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This article is about the political philosophy that reinterprets communism. For the study of formerly socialist states, see postsocialism. For the economic and political transformations that occurred in certain countries as a result of the fall of their socialist governments, see post-communism.
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Post-Marxism is a political philosophy, critical social theory and Marxist school of thought which radically reinterprets Marxism, countering classical Marxist economism, historical determinism, anti-humanism, and class reductionism,[1] whilst remaining committed to the construction of socialism.[2][3] Post-Marxism can be considered a synthesis of post-structuralist[4][5][6] frameworks and neo-Marxist,[7] analysis,[8] in response to the decline of the Left post-protests of 1968.[9] Most notably, post-Marxists are anti-essentialist, rejecting the primacy of class struggle, and instead focus on building radical democracy.[10][11][12]

The term "post-Marxism" first appeared in Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe's theoretical work Hegemony and Socialist Strategy.[13][14] Post-Marxism is a wide category not well-defined, containing the work of Laclau and Mouffe[15][16] on the one hand, and some strands of autonomism,[17] post-structuralism,[18][19] cultural studies,[20] ex-Marxists[21] and Deleuzian-inspired[22] 'politics of difference'[23][24] on the other.[25] Recent overviews of post-Marxism are provided by Ernesto Screpanti,[26] Göran Therborn,[27] and Gregory Meyerson.[28] Prominent post-Marxist journals include New Formations,[29] Constellations,[30] Endnotes,[31] Crisis and Critique[32] and Arena.[33]

History

Post-Marxism first originated in the late 1970s, and several trends and events of that period influenced its development.[34] The weakness of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc paradigm became evident after the so called "Secret speech" and the following invasion of Hungary, which split the radical left irreparably.[35] Marxism from then on faced a crisis of credibility, resulting in various developments in Marxist theory, particularly neo-Marxism, which theorised against much of the Eastern Bloc.[36] This happened concurrently with the occurrence internationally of the strikes and occupations of 1968, the rise of Maoist theory, and the proliferation of commercial television and later information technologies which covered in its broadcasts the Vietnam War.

Post-Marxism, although with its roots in this New Left and the consequent post-structural moment in France,[37] has its real genesis in reaction to the hegemony of neoliberalism, and defeat of the Left in such events as the UK miners' strike, which was seen as a failure of both the New Left and the Old. Ernesto Laclau argued that a Marxism for the neoliberal conjuncture required a fundamental reworking, to address the failures of both.[38]

Subsequently, Laclau and Mouffe address the proliferation of "new subject positions" by locating their analysis on a non-essentialist framework.

Simultaneously, revolutionaries in Italy, known as the Workerists and later autonomists,[39] began to theorise against the conservative Italian Communist Party,[40] focusing much more on labour, gender and the later works of Marx. In France, radicals such as Félix Guattari redefined old Lacanian models of desire and subjectivity, which had often been tied to the communist project, bringing Nietzsche into conversation with Marx.[41][42] In the Eastern Bloc, the Budapest School[43] began reinterpreting Marx, building on the work of the Praxis school before them.[44]

Turning to the Atlantic, in the UK, Stuart Hall[45] began to experiment with increasingly aggressive post-structuralist theorists in the build up to New Labour whilst working for Marxism Today, especially in relation to race and identity.[46] In the US, Michael Hardt collaborated with Negri to produce Empire at the turn of the century, widely recognised as a consolidation and re-affirmation of post-Marxism.[47]

Currently, figures in the US, UK, and Europe continue to produce work in the post-Marxist tradition, particularly Nancy Fraser, Alain Badiou, Jeremy Gilbert and Étienne Balibar. This theory is often very different from that produced by Laclau and Mouffe.[48][49]

Despite being born in Latin America and the Eastern Bloc, post-Marxism is largely produced by theorists of the Global North, as the following criticisms reveal. Aside from perhaps Spivak, there are no notable theorists of the Global South[50] who are within the post-Marxist tradition,[51] and the radical movements of the Global South largely remain within the Leninist tradition.[52] Several reasons relating to political geography and level of academisation are given as explanations. There is some debate however as to whether Cedric Robinson was a post-Marxist.[53]

Despite this, the Zapatistas have been a large source of inspiration for many post-Marxists.[54]

Criticism

Post-Marxism has been criticised from both the left and the right.[55] Nick Thoburn has criticised Laclau's post-Marxism (and its relationship to Eurocommunism) as essentially a rightward shift to social democracy.[56] Ernest Mandel[57] and Sivanandan[58][59] also make this same point. Richard Wolff also claims that Laclau's formulation of post-Marxism is a step backwards.[60] Oliver Eagleton (son of Terry Eagleton) claims that Mouffe's 'radical democracy' has an inherent conservative nature.[61]

Post-Marxism has also been criticised for downplaying or ignoring the role of race, neocolonialism, and Eurocentrism.[62][63][64]

People

See also

References

  1. ^ MCLENNAN, GREGOR (1996). "POST-MARXISM AND THE 'FOUR SINS' OF MODERNIST THEORIZING" (PDF).
  2. ^ Callinicos, Alex (2022). Routledge Handbook of Marxism and Post-Marxism (1st ed.). Routledge.
  3. ^ Arditi, Benjamin (September 2007). "Post-hegemony: politics outside the usual post-Marxist paradigm". Contemporary Politics. 13 (3): 205–226. doi:10.1080/13569770701467411. S2CID 154296914.
  4. ^ Jacobs, Thomas (2 October 2018). "The Dislocated Universe of Laclau and Mouffe: An Introduction to Post-Structuralist Discourse Theory". Critical Review. 30 (3–4): 294–315. doi:10.1080/08913811.2018.1565731. hdl:1854/LU-8600661. S2CID 150207035.
  5. ^ bloomsbury.com. "Marx Through Post-Structuralism". Bloomsbury. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
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Further reading

  • Badiou, Alain; Macey, D; Corcoran, S. (2015). The communist hypothesis. London: Verso.
  • Butler, Judith; Laclau, Ernesto; Žižek, Slavoj (2000). Contingency, Hegemony, Universality: Contemporary Dialogues on the Left.
  • Callinicos, A., Kouvélakis, E. and Pradella, L. (2021). Routledge handbook of Marxism and post-Marxism. New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
  • Dean, J. (2018). Communist Horizon. Verso.
  • Derrida, Jacques (1993). Specters of Marx.
  • Fisher, M. (2009). Capitalist Realism: Is There No Alternative? Winchester: Zero Books.
  • Galfarsoro, Imanol (2012). "(Post)Marxismoa, kultura eta eragiletasuna: Ibilbide historiko labur bat" [(Post) Marxism, Culture and Effectiveness: A Brief Historical Journey]. In Aizpuru, Alaitz (ed.). Euskal Herriko pentsamenduaren gida [A guide to thinking in the Basque Country] (in Basque). Bilbo: UEU. ISBN 978-84-8438-435-9.
  • Hardt, Michael; Negri, Antonio (2000). Empire. Harvard.
  • Holloway, J. (2019). Change the world without taking power : the meaning of revolution today. London Pluto Press.
  • Laclau, Ernesto; Mouffe, Chantal (1985). Hegemony and Socialist Strategy: Towards a Radical Democratic Politics.
  • Sim, Stuart (2002). Post-Marxism: An Intellectual History. Routledge studies in social and political thought. New York; London: Routledge. ISBN 0-203-18616-8.
  • Thoburn, Nick (2003). Deleuze, Marx, and Politics. Routledge
  • Tormey, Simon; Townshend, Jules (2006). Key Thinkers from Critical Theory to Post-Marxism. Pine Forge Press.
  • Žižek, Slavoj (1989). The Sublime Object of Ideology.
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