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This article is about Unitarianism as a Christian theology. For other uses, see Unitarianism (disambiguation).
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Unitarianism is a Christian theological movement, named for its understanding of God as one person, namely God the Father, existing separate from Jesus, in direct contrast to Trinitarianism which defines God as three persons coexisting consubstantially as one in being.[1] It is also known for the rejection of several orthodox Protestant doctrines besides the Trinity,[2] including the soteriological doctrines of original sin and predestination,[3][4] and biblical inerrancy.[5]

Unitarianism emerged in England and America in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, though theological precursors are to be found in Continental Europe during the Protestant Reformation. Unitarianism quickly evolved, reaching its classical form in the mid-19th century[6] and, as a Christian theology, is generally considered liberal.[7]

Capitalization and Usage

Some confusion exists between the terms "Unitarianism" (capitalized) and "unitarianism" (uncapitalized). The capitalized term Unitarianism (which is the subject of this article) is a proper noun and follows the same English usage as other theologies that have developed within a religious movement (Calvinism, Anabaptism, Adventism, Wesleyanism, etc.).[8] The uncapitalized unitarianism is a common noun and describes any Christology (i.e. understanding of Jesus Christ) that denies the Trinity or believes that only the Father of Jesus (and not Jesus himself) is God. As such, it is a monotheistic belief system not necessarily associated with the Unitarian movement.[9][10][improper synthesis?] To avoid confusion between Unitarianism and unitarianism, the former being a developed theology within a specific religious movement and the latter being a Christology, the term Nontrinitarianism is here reserved for the latter.

Recently some religious groups have adopted the 19th Century term "biblical unitarianism" to distinguish their theology from Unitarianism.[11] Since their belief system is a conservative form of nontrinitarianism, unrelated to Unitarianism, it is not discussed here.

Unitarianism does not accept the Godhood of Jesus, and therefore does not include those nontrinitarian belief systems which do — for example, Oneness Pentecostalism, United Pentecostal Church International and the True Jesus Church—that maintain that Jesus is God as a single person.

The term Unitarian is sometimes applied to those who belong to a Unitarian church but who do not hold a Unitarian theological belief.[12] In the past, the vast majority of members of Unitarian churches were Unitarians also in belief. Over time, however, some Unitarians and Unitarian Universalists moved away from the traditional Christian roots of Unitarianism.[13] For example, in the 1890s the American Unitarian Association began to allow non-Christian and non-theistic churches and individuals to be part of their fellowship.[14] As a result, people who held no Unitarian belief began to be called "Unitarians" because they were members of churches that belonged to the American Unitarian Association. After several decades, the non-theistic members outnumbered the theological Unitarians.[15] A similar, though proportionally much smaller, phenomenon has taken place in the Unitarian churches in the United Kingdom, Canada, and other countries, which remain more theistically based. Unitarian theology, therefore, is distinguishable from the belief system of modern Unitarian and Unitarian Universalist churches and fellowships. This article includes information about Unitarianism as a theology and about the development of theologically Unitarian churches. For a more specific discussion of Unitarianism as it evolved into a pluralistic liberal religious movement, see Unitarian Universalism (and its national groups the Unitarian Universalist Association in the United States, the Canadian Unitarian Council in Canada, the General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches in the United Kingdom, and the International Council of Unitarians and Universalists).

History

Main article: History of Unitarianism

Unitarianism, both as a theology and as a denominational family of churches, was first defined and developed in England and America in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, although theological ancestors are to be found in the Protestant Reformation and even as far back as the early days of Christianity. It matured and reached its classical form in the mid-19th century.[6]

Beliefs

Unitarian Belief System
Christology: Nontrinitarian
Soteriology: Arminian
Anthropology: Pelagian

Christology

Unitarians adhere to strict monotheism, and maintain that Jesus was a great man and a prophet of God, perhaps even a supernatural being, but not God himself.[16] They believe Jesus did not claim to be God, and that his teachings did not suggest the existence of a triune God. Unitarians believe in the moral authority, but not necessarily the divinity, of Jesus. Their theology is thus opposed to the trinitarian theology of other Christian denominations.

Unitarian Christology can be divided according to whether Jesus is believed to have had a pre-human existence. Both forms maintain that God is one being and one "person"—the one Jesus called "Father"—and that Jesus is the (or a) Son of God, but generally not God himself.[17]

Personal pre-human existence

In one form, the Son of God is considered to have pre-existed as the Logos, a being created by God, who dwelt with God in heaven prior to his birth as the man, Jesus. This theology is commonly called Arianism; however, there are many varieties of this form of Unitarianism, ranging from the belief that the Son was a divine spirit of the same nature as God before coming to earth, to the belief that he was an angel or other lesser spirit creature of a wholly different nature from God.[citation needed] (Arius' views did not present Jesus as an angel.)

In this belief system, Jesus has always been beneath God, but higher than humans. It is associated with early church figures such as Justin Martyr, Lucian of Antioch, Eusebius of Caesarea, Arius, Eusebius of Nicomedia, Asterius the Sophist, Eunomius, and Ulfilas, as well as Felix, Bishop of Urgell and others who believed that Jesus was God in his divine nature but that his divinity in his human nature was through adoption. Michael Servetus did not deny the pre-existence of Christ.[18] Isaac Newton had Arian beliefs as well.[19][20][21] Famous 19th century Arian Unitarians include Andrews Norton[22] and Dr. William Ellery Channing.[23] Arian ideas persist among Unitarians in Transylvania, Hungary, France, and several countries in Africa.[citation needed]

Since the 19th century, several Evangelical or Restorationist nontrinitarians, including Jehovah's Witnesses, the Christian Churches of God (CCG), and the Filipino-based Iglesia ni Cristo, have also adopted a Christology sometimes classified as Arianism or Semi-Arianism,[citation needed] but these are not technically Unitarians (capitalized), either because of their conservative doctrines,[improper synthesis?] such as the teaching of biblical inerrancy,[citation needed] or their development outside of, and lack of connection with, the historical Unitarian movement. Important figures include Barton W. Stone and Charles Taze Russell.

No personal pre-human existence

The distinguishing feature of this belief is the denial of the personal pre-existence of Christ. There are various views ranging from the belief that Jesus, the son of Joseph, was a great man who became filled with the Holy Spirit, often called adoptionism (or, in the 19th century, psilanthropism), to the belief that he literally was the Son of God through the virgin birth.

Acceptance of the virgin birth

Theodotus of Byzantium,[24] Artemon[25] and Paul of Samosata[26] denied the pre-existence of Christ but accepted the virgin birth.[27] This was continued by Marcellus of Ancyra and his pupil Photinus in the 4th century AD.[28] In the Radical Reformation and Anabaptist movements of the 16th century this resurfaced with Lelio Sozzini and his nephew Fausto Sozzini. Having influenced the Polish Brethren to a formal declaration of this belief in the Racovian Catechism, they gave the name "Socinianism" to this Christological position,[29] which continued with English Unitarians such as John Biddle's Twofold Catechism (1654). The divergence point in Unitarian belief on this subject, and of miracles in general, in England, is around 1800, with Thomas Belsham (1806), Richard Wright (1808) writing against the miraculous conception.[30][31][32][33] The American Unitarian Association in America generally remained firm in its belief in the historical accuracy of the New Testament, including the virgin birth story, until the 1830s, when the Transcendentalist movement began.[34] Famous American Unitarian William Ellery Channing, for example, was a believer in the virgin birth until later in his life, after he had begun his association with the Transcendentalists.[35][36][37]

Psilanthropism

The denial of the virgin birth is also sometimes described as Ebionism from the Ebionites; however, Origen (Contra Celsum v.61) and Eusebius (HE iii.27) both indicate that some Ebionites did accept the virgin birth.[38] The Chambers Biographical Dictionary (1897) incorrectly ascribes denial of the virgin birth to Ferenc Dávid, leader of the Transylvanian Unitarians. The psilanthropist view was also manifested in Transcendentalist Unitarianism, which emerged from the German liberal theology associated primarily with Friedrich Schleiermacher. Its proponents took an intellectual and humanistic approach to religion, rejecting most of the miraculous events in the Bible (including the virgin birth). They embraced evolutionary concepts, asserted the "inherent goodness of man", and abandoned the doctrine of biblical infallibility. Notable examples are Theodore Parker, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Frederick Henry Hedge.

Other beliefs

Though there is no specific authority on convictions of Unitarian belief aside from rejection of the Trinity, the following beliefs are generally accepted:[39][40][41][42][43][44]

  • One God and the oneness or unity of God.
  • The life and teachings of Jesus Christ constitute the exemplar model for living one's own life.
  • Reason, rational thought, science, and philosophy coexist with faith in God.
  • Humans have the ability to exercise free will in a responsible, constructive and ethical manner with the assistance of religion.
  • Human nature in its present condition is neither inherently corrupt nor depraved (see original Sin), but capable of both good and evil, as God intended.
  • No religion can claim an absolute monopoly on the Holy Spirit or theological truth.
  • Though the authors of the Bible were inspired by God, they were humans and therefore subject to human error.
  • Traditional doctrines that (they believe) malign God's character or veil the true nature and mission of Jesus Christ, such as the doctrines of predestination, eternal damnation, and the vicarious sacrifice or satisfaction theory of the Atonement are rejected.

Unitarians have liberal views of God, Jesus, the world and purpose of life as revealed through reason, scholarship, science, philosophy, scripture and other prophets and religions. They believe that reason and belief are complementary and that religion and science can co-exist and guide them in their understanding of nature and God. They also do not enforce belief in creeds or dogmatic formulas. Although there is flexibility in the nuances of belief or basic truths for the individual Unitarian Christian, general principles of faith have been recognized as a way to bind the group in some commonality. Adherents generally accept religious pluralism and find value in all teachings, but remain committed to their core belief in Christ's teachings.[citation needed] Unitarians generally value a secular society in which government is kept separate from religious affairs. Most contemporary Unitarian Christians believe that one's personal moral convictions guide one's political activities, and that a secular society is the most viable, just and fair.[citation needed]

Unitarian Christians reject the doctrine of some Christian denominations that God chooses to redeem or save only those certain individuals that accept the creeds of, or affiliate with, a specific church or religion, from a common ruin or corruption of the mass of humanity. They believe that righteous acts are necessary for redemption in addition to faith.[citation needed]

In 1938, The Christian leader attributed "the religion of Jesus, not a religion about Jesus" to Unitarians,[45] though the phrase was first used by Congregationalist Rollin Lynde Hartt in 1924.[46]

Worship

Worship within the Unitarian tradition accommodates a wide range of understandings of God, while the focus of the service may be simply the celebration of life itself. Each Unitarian congregation is at liberty to devise its own form of worship, though commonly, Unitarian services lack liturgy and ritual, while containing readings from many sources, which may include sermons, prayers, hymns and songs.[47]

Modern Christian Unitarian organizations

Main article: History of Unitarianism
First Unitarian Meeting House in Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, designed by Unitarian Frank Lloyd Wright

This section relates to Unitarian churches and organizations today which are still specifically Christian within or outside Unitarian-Universalism, which embraces non-Christian religions.

Hungarian and Transylvanian Unitarian Churches

The largest Unitarian denomination worldwide today is also the oldest surviving Unitarian denomination (since 1565, first use of the term "Unitarian" 1600[48]); the Unitarian Church of Transylvania (in Romania, which is union with the Unitarian Church in Hungary). The church in Romania and Hungary still looks to the statement of faith, the Summa Universae Theologiae Christianae secundum Unitarios‎ (1787), though today assent to this is not required. The modern Unitarian Church in Hungary (25,000 members) and the Transylvanian Unitarian Church (75,000 members) are affiliated with the ICUU and claim continuity with the historical Unitarian Christian tradition established by Ferenc Dávid in 1565 in Transylvania under John II Sigismund Zápolya. The Unitarian churches in Hungary and Transylvania are structured and organized along a church hierarchy that includes the election by the synod of a national bishop who serves as superintendent of the Church. Many Hungarian Unitarians embrace the principles of rationalist Unitarianism.[49] Unitarian high schools exist only in Translyvania (Romania), including the John Sigismund Unitarian Academy in Cluj-Napoca, and the Berde Mózes Unitárius Gimnázium in Cristuru Secuiesc (Székelykeresztúr); both teach Rationalist Unitarianism.[citation needed]

UUCF (USA)

The Unitarian Universalist Christian Fellowship (UUCF, founded 1945) predates the consolidation of the American Unitarian Association (AUA) and Universalist Church of America (UCA) into the Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA) in 1961. UUCF continues as a subgroup of UUA serving the Christian members.

ICUU

Other Unitarian Christian groups are affiliated with the International Council of Unitarians and Universalists (ICUU), founded in 1995. The ICUU tends to contain a majority membership who express specifically Unitarian Christian beliefs, rather than the religious pluralism of the UUA, but nevertheless remain liberal, open-minded and inclusive communities.[50] The ICUU has "full member" groups in the United States, Australia & New Zealand, United Kingdom, Canada, Brazil, Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Indonesia, India, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, Romania, South Africa, Sri Lanka.

The ICUU includes small "Associate groups", including Congregazione Italiana Cristiano Unitariana, Turin (founded in 2004)[51] and the Bét Dávid Unitarian Association, Oslo (founded 2005).[52]

AUC (USA)

The American Unitarian Conference (AUC) was formed in 2000 and stands between UUA and ICUU in attachment to the Christian element of modern Unitarianism. The American Unitarian Conference is open to non-Christian Unitarians—being particularly popular with non-Christian theists and deists.[citation needed] The AUC has four congregations in the United States.

UCA (UK)

The Unitarian Christian Association (UCA, UK) was founded 1991 by Rev. Lancelot Garrard (1904–93)[53] and others to promote specifically Christian ideas within the General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches (GAUFCC). Just as the UUCF and ICUU maintain formal links with UUA in America, so the UCA does with the GAUFCC in the UK.

The majority of Unitarian Christian publications are sponsored by an organization and published specifically for their membership. They generally do not serve as a tool for missionary work or encouraging conversions.[citation needed]

Australia

The Sydney Unitarian Church, was founded 1850, under a Reverend Stanley and was a vigorous denomination during the 19th Century. The modern church has properties in Adelaide, Sydney and Melbourne, and smaller congregations elsewhere.[54]

Ecclesiology

When Unitarianism developed in the 17th century during the Protestant era of the evolution of Christianity, the strongholds in Transylvania, Poland, and eventually Britain and the northeastern parts of the United States were firmly in the congregational tradition. In the Hungarian-speaking territories it adopted a governance system that combined the Synodal and Episcopal models.[citation needed]

For those churches under the congregational model, each church governed itself independently of a hierarchical authority. These small congregations belonged, however, to more formal associations of churches. The American Unitarian Association, formed in 1825, was one of these. Later, in 1961, the American Unitarian Association and the Universalist Church of America merged to form the Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA), which is the largest organization of Unitarians in the US. The UUA is no longer an explicitly Christian organization and does not focus exclusively on the core teachings of Jesus Christ or Christianity.[citation needed]

Several Unitarian organizations still promote Christianity as their central theme. Among them, Unitarian Ministries International,[55] the Unitarian Universalist Christian Fellowship (UUCF, an affiliate of the UUA),[56] the General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches (GAUFCC) of the United Kingdom, and the Unitarian Christian Association (UCA, an affiliate of the GAUFCC).[57]

In the US, the newest organization promoting a return to the theistic roots of Unitarianism is the American Unitarian Conference (AUC), formed in 2000. The AUC's stated goal is to formulate and promote classical Unitarian-based, unifying religious convictions, which balance the needs of members with a practical approach to inclusion and progressive free thought.[citation needed]

Interfaith dialogue and relations

Unitarian belief usually involves severance of identification with "Christianity" as formulated in the creeds of the Nicene and pre-Chalcedonian churches (Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and most Protestants). Unitarianism is therefore outside of the fellowship of these traditions. Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant creeds generally insist on Trinitarian belief as an essential aspect of Christianity and basic to a group's continuity of identity with the historical Christian faith.[citation needed]

However, occasionally, especially in Protestant history, traditionally Trinitarian groups seek to incorporate unitarianism. Friendliness toward unitarianism has sometimes gone hand-in-hand with anti-Catholicism. In some cases non-Trinitarian or unitarian belief has been adopted by some, and tolerated in Christian churches as a "non-essential". This was the case in the English Presbyterian Church, and in the Congregational Church in New England late in the 18th century. The Restoration Movement also attempted to forge a compatible relation between Trinitarians and unitarians, as did the Seventh Day Baptists and various Adventists. The Seventh Day Baptists hold unitarian doctrines in their International Conference but became Trinitarians in the US. The unitarian tendency in these latter groups emerged from their original theology and their rejection of Catholic traditions regarding the Trinity.[citation needed]

In some cases, this openness to Unitarianism within traditionally Trinitarian churches has been inspired by a very broad ecumenical motive. Modern liberal Protestant denominations are often accused by Trinitarians within their ranks, and critics outside, of being indifferent to the doctrine, and therefore self-isolated from their respective Trinitarian pasts and heritage. In some cases, it is charged that these Trinitarian denominations are no longer Christian, because of their toleration of unitarian belief among their teachers, and in their seminaries.[citation needed]

At a local level, many unitarian Christian groups (or members) have links with congregations affiliated with the United Church of Christ, Disciples of Christ, and Unity Church; some argue they feel more at home within these denominations than Unitarian Universalism. A small proportion of unitarian Christians also have links with Progressive Christianity.[citation needed]

Despite the close friendship and shared heritage that exists between adherents to Unitarian Universalism and unitarian Christianity, there is an element within Unitarian Universalism that opposes specifically unitarian Christian groups, believing them to be exclusive and intolerant of non-Christian thought. Likewise, some unitarian Christians also believe that Unitarian Universalists are intolerant of Christian thought and tend to marginalize Christians.[citation needed]

Notable unitarians

Main article: List of Unitarians, Universalists, and Unitarian Universalists

Notable unitarians include Béla Bartók the 20th century composer, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Theodore Parker in theology and ministry, Joseph Priestley and Linus Pauling in science, George Boole in mathematics, Susan B. Anthony, John Locke in civil government, and Florence Nightingale in humanitarianism and social justice, Charles Dickens and Samuel Taylor Coleridge in literature, Frank Lloyd Wright in arts, Josiah Wedgwood in industry and Charles William Eliot in education.

Eleven Nobel prizes have been awarded to Unitarians: Robert Millikan and John Bardeen (twice) in Physics; Emily Green Balch, Albert Schweitzer, Linus Pauling, and Geoff Levermore for Peace; George Wald and David H. Hubel in Medicine; Linus Pauling in Chemistry, and Herbert Simon in Economics.

Five presidents of the United States were unitarians: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, John Quincy Adams, Millard Fillmore, and William Howard Taft. Other unitarians include Sir Tim Berners-Lee,[58] Lancelot Ware, founder of Mensa, Sir Adrian Boult, the conductor, and C. Killick Millard, founder of the Euthanasia Society.

See also

References

  1. ^ Knight, Kevin (ed.), "The dogma of the Trinity", Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent
  2. ^ Joseph Priestley, one of the founders of the Unitarian movement, defined Unitarianism as the belief of primitive Christianity before later corruptions set in. Among these corruptions, he included not only the doctrine of the Trinity, but also various other orthodox doctrines and usages (Earl Morse Wilbur, A History of Unitarianism, Harvard University Press 1952, pp. 302-303).
  3. ^ From The Catechism of the Hungarian Unitarian Church in Transylvanian Romania: "Unitarians do not teach original sin. We do not believe that through the sin of the first human couple we all became corrupted. It would contradict the love and justice of God to attribute to us the sin of others, because sin is one's own personal action" (Ferencz Jozsef, 20th ed., 1991. Translated from Hungarian by Gyorgy Andrasi, published in The Unitarian Universalist Christian, FALL/WINTER, 1994, Volume 49, Nos.3-4; VII:107).
  4. ^ In his history of the Unitarians, David Robinson writes: "At their inception, both Unitarians and Universalists shared a common theological enemy: Calvinism." He explains that they "consistently attacked Calvinism on the related issues of original sin and election to salvation, doctrines that in their view undermined human moral exertion." (D. Robinson, The Unitarians and the Universalists, Greenwood Press, 1985, pp. 3, 17).
  5. ^ "Although considering it, on the whole, an inspired book, Unitarians also regard the Bible as coming not only from God, but also from humans.... Unitarians therefore do not believe in the infallibility of the Bible, as some other Christians do." (D. Miano, An Explanation of Unitarian Christianity, AUC, 2003, 2007)
  6. ^ a b Dunn, James D. G. Christology in the Making 2nd edition, 1989 --- page?
  7. ^ Melton's Encyclopedia of American Religions (8th ed.) places Unitarianism in its "Liberal Family" category: "Brought together in this chapter as the 'liberal' family of churches and 'religious' organizations are those groups that have challenged the orthodox Christian dominance of Western religious life: Unitarianism, universalism, and infidelism" (p. 611).
  8. ^ L. Sue Baugh Essentials of English Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of English (9780844258218) Second Edition 1994 p59 "Religious Names and Terms: The names of all religions, denominations, and local groups are capitalized."
  9. ^ J. Gordon Melton Encyclopedia of Protestantism 2005 p543 "Unitarianism - The word unitarian [italics] means one who believes in the oneness of God; historically it refers to those in the Christian community who rejected the doctrine of the Trinity (one God expressed in three persons). Non-Trinitarian Protestant churches emerged in the 16th century in ITALY, POLAND, and TRANSYLVANIA." (see further capitalisation in this entry)
  10. ^ Letter from Matthew F. Smith to Editor World faiths Encounter 7-12 World Congress of Faiths - 1994 - "In an otherwise excellent article by Jasbir Singh Ahluwalia, 'Sikh Spirit in an Age of Plurality' (No. 6, Nov. 1993), the writer makes a number of pejorative remarks about 'unitarianism', associating the term with a striving for a monolithic polity and reductionism to a common denominator. This is a very unfortunate misuse of the word. A correct definition of 'unitarianism' (small 'u') is the monotheistic belief system of someone not directly associated with the Unitarian movement, almost always applied to a person from the Christian tradition, as the word was coined in distinction to the orthodox 'Trinitarian' doctrine of Christianity. 'Unitarians' (capital 'U') are, of course, those who follow the Unitarian approach to religion and are formally associated with the movement. In neither case can it be claimed that there is an underlying agenda towards reductionism and uniformity. Quite the reverse, in fact. Modern Unitarianism is remarkable among religions in not only welcoming the variety of faiths that there are to be found but also, as a creedless church, welcoming and encouraging acceptance of the same. We readily accept that not all our members are 'realist' theists, for example. Our long-standing commitment to interfaith understanding, evident in our practical support of the International Association for Religious Freedom, the World Congress of Faiths and the newly-established International Interfaith centre in Oxford cannot be taken to mean that Unitarians are seeking the creation of a single world religion out of the old. I do not know a single Unitarian who believes or seeks that. On the contrary, we reject uniformity and cherish instead the highest degree of spiritual integrity, both of the existing religious traditions of the world and of religious persons as unique, thinking individuals. Matthew F Smith, Information Officer" (Essex Street Chapel, Unitarian Church headquarters, UK)
  11. ^ Tuggy, Dale, (2009). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  12. ^ Robinson, The Unitarians and the Universalists, p. 159-184.
  13. ^ AW Gomes, EC Beisner, and RM Bowman, Unitarian Universalism (Zondervan, 1998), pp. 30–79.
  14. ^ George Willis Cooke, Unitarianism in America (AUA, 1902), pp. 224–30.
  15. ^ Engaging Our Theological Diversity (PDF), UUA, pp. 70–2.
  16. ^ Miano, David (2003), An Explanation of Unitarian Christianity, AUC, p. 15.
  17. ^ Hastings, James, Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. 2, p. 785, Unitarianism started, on the other hand, with the denial of the pre-existence… These opinions, however, must be considered apart from Arianism proper.
  18. ^ Odhner, CT (2009), Michael Servetus, His Life and Teachings, p. 77, It will be seen from these extracts how completely without foundation is the assertion that Servetus denied the eternal pre-existence of Christ.
  19. ^ Pfizenmaier, Thomas C (1997), "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?", Journal of the History of Ideas, pp. 57–80, Among contemporary scholars, the consensus is that Newton was an Arian.
  20. ^ Wiles, Maurice F (1996), Archetypal Heresy: Arianism Through the Centuries, p. 133, modern Unitarianism emerged after Newton's death.
  21. ^ Nicholls, David (1995), God and Government in an 'age of Reason', p. 44, Unitarianism ideas emerged after Newton's death.
  22. ^ A Statement of Reasons for Not Believing the Doctrines of Trinitarians, 1859.
  23. ^ "Unitarian Christianity", The Works of WE Channing, DD, 1841.
  24. ^ Hoben, Allan (1903), The virgin birth, Of the above-stated beliefs that of Theodotus of Byzantium is perhaps the most striking, in that, while it admits the virgin birth, it denies the deductions commonly made therefrom, attributing to Christ only pre-eminent righteousness.
  25. ^ Bright, William, Some Aspects of Primitive Church Life, p. 127, His original view was put into more definite form by Artemon, who regarded Jesus Christ as distinguished from prophets by (1) virgin-birth, (a) superior virtue.
  26. ^ Charles, Tutorial prayer book, p. 599 {{citation}}: Missing or empty |title= (help).
  27. ^ Stead, Christopher (1996-01-27), Philosophy in Christian Antiquity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521469555 189 pp.
  28. ^ Houdt, Toon, Self-presentation and social identification, p. 238, Christian apologists traced the origin of Socinianism to the doctrine of Photinus (4th century), who according to St. Augustine denied the pre-existence of Christ.
  29. ^ Watson, R, A Biblical and theological dictionary, p. 999.
  30. ^ Webb, RK (2007), "Miracles in English Unitarian Thought", in Micale, Mark S; Dietle, Robert L; Gay, Peter (eds.), Enlightenment, passion, modernity: historical essays in European Thought and Culture, p. 120.
  31. ^ Belsham (1806), "Remarks on Mr. Proud's Pamphlet", Monthly Repository, p. 423.
  32. ^ Wright, Richard (1808), An Essay on the Miraculous Conception of Jesus Christ, London.
  33. ^ Wright, R, A review of the missionary life and labors of Richard Wright, p. 68, After they were excited to think freely, some gave up the doctrine of the miraculous conception, from reading the scriptures only, and observing certain things there with which it could not be reconciled.
  34. ^ Gura, Philip F. American Transcendentalism: A History. New York: Hill and Wang, 2007: 7–8. ISBN 0-8090-3477-8
  35. ^ Placher, William Carl (1983), A history of Christian theology: an introduction, p. 265, Rationalist Unitarians like William Ellery Channing had argued from the Bible and the evidence of its miracles.
  36. ^ Chadwick, John White, William Ellery Channing: Minister of Religion, p. 440.
  37. ^ Mendelsohn, Jack (1971), Channing, the reluctant radical: a biography, A Suffolk County grand jury indicted him on three charges of blasphemy and obscenity: (1) he had quoted a scurrilous passage by Voltaire disparaging the virgin birth of Jesus.
  38. ^ Bromiley, Geoffrey W (1982), International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, vol. E–J, p. 9, Origen was the first to distinguish between two types of Ebionites theologically: those who believed in the Virgin Birth and those who rejected it.
  39. ^ May, Samuel Joseph (1867) [1860], What Do Unitarians Believe?, Albany: Weed, Parsons, and Co.
  40. ^ Henderson, AC (1886), What Do Unitarians Believe?
  41. ^ Dewey, Orville (1873), The Unitarian Belief, Boston{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link).
  42. ^ Clarke, James Freeman (1924) [1885], Manual of Unitarian Belief (20th ed.).
  43. ^ Ellis, George H (1890), What Do Unitarians Believe About Jesus Christ?, Boston{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link).
  44. ^ Sunderland, Jabez T (1891), What Do Unitarians Believe?, New York: AUA.
  45. ^ An esteemed Unitarian minister (1938), "2", The Christian leader, vol. 120, p. 1034, This view finds pat expression in the dictum that Christianity is the religion of Jesus, not a religion about Jesus.
  46. ^ Hartt, Rollin Lynde (1924), The Man Himself.
  47. ^ Unitarian worship (BBC - Religions)
  48. ^ a the Diet of Lécfalva 1600, in Gordon A. Heads of Unitarian History
  49. ^ Keyes, David (1999), Most Like An Arch, p. 106, And for those [UUs] who take the time to understand Transylvanian Unitarian beliefs, there may be some surprising discoveries to be made. They are humanists! Their Unitarian Christianity is steeped in rationalism, is heavily influenced by judaism.
  50. ^ ICUU webpage with world map
  51. ^ Rosso, Rev. Roberto, Protestanti radicale (in Italian), Cesnur.
  52. ^ Unitarforbundet Bét Dávid (Den norske unitarkirke) (in Norwegian).
  53. ^ "The Rev. Lancelot Garrard", Obituary, The Independent, 1993.
  54. ^ Stephen Crittenden: The President of the Unitarian church in Sydney, Peter Crawford, speaking to John Russell.
  55. ^ Unitarian Ministries International.
  56. ^ Unitarian Universalist Christian Fellowship.
  57. ^ Christian, UK Unitarians.
  58. ^ Tim Berners-Lee, The World Wide Web and the "Web of Life"

Sources

  • Tuggy, Dale, "Supplement to 'Trinity'", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy {{citation}}: More than one of |contribution= and |chapter= specified (help).
  • Wilbur, Earl Morse (1925), Our Unitarian Heritage (PDF), Berkeley, CA: Starr King School for the Ministry {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |DUPLICATE DATA: title= ignored (help).
  • Joseph Henry Allen, Our Liberal Movement in Theology (Boston, 1882)
  • Joseph Henry Allen, Sequel to our Liberal Movement (Boston, 1897)
  • Anthony F. Buzzard and Charles F. Hunting, The Doctrine of the Trinity: Christianity's Self-Inflicted Wound (Lanham, Maryland, 1998) ISBN 1-57309-309-2.
  • John White Chadwick, Old and New Unitarian Belief (Boston, 1894).
  • George Willis Cooke, Unitarianism in America: a History of its Origin and Development (Boston, 1902).
  • Patrick Navas, Divine Truth or Human Tradition: A Reconsideration of the Roman Catholic-Protestant Doctrine of the Trinity in Light of the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures (Bloomington, Indiana 2007). ISBN 1-4259-4832-4.
  • Earl Morse Wilbur, A History of Unitarianism: Socinianism and Its Antecedents, Harvard University Press, 1945.
  • Andrew M. Hill, 'The Unitarian Path', Lindsey Press (London 1994) ISBN 0-85319-046-1
  • Charles A. Howe, 'For Faith and Freedom: A Short History of Unitarianism in Europe', Skinner House Books (Boston, 1997) ISBN 1-55896-359-6
  • Smith, Matthew F (2005), "Unitarians", Christianity: The Complete Guide, London: Continuum, ISBN 0-8264-5937-4.
  • Public Domain This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

Bibliography

  • Buzzard, A. and Hunting, C. (1998). The Doctrine of the Trinity: Christianity's Self-Inflicted Wound. International Scholars Publications. ISBN 1573093092
  • Rowe, Mortimer, B.A., D.D. The History of Essex Hall. London:Lindsey Press, 1959. Full text reproduced here.

Further reading

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