Pre-Islamic Arab trade
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Pre-Islamic Arab trade refers to the land- and sea-trade networks used by pre-Islamic Arab nations and traders. Some regions are also known as the incense trade route. Trade has been documented as early as the beginning of the second millennium BCE.
Antiquity
[edit]A text from the era of Sargon of Akkad (r. c. 2334-2284 BCE) mentions a shipping industry in Magan, in present-day Oman.[1] Excavations in the cities of Ur and Kish and in Bahrain and other locations along the east coast of the Arabian Peninsula have unearthed goods of Indian origin (including seals). Both indicate that the network of maritime trade was regular, bustling, and well-known as early as 3000 BC. They suggest that Bahrain and other sites along the Persian Gulf were popular docks which would welcome ships arriving from Iraq on their way to and from India.[2][full citation needed]
According to the 2nd-century BCE Greek historian Agatharchides, "It does not appear that there exists a people richer than the Sabaeans and the people of Gerrha who were agents of everything which fell under the name of shipping between Asia and Europe. They made Ptolemaic Syria rich and made Phoenician trade profitable in addition to hundreds of other things."[3] He described them as fierce warriors and skilled seafarers, who sailed large ships to supply their colonies.[4] The Palmyrene Empire built a shipyard in Characene, which facilitated the transport of goods through the Euphrates ports of Dura-Europos and Sura (the present-day village of Al-Hamam, east of the al-Thawra Dam in Syria). Some of the Palmyrenes who owned and sailed ships on the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean were attested by Chinese sailors who visited the region in 97 CE and mentioned the Characene port of Charax Spasinu.[5] Characene surpassed Gerrha in the perfume trade.[6] Despite the lack of direct control by the Nabataean Kingdom in the Persian Gulf, it was reachable by land (where goods would be loaded onto ships). Nabataean writings and manufactured goods (including typical Nabataean white dyes) have been discovered in the village of Thaj near the Persian Gulf, along the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula near Bahrain and as far as the ports of Yemen and Oman. They have also been found in archeological sites along the Incense Route, such as Qaryat al-Faw. Nabataean pottery has been uncovered in India; Nabataean inscriptions are scattered throughout the Mediterranean region, from Tunisia to Rhodes, Kos, Delos, Miletus in the Aegean Sea and in Pozzuoli and Rome.[7] Late Antique to medieval trade amphorae contained different food stuffs including wine and olive oil, perhaps the best known are so-called Aqaba/Ayla vessels from the Red Sea to South Asia. [8]
The Sabaeans had a long history of seafaring and commerce. A Sabaean presence in Africa was noted in antiquity with the founding of the kingdom of Dʿmt in Ethiopia in the 8th century BCE. The 1st-century CE historian Periplus of the Erythraean Sea described how the Arabs controlled the coast of "Ezana" (the East African coast north of Somalia). The Quran mentions trade with Sheba: "And We placed between them and the cities which We had blessed [many] visible cities. And We determined between them the [distances of] journey, [saying], "Travel between them by night or day in safety."[9] The Old Testament Book of Ezekiel reads, "Dedan traded in saddle blankets with you. Arabia and all the princes of Kedar were your customers; they did business with you in lambs, rams and goats. ‘The merchants of Sheba and Raamah traded with you; for your merchandise they exchanged the finest of all kinds of spices and precious stones, and gold."[10] The Chinese explorer Faxian, who passed through Sri Lanka in 414 CE, reported that Saebaean merchants and Arabs from Oman and Hadhramaut lived in ornate homes in settlements on the island[clarification needed] and traded in timber.[11] The Lakhmids also traded with Chinese ships which sailed along the Euphrates past the village of al-Hirah.[12] In the northern Lakhmid kingdom (present-day Al Anbar Governorate flows the 'Isā River, which connects the Tigris and the Euphrates.[13] To reach the Persian Gulf from al-Hirah, the Lakhmids traveled in smaller boats to the port in al-Ubulla (where there were sea ships bound for India and China). They would then depart for China via Bahrain and Aden.[14]
The Age of Jahiliyyah
[edit]| Name | Location | Operation | Description | Clientele |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dumat al-Jandal | Near al-Jawf (northern Arabian Peninsula) | 1-15 Rabi' al-awwal | Commercial and amenity market, with trade by tossing stones | Iraq, Syria and the Arabian Peninsula |
| Hajar | Bahrain | Rabi' al-Thani | Dates, dry goods, ambergris, musk | Traders from neighboring provinces |
| Al-Mushaqqar | Bahrain | Jumada al-awwal | General market in which sales were made with gestures and nonverbal utterances, the roads to which were not safe | Arabs and foreigners, particularly Persians |
| Oman | Yemeni seacoast | Jumada al-Thani (and from the 15th to the end of Ramadan) | Ambergris, metals, fruits | Varied, including Arabs from the tribe of Azd |
| Hubasha | Bareq, Tihamah | Early Rajab | Secondary market shared by Yemen, Tihamah and the Hejaz, which operated until 812 CE | Varied |
| Sohar | Oman coast | Rajab | Commercial market, protected during the holy month[clarification needed] | Varied |
| Dibba | Arabian Gulf | End of Rajab to the 10th of Sha'ban | Mixed market, in which Arab products were sold by bargaining | India, Sindh, China, Arabs |
| Al-Shahrah or Shahar Mahrah | Southern coast, between Aden and Oman | 15th of Sha'ban | Camels, ambergris, dairy products, cloth, rope and hides. Goods sold with stone-balanced scales. | Merchants |
| Aden | South of the Bab-el-Mandeb | From 1–10 Ramadan | Perfume, collyrium, pearls; safe access | Arabs, Persians and Romans |
| San'a | Yemeni capital | 15–30 Ramadan | Cotton, saffron, dyes, Galia Moschata[clarification needed] and collyrium, sold by touching hands | Arab, Ethiopian and Persian merchants |
| Hadhramaut | Between Oman and Yemen | 15–30 Dhu al-Qidah | Limited size | Varied |
| Okaz | The lands of the tribe of Hawazin, in the Hejaz near Ta'if | 1–20 Dhu al-Qidah | The best-known Arab market, which contributed to the standardisation of Arabic dialects | Varied throughout the Arabian Peninsula |
| Majannah | The lands of the tribe of Banu Kinanah in Tihamah, near Mecca | 20–30 Dhu al-Qidah | Smaller than Okaz, protected by its position and during the holy months[clarification needed] | Similar to Okaz, plus Arabs and pilgrims on Hajj and Umrah |
| Dhu Majaz | Near Mount Arafat | 1–8 Dhu al-Hijjah | General market, inhabited until Youm al-Tarwiyah[clarification needed] | Arab merchants and pilgrims |
| Natat Khaybar | North of Medina | After the pilgrimage season | Commercial market | Jewish clientele |
| Hajr al-Yamama | current Riyadh Saudi arabia | 10–30 Muharram | General market protected during the holy months | Arabs |
| Dayr Ayyub | North of Bosra (he Levant) | After the pilgrimage season | Roman-controlled commercial market | Meeting place for Arab and Roman merchants |
| Bosra market | Southern Levant (Hauran) | After the pilgrimage season, 30-40 nights usually between Muharram and Rabi' al-Awwal | Commercial market including Indian and Ethiopian products, noted for swords and wines | Arab merchants |
| Adhra'at (Daraa) | Hauran | After the pilgrimage season and the Bosra market | Noted for wine | Arab merchants |
| Al-Hirah Market | North of Kufa | Unknown | Noted for hides, perfume, collyrium, jewelry, horses and goods from other Arab markets and those of neighboring countries. Safety provided by the Lakhmid kings. | Arabs and Persians |
| Al-Mirbad | Outskirts of Basra | Perennial | Similar to Okaz: a general, commercial, residential and literary centre until the Abbasid era | Arab traders, poets and intellectuals |
The Qur'an mentions the winter and summer journeys which the tribe of Quraysh would make, since Mecca was on the Incense Road. Hashim ibn Abd Manaf, the great-grandfather of Muhammad, was a distinguished merchant whose trading post was in Gaza (where he died and was buried). He founded the "'īlāf," (solidarity), a series of commercial agreements between him, the tribe of Quraysh and the other factions with whom they traded. His tomb is in the Sayed al-Hashim Mosque.
Islamic sources also mention Muhammad's mercantile career in the Levant, beginning with a trip to the region with his uncle Abu Talib. In Bosra, the Nestorian priest Bahira foretold Muhammad's life. He later employed Khadija bint Khuwaylid, the woman who became his wife. According to Christian sources from 660 and 692 CE,[15] "Mohammad would go to [the] lands of Palestine, Arabia, Syria, and Phoenicia to trade."[16] Bosra has the Mosque of the Blessing of the Camel (which was blessed by Muhammad's camel in the caravan of his uncle, Abu Talib) and the Monastery of Bahira. Bosra is a Nabatean city, which became the capital after Petra. After the fall of the Nabatean Kingdom, the Romans made Bosra the capital of the Province of Arabia. A fourth-century Byzantine source notes the concentration of Arab commerce in Bosra.[17]
Maritime trade
[edit]The south Arabian navigation history were suggested by Gus van Beek that they are developed through their constant contacts with advanced maritime civilization.[18] According to biblical historiographical research by Charles Henry Stanley Davis, a semitic maritime civilization named Phoenicia which dated from 1100 and 200 BC has long time planted colonies of merchants in Yemen.[19] The prosperity of Gerrhan caused the Yemen and the Phoenician in the opening of Indian route commerce.[20] The Phoenician colonies in Yemen has shipped merchant vessels came from India unloaded their cargoes in Yemen coasts and carried them across the Arabian desert to their hometown in Levant.[19] The Phoenician merchants also settled in Persian gulf in their effort of transporting commodities from India to their hometown.[21] Thus the trade activities between the local Yemenites and the Phoenician has formed a prosper ancient Arab kingdom, Gerrha.[20] The commodities which brought by the Phoenician from Yemen and Persian gulf were transported with Arabian caravan crossing the desert towards Levant.[21]
Arab naval trade was contested by the Greeks, who tried to challenge Arab control of maritime trade between India and Egypt during the early Middle Ages. Arab trade persisted during the period, and Greek naval trade dwindled.[22] There were a number of harbors on the Arabian Peninsula, some of which remain in operation. The most important harbors in the eastern Arabian Peninsula were Al-Ubulla, Gerrha and Sohar (Oman). The most important southern harbors were Mocha, Qanī (now Bi'r `Ali, Yemen), Aden, and Muska (Samharam).[23] The most important western ports included al-Sha'ibah, Aylah (Aqaba) and Luwikat Kuma (al-Hawra'). A sea route used by Arabs to reach the Indian subcontinent ran from "The Euphrates of Maysan" to Debal on the Indus River.[24] They would also sail from al-Ubulla, passing Oman and on to India.[25] Those who traveled from the harbors of Yemen, such as the Qanī and "Muza" of Gerrha, would sail directly to India without needing to stop and resupply.[26]
Land trade
[edit]The Arabs land trade, which spanned from their hometown in south of Yemen has touched the trades in Silk Road and Indian Ocean trade particularly in which the modern historians coined in "Frankincense and myrrh" theory, which spread by them through camel caravans.[27][28] This south Arabian peoples trade activities has existed from the era of Queen of Sheba according to biblical historiography.[29][30]
Land trade extended as far as the Caucasus Mountains.[citation needed] The road began in the city of Qanī in Hadhramaut, and branched into two paths 160 miles (260 km) apart.[citation needed] The first path led east, along Wadī Mayfa'a to Shabwa; the second led from Qanī to Wadī Hajar and passed through Wadī Armah, the water source for Shabwa. From Shabwa, the road turned towards Aden and led to Najran.[31] The road continued northeast from Najdan to Wadī Al-Dawasir, passing the villages of al-Faw and al-Aflaj (where it branched in two directions). The first led east to the Persian Gulf, and the other led north to the Levant.[32]
References
[edit]- ^ S. H. Langon, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. I, p. 415. F. Thureau-Dangin, Die sumerischen und akkadischen koenigsinschriftten, bd. I, s. 66, 72, 76, 78, 104, 106, 134, 164, 166. H. R. Hall, The Ancient History of the Near East (London, 1947), p. 190. "Ancient Iraq", p. 142.
- ^ C. J. Gadd, "Seals of Ancient Indian Style Found at Ur", pba, xviii, pp. 191-210. M. Wheeler.
- ^ George Fadlo Hourani and John Carswell, Arab seafaring in the Indian Ocean in ancient and early medieval times.
- ^ علي محمد فهمي، ص362
- ^ Hill (2009), pp. 5, 23, 240-242.
- ^ Nicola Bonacasa, "Alessandria e il mondo ellenistico-romano". Atti del 2° Congressom, p.28.
- ^ Suzanne Richard, Near Eastern Archaeology: a Reader, p.437.
- ^ Paul A. Yule, An ʿAqaba/Ayla-type amphora in the Sultanate of Oman, Arabian archaeology and epigraphy, 2022, pp. 1‒9, https://doi.org/10.1111/aae.12222 .
- ^ Saba (surah):18.
- ^ Ezekiel 27:20-22.
- ^ Aramco World, volume 51, number 6, November/December 2000.
- ^ "At this time (early fifth century) the Euphrates was navigable as high as Hira, a city lying southwest of ancient Babylon ... and the ships of India and China were constantly to be seen moored before the houses of the town." Henry Yule, Cathy and Way Thither. London: John Murray (1926) rev. ed., Vol. I, LXXVI I.
- ^ "نهر صرصر". Paulys-Wissoma, 64 Halbband, 1950, 1725.
- ^ البكري, معجم ما استعجم, ج2, ص478
- ^ R. W. Thomson (with contributions from J. Howard-Johnson and T. Greenwood), The Armenian History Attributed To Sebeos Part - I: Translation and Notes, 1999, Translated Texts For Historians - Volume 31, Liverpool University Press, pp. 95-96. Other translations are also in P. Crone and M. Cook, Hagarism: The Making Of The Islamic World (1977). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 6-7; R. G. Hoyland, Seeing Islam As Others Saw It: A Survey And Evaluation Of Christian, Jewish And Zoroastrian Writings On Early Islam (1997), op. cit., p. 129; idem., "Sebeos, The Jews And The Rise Of Islam" in R. L. Nettler (ed.), Medieval And Modern Perspectives On Muslim-Jewish Relations (1995), Harwood Academic Publishers in cooperation with the Oxford Centre for Hebrew and Jewish Studies, p. 89.
- ^ A. Palmer (with contributions from S. P. Brock and R. G. Hoyland), The Seventh Century In The West-Syrian Chronicles Including Two Seventh-Century Syriac Apocalyptic Texts (1993), p. 39, pp. 37-40.
- ^ Byzantine trade, 4th-12th centuries, p. 248; Expositio, 38: Delude iam de dextris iterum Syriae supra inuenies Arabiam.
- ^ Gus W. Van Beek (1960). "Pre-Islamic South Arabian Shipping in the Indian Ocean-A Surrejoinder". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 80 (2): 136–139. doi:10.2307/595591. JSTOR 595591. Archived from the original on 26 February 2022. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
- ^ a b Charles Henry Stanley Davis (1893). Henry Stanley Davis, Charles (ed.). Biblia Devoted to Biblical Archaeology and Oriental Research · Volume 8 (Archaeology -- Periodicals, Bible -- Abridgments -- Antiquities, Bible -- Antiquities, Bible -- Periodicals -- Antiquities, Excavations (Archaeology) -- Periodicals, Excavations (Archaeology)., Oriental philology -- Periodicals). Biblia Publishing Company; Harvard University. p. 43. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
- ^ a b François Lenormant; Elisabeth Chevallier (1871). Medes and Persians, Phoenicians, and Arabians (History, Ancient). J.B. Lippincott. p. 314. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
- ^ a b Gustav Salomon Oppert (1879). On the Ancient Commerce of India (India -- Commerce, India -- Commerce -- History). Higginbotham & Company; University of Wisconsins. p. 23. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
- ^ The Cambridge History of Africa (1975); Fage 1975: 164
- ^ E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, vol. 9: T. W. Arnold. p. 1188.
- ^ Manichaeism, Michel Tardieu, Malcolm DeBevoise, p. 21.
- ^ The Indian historical review, Vol. 32, Indian Council of Historical Research.
- ^ Boats of the World: From the Stone Age to Medieval Times, Seán McGrail, p. 80.
- ^ Bruno Overlaet (2005). "St John Simpson (ed.), Queen of Sheba". Ancient West & East Volume 4, No. 1 (Ancient Near East and Egypt Archaeology, Art & Architecture Classical Studies Archaeology, Art & Architecture). Brill. p. 217. doi:10.1163/9789047416692_037. ISBN 9789047416692. S2CID 245785313. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
- ^ Barry Cunliffe (2017). By Steppe, Desert, and Ocean The Birth of Eurasia (Paperback) (Eurasia -- Civilization -- History, Human beings -- Migrations -- Eurasia, Eurasia -- History -- Antiquities -- Civilization, Human ecology -- Eurasia, International relations -- History). Oxford University Press. pp. 169–170. ISBN 9780199689187. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
- ^ Bernard Leeman (2015). The Queen of Sheba & Biblical Scholarship (paperback). CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 9781515169611. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
- ^ John H. Walton; Victor H. Matthews; Mark W. Chavalas (2012). The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament (ebook) (Religion / Biblical Commentary / Old Testament / General, Bible -- Commentaries). InterVarsity Press. pp. 647, 723. ISBN 9780830866083. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
- ^ Nigel St. J. Groom (1981). Frankincense and Myrrh A Study of the Arabian Incense Trade (hardcover) (Arabian Peninsula -- Commerce -- History, Business & Economics / General, Incense industry -- History -- Arabian Peninsula, Incense -- History). Longman. p. 267. ISBN 9780582764767. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
Bowen 1958: 35-42; Groom 1981: 165-188.
- ^ الأنصاري1975:76 Brice 1984: 178.