persecution between Gentile and Judaic Christianity. However, by this time the practice of Judeo-Christianity was diluted both by internal schisms and external pressures. The true end of ancient Jewish Christianity occurred only in the 5th century.{{sfn|Dunn|1991}} Gentile Christianity remained the sole strand of orthodoxy and imposed itself on the previously Jewish Christian sanctuaries, taking full control of those houses of worship by the end of the 5th century.<ref>Dauphin (1993). pp. 235, 240–242.</ref>{{refn|group=note|name="Jewish Christian groups"|Jewish Virtual Library: "A major difficulty in tracing the growth of Christianity from its beginnings as a [[Jewish messianism|Jewish messianic sect]], and its relations to the various other normative-Jewish, sectarian-Jewish, and Christian-Jewish groups is presented by the fact that what ultimately became normative Christianity was originally but one among various contending Christian trends. Once the "gentile Christian" trend won out, and the [[Pauline theology|teaching]] of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] became accepted as expressing the doctrine of the [[Early Christianity|Church]], the Jewish Christian groups were pushed to the margin and ultimately excluded as heretical. Being rejected both by normative Judaism and the Church, they ultimately disappeared. Nevertheless, several Jewish Christian sects (such as the [[Nazarene (sect)|Nazarenes]], [[Ebionites]], [[Elchasaites]], and others) existed for some time, and a few of them seem to have endured for several centuries. Some sects saw in Jesus mainly a [[Prophet (Judaism)|prophet]] and not the "Christ," others seem to have believed in him as the Messiah, but did not draw the [[Christology|christological]] and other conclusions that subsequently became fundamental in the teaching of the Church (the divinity of the Christ, [[Trinity|trinitarian conception of the Godhead]], [[Abrogation of Old Covenant laws|abrogation of the Law]]). After the disappearance of the early Jewish Christian sects and the triumph of gentile Christianity, to become a Christian meant, for a Jew, to [[Apostasy in Judaism|apostatize]] and to leave the Jewish community.{{r|group=web|"JVL"}}}} ==Timeline== {{hidden|1st century Timeline| <!-- This timeline is included primarily for editorial and reference purposes. --> <!-- Do not remove the status as "hidden." --> <!-- This is page is an article, not a timeline. --> {{disputed|talkpage=Talk:Christianity in the 1st century#Bethlehem|date=March 2019}} ''Earliest dates must all be considered approximate'' *7–2 BC [[Nativity of Jesus|Jesus is born]] in [[Bethlehem]]{{Dubious |reason=Per [[Nativity of Jesus]], Jesus' birthplace is disputed. "most of those scholars who reject the historicity of the birth at Bethlehem argue for a birth at Nazareth, a few suggest Capernaum, and other have hypothesized locations as far away as Chorazin."|date=March 2019}} *6 BC [[Herod Archelaus]] deposed by [[Augustus]]; [[Samaria]], [[Judea]] and [[Idumea]] annexed as [[Iudaea Province]] under direct Roman administration,<ref>H.H. Ben-Sasson, ''A History of the Jewish People'', Harvard University Press, 1976, {{ISBN|0-674-39731-2}}, p.246</ref> capital at [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]], [[Quirinius]] became [[Legatus|Legate]] (Governor) of [[Syria (Roman province)#Syria in antiquity|Syria]], conducted [[Census of Quirinius]], opposed by [[Zealots]] ([http://earlyjewishwritings.com/text/josephus/ant18.html JA18], {{bibleverse||Luke|2:1–3}}, {{bibleverse||Acts|5:37}}) *7–26 AD Brief period of peace, relatively free of revolt and bloodshed in Iudaea & [[Galilee]]<ref>[[John P. Meier]]'s [[A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus|''A Marginal Jew'']], v. 1, ch. 11</ref><ref>H.H. Ben-Sasson, ''A History of the Jewish People'', Harvard University Press, 1976, {{ISBN|0-674-39731-2}}, p.251</ref> *9 [[Pharisee]] leader [[Hillel the Elder]] dies, temporary rise of [[Shammai]] *14–37 [[Tiberius]], [[Roman Emperor]] *18–36 [[Caiaphas]], appointed [[List of High Priests of Israel|High Priest]] of [[Herod's Temple]] by Prefect Valerius Gratus, deposed by Syrian Legate [[Lucius Vitellius]] *19 [[Jews]], Jewish [[Proselytes]], [[Astrologers]], expelled from Rome<ref>Suetonius, [[Lives of the Twelve Caesars]], Tiberius 36</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=352&letter=R&search=Sejanus#1006|title=ROME - JewishEncyclopedia.com|work=jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> *26–36 [[Pontius Pilate]], [[Prefect]] (governor) of Iudaea, recalled to Rome by Syrian Legate Vitellius on complaints of excess violence (JA18.4.2) *28 or 29 [[John the Baptist]] began his [[Religious ministry (Christian)|ministry]] in the "15th year of Tiberius" ({{bibleverse|Luke||3:1–2}})({{bibleverse||Matt|3:1–2}}) * 30&nbsp;– [[Great Commission]] of Jesus to go and make disciples of all nations;<ref name="Barrett">Barrett, p.23</ref> [[Pentecost]], a day in which 3000 Jews from a variety of Mediterranean-basin nations are converted to faith in Jesus Christ. * 30–36 [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Jesus is crucified]] on order of Pontius Pilate. Christians believe he rose from the dead 3 days later. * 34&nbsp;– In [[Gaza City|Gaza]], [[Philip the Evangelist|Philip]] baptizes a convert, an [[Ethiopia]]n who was already a Jewish [[proselyte]]. * 39&nbsp;– [[St. Peter|Peter]] preaches to a Gentile audience in the house of [[Cornelius the Centurion|Cornelius]] *37–41 Crisis under [[Caligula]]<ref>H.H. Ben-Sasson, ''A History of the Jewish People'', Harvard University Press, 1976, {{ISBN|0-674-39731-2}}, ''The Crisis Under Gaius Caligula'', pp.254-256</ref> * 42&nbsp;– [[Mark the Evangelist|Mark]] goes to [[Egypt]]<ref>Kane, 10</ref> *44? [[Saint James the Great]]: According to ancient local tradition, on 2 January of the year AD 40, [[the Virgin Mary]] appeared to James on a [[Our Lady of the Pillar|Pilar]] on the bank of the Ebro River at Caesaraugusta, while he was preaching the Gospel in Spain. Following that apparition, St James returned to Judea, where he was beheaded by King Herod Agrippa I in the year 44 during a [[Passover]] (Nisan 15) ({{bibleverse|Acts||12:1–3}}). *44 Death of [[Herod Agrippa I]] ([http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/josephus/ant19.html JA19].8.2, {{bibleverse||Acts|12:20–23}}) *44–46? [[Theudas]] beheaded by [[Procurator (Roman)|Procurator]] [[Cuspius Fadus]] for saying he would part the Jordan river (like [[Moses]] and the Red Sea or [[Joshua]] and the Jordan) ([http://earlyjewishwritings.com/text/josephus/ant20.html JA20].5.1, {{bibleverse||Acts|5:36-37}} places it before the [[Census of Quirinius]]) *45–49? Mission of [[Barnabas]] and Paul, ({{bibleverse||Acts|13:1–14:28}}), to Cyprus, [[Antioch, Pisidia|Pisidian Antioch]], [[Iconium]], [[Lystra]] and [[Derbe]] (there they were called "gods ... in human form"), then return to Syrian [[Antioch]]. [http://www.bible.org/assets/netbible/jp1.jpg Map1] *47? [[Saint Thomas Christians|St. Thomas Christianity]], now in several forms, is begun in [[Christianity in India|India]] by [[Thomas the Apostle|Thomas]]. * 47&nbsp;– [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] (formerly known as Saul of [[Tarsus in Cilicia|Tarsus]]) begins his first missionary journey to modern-day [[Turkey]].<ref name="Walker-26">Williston Walker, ''A History of the Christian Church'' 1959, p. 26</ref> *48–100 [[Agrippa II|Herod Agrippa II]] appointed [[Hasmonean|King of the Jews]] by [[Claudius]], seventh and last of the [[Herodians]] *50 [[Passover]] riot in [[Jerusalem]], 20–30,000 killed (JA20.5.3,[http://earlyjewishwritings.com/text/josephus/war2.html JW2].12.1) * 50&nbsp;– [[Council of Jerusalem]] on admitting [[Gentiles]] into the Church<ref name="Walker-26"/> *50? [[Council of Jerusalem]] and the "Apostolic Decree", {{bibleverse|Acts||15:1–35}}, same as {{bibleverse||Galatians|2:1–10}}?, which is followed by the "Incident at Antioch"<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08537a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers] see section titled: "THE INCIDENT AT ANTIOCH"</ref> at which Paul publicly accused Peter of "[[Judaizing]]" ({{bibleverse-nb||Galatians|2:11–21}}) * 51&nbsp;– Paul begins his second missionary journey, a trip that takes him through modern-day [[Turkey]] and on into [[Greece]]<ref name="Walker, 27">Walker, 27</ref> *50–53? Paul's 2nd mission, ({{bibleverse||Acts|15:36–18:22}}), split with Barnabas, to Phrygia, Galatia, Macedonia, Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, Corinth, "he had his hair cut off at Cenchrea because of a vow he had taken", then return to Antioch; [[First Epistle to the Thessalonians|1 Thessalonians]], [[Epistle to Galatians|Galatians]] written? [http://www.bible.org/assets/netbible/jp2.jpg Map2] *51–52 or 52–53 proconsulship of [[Gallio]] according to an inscription, only fixed date in chronology of Paul<ref>[http://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Pauline_Chronology.htm Pauline Chronology: His Life and Missionary Work], from [http://catholic-resources.org Catholic Resources] by Felix Just, S.J.</ref> *52 [[Saint Thomas Christians]] of India * 52&nbsp;– [[Apostle Thomas|Thomas]] arrives in India and founds church that subsequently becomes [[Indian Orthodox Church]] (and its various descendants)<ref>Neill, 44–45</ref> * 54&nbsp;– Paul begins his third missionary journey<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblestudy.org/maps/pauls-third-journey-map.html|title=Apostle Paul's Third Missionary Journey Map|work=biblestudy.org}}</ref> *53–57? Paul's 3rd mission, ({{bibleverse||Acts|18:23–22:30}}), to Galatia, Phrygia, Corinth, Ephesus, Macedonia, Greece, and Jerusalem where [[James, brother of Jesus|James the Just]] challenged him about rumor of teaching [[antinomianism]] ({{bibleverse-nb|Acts||21:21}}), he addressed a crowd in their language (most likely [[Aramaic of Jesus|Aramaic]]), [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]], [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]], [[Second Epistle to the Corinthians|2 Corinthians]], [[Epistle to the Philippians|Philippians]] written? [http://www.bible.org/assets/netbible/jp3.jpg Map3] *55? "[[Egyptian (prophet)|Egyptian prophet]]" (allusion to Moses) and 30,000 unarmed Jews doing [[The Exodus]] reenactment massacred by [[Procurator (Roman)|Procurator]] [[Antonius Felix]] (JW2.13.5, JA20.8.6, {{bibleverse|Acts||21:38}}) *58? Paul arrested, accused of being a [[zealot|revolutionary]], "ringleader of the sect of the [[Nazarene (title)|Nazarenes]]", teaching [[resurrection of the dead]], imprisoned in [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]] ({{bibleverse|Acts||23–26}}) *59? Paul shipwrecked on [[Malta]], there he was called a god ({{bibleverse|Acts||28:6}}) * 60&nbsp;– Paul sent to [[Rome]] under Roman guard, evangelizes on Malta after shipwreck<ref name="Walker, 27"/> *60? Paul in Rome: greeted by many "brothers" ([[NRSV]]: "believers"), three days later called together the Jewish leaders, who hadn't received any word from Judea about him, but were curious about "this sect", which everywhere is spoken against; he tried to convince them from the "[[Torah|Law]] and [[Neviim|Prophets]]", with partial success, said the Gentiles would listen and spent two years proclaiming the [[Kingdom of God]] and teaching the "Lord Jesus Christ" ({{bibleverse|Acts||28:15–31}}); [[Epistle to Philemon]] written? *62 James the Just stoned to death for law transgression by [[List of High Priests of Israel|High Priest]] Ananus ben Artanus, popular opinion against act results in Ananus being deposed by new procurator [[Lucceius Albinus]] (JA20.9.1) *63–107? [[Simeon of Jerusalem|Simeon]], 2nd [[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem#Bishops of Jerusalem|Bishop of Jerusalem]], crucified under [[Trajan]] *64–68 after July 18 [[Great Fire of Rome]], [[Nero]] blamed and [[Persecution of Christians|persecuted]] the ''Christians'' *64/67(?)–76/79(?) [[Pope Linus]] succeeds Peter as Episcopus Romanus (Bishop of Rome) *65? [[Q document]], a hypothetical Greek text thought by many critical scholars to have been used in writing of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] * 66&nbsp;– Thaddeus establishes the Christian church of [[Armenia]]<ref>Wood, Roger, Jan Morris and Denis Wright. ''Persia''. Universe Books, 1970, p. 35.</ref> *66–73 [[Great Jewish Revolt]]: destruction of [[Herod's Temple]], [[Qumran]] community destroyed, site of [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] found in 1947 *68–107? [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]], third [[Bishop of Antioch]], fed to the lions in the [[Roman Colosseum]], advocated the [[Bishop]] (Eph 6:1, Mag 2:1,6:1,7:1,13:2, Tr 3:1, Smy 8:1,9:1), rejected [[Sabbath in Christianity|Sabbath]] on Saturday in favor of The Lord's Day (Sunday). (Mag 9.1), rejected [[Judaizing]] (Mag 10.3), first recorded use of the term [[catholic]] (Smy 8:2). * 69&nbsp;– [[Saint Andrew|Andrew]] is crucified in [[Patras]] on the [[Peloponnese]] peninsula of [[Greece]]<ref>Herbermann, p. 737</ref> *70(+/−10)? [[Gospel of Mark]], written in Rome, by Peter's interpreter (1 Peter 5:13), original ending apparently lost, endings added c.400, see [[Mark 16]] *70? [[Signs Gospel]] written, hypothetical Greek text used in Gospel of John to prove Jesus is the Messiah *70–100? additional [[Pauline Epistles]] *70–200? [[Didache]]; Other Gospels: [[Gospel of the Saviour]], [[Gospel of Peter]], [[Gospel of Thomas]], [[Oxyrhynchus Gospels]], [[Egerton Gospel]], [[Fayyum Fragment]], [[Dialogue of the Saviour]]; [[Jewish Christian]] Gospels: [[Gospel of the Ebionites]], [[Gospel of the Hebrews]], [[Gospel of the Nazarenes]] *76/79(?)–88 [[Pope Anacletus]] first Greek Pope, who succeeds Linus as Episcopus Romanus (Bishop of Rome) * 80&nbsp;– First Christians reported in [[Tunisia]] and [[France]]<ref name="Barrett" /> *80(+/−20)? [[Gospel of Matthew]], theoretically based on Mark and Q, most popular in [[Early Christianity]] *80(+/−20)? [[Gospel of Luke]], theoretically based on Mark and Q, also [[Acts of the Apostles]] by same author *88–101? [[Pope Clement I|Clement]], fourth [[Bishop of Rome]], wrote [[First Epistle of Clement|Letter of the Romans to the Corinthians]] (Apostolic Fathers) *90? [[Council of Jamnia]] of [[Judaism]] (disputed), [[Domitian]] applied the [[Fiscus Iudaicus]] tax even to those who merely "lived like Jews"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=183&letter=F&search=Fiscus%20Iudaicus|title=FISCUS JUDAICUS - JewishEncyclopedia.com|work=jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> *90(+/−10)? [[1 Peter]] *94 [[Testimonium Flavianum]], disputed section of [[Jewish Antiquities]] by [[Josephus]] in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], translated to [[Koine Greek]] *95(+/−30)? [[Gospel of John]] and [[Epistles of John]] *95(+/−10)? [[Book of Revelation]] written, by John (son of Zebedee) and/or a disciple of his *100(+/−30)? [[Epistle of Barnabas]] (Apostolic Fathers) *100(+/−25)? [[Epistle of James]] *100(+/−10)? [[Epistle of Jude]] written, probably by doubting relative of Jesus (Mark 6,3), rejected by some early Christians due to its reference to apocryphal [[Book of Enoch]] (v14), [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] written * 100&nbsp;– First Christians are reported in [[Monaco]], [[Algeria]] and [[Sri Lanka]];<ref name="Barrett"/> a missionary goes to [[Arbil|Arbela]], old sacred city of the Assyrians<ref>Latourette, 1941, vol. I, p. 103</ref> |bg1=lavender}} ==See also==<!-- PLEASE RESPECCT ALPHABETICAL ORDER --> {{Portal|Christianity|History|Classical Civilisation|Ancient Rome|Bible}} {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[Christian martyrs]] * [[Christian monasticism]] * [[Christianity in the 2nd century]] * [[Christianization]] * [[Chronological list of saints in the 1st century]] * [[Development of the New Testament canon]] * [[Early history of Christianity]] * [[Great Church]] * [[History of Christian theology]] * [[History of Christianity]] * [[History of early Christianity]] * [[History of the Eastern Orthodox Church]] * [[History of the Roman Catholic Church]] * [[Jesuism]] * [[Timeline of Christian missions]] * [[Timeline of Christianity]] * [[Timeline of the Catholic Church]] {{div col end}} {{Christianity by century | period = [[History of early Christianity|Early Christianity]] | prev =[[Cultural and historical background of Jesus|Cultural & historical<br>background of Jesus]] | years = [[1st century|First<br>century]] | followed =[[Christianity in the 2nd century|Christianity in<br>the 2nd century]] }} ==Notes== {{reflist|group=note|2}} ==References== {{reflist|30em}} == Sources == '''Printed sources''' {{refbegin}} <!-- B --> * {{Citation | last =Bird | first =Michael F. | year =2017 | title =Jesus the Eternal Son: Answering Adoptionist Christology | publisher =Wim. 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H., ''The Real Resurrection'', London: Collins, 1972 * {{Citation | last =Vidmar | year =2005 | title =The Catholic Church Through the Ages}} <!-- W --> *Weiss, Johannes, ''Der erste Korintherbrief'' 9th ed., Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1910 *Wilckens, Ulrich, ''Auferstehung'', Stuttgart and Berlin: Kreuz Verlag, 1970 *Wright, N.T., "The New Unimproved Jesus", in ''Christianity Today'', 1993-09-13 *Wylen, Stephen M., ''The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction'', Paulist Press (1995), {{ISBN|0-8091-3610-4}} {{refend}} '''Web-sources''' {{reflist|group=web|refs= <!-- * "EB.Sanders.Pelikan.Jesus" --> <ref group=web name="EB.Sanders.Pelikan.Jesus">E.P. Sanders, Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jesus/The-context-of-Jesus-career ''Jesus''], Encyclopedia Britannica</ref> <!-- * "Immanuel.Moshiah ben Yossef" --> <ref group=web name="Immanuel.Moshiah ben Yossef">{{cite web|last=Schochet|first=Rabbi Prof. Dr. Jacob Immanuel|title=Moshiach ben Yossef|url=http://www.moshiach.com/discover/tutorials/moshiach_ben_yossef.php|work=Tutorial|publisher=moshiach.com|accessdate=2 December 2012|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20021220182918/http://www.moshiach.com/discover/tutorials/moshiach_ben_yossef.php|archivedate=20 December 2002|df=}}</ref> <!-- * "JVL" --> <ref group=web name="JVL">{{cite web | date =2008 | title=Christianity: Severance from Judaism | website =[[Jewish Virtual Library]] | publisher =[[American–Israeli Cooperative Enterprise|AICE]] | url =https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/christianity-2 | access-date=17 December 2018}}</ref> <!-- * "JVL.Blidstein.Messiah" --> <ref group=web name="JVL.Blidstein.Messiah">{{cite web|last=Blidstein|first=Prof. Dr. Gerald J.|title=Messiah in Rabbinic Thought|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0014_0_13744.html|work=MESSIAH|publisher=Jewish Virtual Library and Encyclopaedia Judaica 2008 The Gale Group|accessdate=2 December 2012}}</ref> <!-- * "JVL.Flusser.Second Temple Period" --> <ref name="JVL.Flusser.Second Temple Period">{{cite web|last=Flusser|first=David|title=Second Temple Period|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0014_0_13744.html|work=Messiah|publisher=Encyclopaedia Judaica 2008 The Gale Group|accessdate=2 December 2012}}</ref> <!-- * "JVL.Telushkin.Messiah" --> <ref name="JVL.Telushkin.Messiah">{{cite web|last=Telushkin|first=Joseph|title=The Messiah|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/messiah.html|publisher=The Jewish Virtual Library Jewish Literacy. NY: William Morrow and Co., 1991. Reprinted by permission of the author.|accessdate=2 December 2012}}</ref> <!-- * "Shiffman" --> <ref group=web name="Shiffman">{{cite web | last =Shiffman | first =Lawrence H. | date =2018 | title =How Jewish Christians Became Christians | website =My Jewish Learning | url =https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/how-jewish-christians-became-christians/ }}</ref> }} == Further reading == * Bockmuehl, Markus N.A. (ed.) ''The Cambridge Companion to Jesus''. Cambridge University Press (2001). {{ISBN|0-521-79678-4}}. * Bourgel, Jonathan, ''From One Identity to Another: The Mother Church of Jerusalem Between the Two Jewish Revolts Against Rome (66-135/6 EC)''. Paris: Éditions du Cerf, collection Judaïsme ancien et Christianisme primitive, (French). {{ISBN|978-2-204-10068-7}} * [[Raymond E. Brown|Brown, Raymond E.]]: ''An Introduction to the New Testament'' ({{ISBN|0-385-24767-2}}) * Conzelmann, H. and Lindemann A., ''Interpreting the New Testament. An Introduction to the Principles and Methods of N.T. Exegesis'', translated by S.S. Schatzmann, Hendrickson Publishers. Peabody 1988. * Dormeyer, Detlev. ''The New Testament among the Writings of Antiquity'' (English translation), Sheffield 1998 * Dunn, James D.G. (ed.) ''The Cambridge Companion to St. Paul''. Cambridge University Press (2003). {{ISBN|0-521-78694-0}}. * Dunn, James D.G. ''Unity and Diversity in the New Testament: An Inquiry into the Character of Earliest Christianity''. SCM Press (2006). {{ISBN|0-334-02998-8}}. * {{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Edwards|first=Mark|year=2009|title=Catholicity and Heresy in the Early Church|publisher=Ashgate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z9acTl-jAkAC}} * Freedman, David Noel (Ed). ''Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (2000). {{ISBN|0-8028-2400-5}}. * Esler, Philip F. ''The Early Christian World''. Routledge (2004). {{ISBN|0-415-33312-1}}. * [[Burton L. Mack|Mack, Burton L.]]: ''Who Wrote the New Testament?'', Harper, 1996 * Keck, Leander E. ''Paul and His Letters''. Fortress Press (1988). {{ISBN|0-8006-2340-1}}. * Mills, Watson E. ''Acts and Pauline Writings''. Mercer University Press (1997). {{ISBN|0-86554-512-X}}. * Malina, Bruce J.: ''Windows on the World of Jesus: Time Travel to Ancient Judea.'' Westminster John Knox Press: Louisville (Kentucky) 1993 * Malina, Bruce J.: ''The New Testament World: Insights from Cultural Anthropology''. 3rd edition, Westminster John Knox Press Louisville (Kentucky) 2001 * Malina, Bruce J.: ''Social Science Commentary on the Gospel of John'' Augsburg Fortress Publishers: Minneapolis 1998 * Malina, Bruce J.: ''Social-Science Commentary on the Synoptic Gospels'' Augsburg Fortress Publishers: Minneapolis 2003 * McKechnie, Paul. ''The First Christian Centuries: Perspectives on the Early Church''. Apollos (2001). {{ISBN|0-85111-479-2}} * Pelikan, Jaroslav Jan. ''The Christian Tradition: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600)''. University of Chicago Press (1975). {{ISBN|0-226-65371-4}}. * Stegemann, Ekkehard and Stegemann, Wolfgang: ''The Jesus Movement: A Social History of Its First Century.'' Augsburg Fortress Publishers: Minneapolis 1999 * Stegemann, Wolfgang, ''The Gospel and the Poor.'' Fortress Press. Minneapolis 1984 {{ISBN|0-8006-1783-5}} * [[James Tabor|Tabor, James D.]] [http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/JDTABOR/ebionites.html "Ancient Judaism: Nazarenes and Ebionites"], ''The Jewish Roman World of Jesus''. Department of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte (1998). *Thiessen, Henry C. ''Introduction to the New Testament'', Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids 1976 * White, L. Michael. ''From Jesus to Christianity''. HarperCollins (2004). {{ISBN|0-06-052655-6}}. * Wilson, Barrie A. "How Jesus Became Christian". St. Martin's Press (2008). {{ISBN|978-0-679-31493-6}}. * Wright, N.T. ''The New Testament and the People of God''. Fortress Press (1992). {{ISBN|0-8006-2681-8}}. * [[Theodor Zahn|Zahn, Theodor]], ''Introduction to the New Testament, English translation'', Edinburgh, 1910. ==External links== {{wikiquote|First Century Christianity}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20101209052136/http://www.tyndale.ca/sem/mtsmodular/viewpage.php?pid=67 New Testament Reading Room] Extensive online NT resources (incl. commentaries), Tyndale Seminary *[https://web.archive.org/web/20120114133638/http://www.wlsessays.net/subject/N/New+Testament Scholarly articles on the New Testament from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library] *[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/asbook11.html Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Christian Origins] *[http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/christian-history.html Guide to Early Church Documents] {{Christian History|collapsed}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Christianity in the 1st century}} [[Category:1st-century Christianity| ]] [[Category:Christianity by century|01]] [[Category:Early Christianity|01]] [[Category:Early Christianity and Judaism]]'