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===Model rocketry===
===Model rocketry===
Specifc impulse is also used to measure performance in model rocket motors. Here are some of Estes' claims for specific impulses for several of their rocket motors:<ref>Estes 2011 Catalog www.acsupplyco.com/estes/estes_cat_2011.pdf</ref>
Specifc impulse is also used to measure performance in model rocket motors. Here are some of Estes' claims for specific impulses for several of their rocket motors:<ref>Estes 2011 Catalog www.acsupplyco.com/estes/estes_cat_2011.pdf</ref> The specific impulse for model rocket motors is extremely low because the manufacturer uses black powder propellant. The burn rate of model rocket motors is also tightly controlled by Estes.
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===Larger Rocket Engines===
===Larger Rocket Engines===

Revision as of 22:04, 17 July 2011

A figure incorporating a thrust curve for the Estes A10-PT rocket motor, as well as information about the impulse, fuel mass, and specific impulse.

Specific impulse (usually abbreviated Isp) is a way to describe the efficiency of rocket and jet engines. It represents the impulse (change in momentum) per unit amount of propellant used.[1] The unit amount may be given either per unit mass (such as kilograms), or per unit Earth-weight (such as kiloponds, since g is used for the latter definition).[2] The higher the specific impulse, the less propellant is needed to gain a given amount of momentum.

The actual exhaust velocity is the average speed that the exhaust jet actually leaves the vehicle. The effective exhaust velocity is the speed that the propellant burned per second would have to leave the vehicle to give the same thrust. The two are about the same for a rocket working in a vacuum, but are radically different for an air breathing jet engine that obtains extra thrust by accelerating air. Specific impulse and effective exhaust velocity are proportional.

Specific impulse is a useful value to compare engines, much like miles per gallon or litres per 100 kilometres is used for cars. A propulsion method with a higher specific impulse is more propellant-efficient.[1] Another number that measures the same thing, usually used for air breathing jet engines, is specific fuel consumption. Specific fuel consumption is inversely proportional to specific impulse and effective exhaust velocity.

General considerations

Rocket motor propellant is normally measured either in units of mass or weight. If mass is used, specific impulse is an impulse per unit mass, which dimensional analysis shows to be a unit of speed, and so specific impulses are often measured in meters per second and are often termed effective exhaust velocity. However, if propellant weight is used instead, an impulse divided by a force (weight) turns out to be a unit of time, and so specific impulses are measured in seconds. These two formulations are both widely used and differ from each other by a factor of g, the dimensioned constant of gravitational acceleration at the surface of the Earth.

Essentially, the higher the specific impulse, the less propellant is needed to gain a given amount of momentum. In this regard a propellant is more efficient if the specific impulse is higher. This should not be confused with energy efficiency, which can even decrease as specific impulse increases, since propulsion systems that give high specific impulse require high energy to do so.[3]

In addition it is important that thrust and specific impulse not be confused with one another. The specific impulse is a measure of the impulse per unit of propellant that is expended, while thrust is a measure of the momentary or peak force supplied by a particular engine. In many cases, propulsion systems with very high specific impulses—some ion thrusters reach 10,000 seconds—produce low thrusts.[4]

When calculating specific impulse, only propellant that is carried with the vehicle before use is counted. For a chemical rocket the propellant mass therefore would include both fuel and oxidizer; for air-breathing engines only the mass of the fuel is counted, not the mass of air passing through the engine.

Examples

Specific impulse of various propulsion technologies
Engine Effective exhaust velocity (m/s) Specific impulse (s) Exhaust specific energy (MJ/kg)
Turbofan jet engine (actual V is ~300 m/s) 29,000 3,000 Approx. 0.05
Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster 2,500 250 3
Liquid oxygen–liquid hydrogen 4,400 450 9.7
NSTAR[5] electrostatic xenon ion thruster 20,000–30,000 1,950–3,100
NEXT electrostatic xenon ion thruster 40,000 1,320–4,170
VASIMR predictions[6][7][8] 30,000–120,000 3,000–12,000 1,400
DS4G electrostatic ion thruster[9] 210,000 21,400 22,500
Ideal photonic rocket[a] 299,792,458 30,570,000 89,875,517,874
For a more complete list see: Spacecraft propulsion#Table of methods

An example of a specific impulse measured in time is 453 seconds, which is equivalent to an effective exhaust velocity of 4,440 m/s, for the Space Shuttle Main Engines when operating in a vacuum.[10] An air-breathing jet engine typically has a much larger specific impulse than a rocket; for example a turbofan jet engine may have a specific impulse of 6,000 seconds or more at sea level whereas a rocket would be around 200–400 seconds.[11]

An air-breathing engine is thus much more propellant efficient than a rocket engine, because the actual exhaust speed is much lower, the air provides an oxidizer, and air is used as reaction mass. Since the physical exhaust velocity is lower, the kinetic energy the exhaust carries away is lower and thus the jet engine uses far less energy to generate thrust (at subsonic speeds).[12] While the actual exhaust velocity is lower for air-breathing engines, the effective exhaust velocity is very high for jet engines. This is because the effective exhaust velocity calculation essentially assumes that the propellant is providing all the thrust, and hence is not physically meaningful for air-breathing engines; nevertheless, it is useful for comparison with other types of engines.[13]

The highest specific impulse for a chemical propellant ever test-fired in a rocket engine was lithium, fluorine, and hydrogen (a tripropellant): 542 seconds (5,320 m/s). However, this combination is impractical; see rocket fuel.[14]

Nuclear thermal rocket engines differ from conventional rocket engines in that thrust is created strictly through thermodynamic phenomena, with no chemical reaction.[15] The nuclear rocket typically operates by passing hydrogen gas through a superheated nuclear core. Testing in the 1960s yielded specific impulses of about 850 seconds (8,340 m/s), about twice that of the Space Shuttle engines.

A variety of other non-rocket propulsion methods, such as ion thrusters, give much higher specific impulse but with much lower thrust; for example the Hall effect thruster on the SMART-1 satellite has a specific impulse of 1,640 s (16,100 m/s) but a maximum thrust of only 68 millinewtons.[16] The hypothetical Variable specific impulse magnetoplasma rocket (VASIMR) propulsion would theoretically yield a minimum of 10,000−300,000 m/s but would probably require a great deal of heavy machinery to confine even relatively diffuse plasmas, and so would be unusable for high-thrust applications such as launch from planetary surfaces.[17]

Model rocketry

Specifc impulse is also used to measure performance in model rocket motors. Here are some of Estes' claims for specific impulses for several of their rocket motors:[18] The specific impulse for model rocket motors is extremely low because the manufacturer uses black powder propellant. The burn rate of model rocket motors is also tightly controlled by Estes.

Specific impulses for several commercially available Estes rocket motors
Engine Total Impulse (Ns) Fuel Mass (N) Specific Impulse (s)
Estes A10-3T 2.5 .0370 67.49
Estes A8-3 2.5 .0306 81.76
Estes B4-2 5.0 .0816 61.25
Estes B6-4 5.0 .0612 81.76
Estes C6-3 10 .1223 81.76
Estes C11-5 10 .1078 92.76
Estes D12-3 20 .2443 81.86
Estes E9-6 30 .3508 85.51

Larger Rocket Engines

Here are some example numbers for larger rocket engines:

Rocket engines in vacuum
Model Type First
run 		Application TSFC Isp (by weight) Isp (by mass)
lb/lbf·h g/kN·s s m/s
Avio P80 solid fuel 2006 Vega stage 1 13 360 280 2700
Avio Zefiro 23 solid fuel 2006 Vega stage 2 12.52 354.7 287.5 2819
Avio Zefiro 9A solid fuel 2008 Vega stage 3 12.20 345.4 295.2 2895
Merlin 1D liquid fuel 2013 Falcon 9 12 330 310 3000
RD-843 liquid fuel Vega upper stage 11.41 323.2 315.5 3094
Kuznetsov NK-33 liquid fuel 1970s N-1F, Soyuz-2-1v stage 1 10.9 308 331[19] 3250
NPO Energomash RD-171M liquid fuel Zenit-2M, -3SL, -3SLB, -3F stage 1 10.7 303 337 3300
LE-7A cryogenic H-IIA, H-IIB stage 1 8.22 233 438 4300
Snecma HM-7B cryogenic Ariane 2, 3, 4, 5 ECA upper stage 8.097 229.4 444.6 4360
LE-5B-2 cryogenic H-IIA, H-IIB upper stage 8.05 228 447 4380
Aerojet Rocketdyne RS-25 cryogenic 1981 Space Shuttle, SLS stage 1 7.95 225 453[20] 4440
Aerojet Rocketdyne RL-10B-2 cryogenic Delta III, Delta IV, SLS upper stage 7.734 219.1 465.5 4565
NERVA NRX A6 nuclear 1967 869
Jet engines with Reheat, static, sea level
Model Type First
run 		Application TSFC Isp (by weight) Isp (by mass)
lb/lbf·h g/kN·s s m/s
Turbo-Union RB.199 turbofan Tornado 2.5[21] 70.8 1440 14120
GE F101-GE-102 turbofan 1970s B-1B 2.46 70 1460 14400
Tumansky R-25-300 turbojet MIG-21bis 2.206[21] 62.5 1632 16000
GE J85-GE-21 turbojet F-5E/F 2.13[21] 60.3 1690 16570
GE F110-GE-132 turbofan F-16E/F 2.09[21] 59.2 1722 16890
Honeywell/ITEC F125 turbofan F-CK-1 2.06[21] 58.4 1748 17140
Snecma M53-P2 turbofan Mirage 2000C/D/N 2.05[21] 58.1 1756 17220
Snecma Atar 09C turbojet Mirage III 2.03[21] 57.5 1770 17400
Snecma Atar 09K-50 turbojet Mirage IV, 50, F1 1.991[21] 56.4 1808 17730
GE J79-GE-15 turbojet F-4E/EJ/F/G, RF-4E 1.965 55.7 1832 17970
Saturn AL-31F turbofan Su-27/P/K 1.96[22] 55.5 1837 18010
GE F110-GE-129 turbofan F-16C/D, F-15EX 1.9[21] 53.8 1895 18580
Soloviev D-30F6 turbofan MiG-31, S-37/Su-47 1.863[21] 52.8 1932 18950
Lyulka AL-21F-3 turbojet Su-17, Su-22 1.86[21] 52.7 1935 18980
Klimov RD-33 turbofan 1974 MiG-29 1.85 52.4 1946 19080
Saturn AL-41F-1S turbofan Su-35S/T-10BM 1.819 51.5 1979 19410
Volvo RM12 turbofan 1978 Gripen A/B/C/D 1.78[21] 50.4 2022 19830
GE F404-GE-402 turbofan F/A-18C/D 1.74[21] 49 2070 20300
Kuznetsov NK-32 turbofan 1980 Tu-144LL, Tu-160 1.7 48 2100 21000
Snecma M88-2 turbofan 1989 Rafale 1.663 47.11 2165 21230
Eurojet EJ200 turbofan 1991 Eurofighter 1.66–1.73 47–49[23] 2080–2170 20400–21300
Dry jet engines, static, sea level
Model Type First
run 		Application TSFC Isp (by weight) Isp (by mass)
lb/lbf·h g/kN·s s m/s
GE J85-GE-21 turbojet F-5E/F 1.24[21] 35.1 2900 28500
Snecma Atar 09C turbojet Mirage III 1.01[21] 28.6 3560 35000
Snecma Atar 09K-50 turbojet Mirage IV, 50, F1 0.981[21] 27.8 3670 36000
Snecma Atar 08K-50 turbojet Super Étendard 0.971[21] 27.5 3710 36400
Tumansky R-25-300 turbojet MIG-21bis 0.961[21] 27.2 3750 36700
Lyulka AL-21F-3 turbojet Su-17, Su-22 0.86 24.4 4190 41100
GE J79-GE-15 turbojet F-4E/EJ/F/G, RF-4E 0.85 24.1 4240 41500
Snecma M53-P2 turbofan Mirage 2000C/D/N 0.85[21] 24.1 4240 41500
Volvo RM12 turbofan 1978 Gripen A/B/C/D 0.824[21] 23.3 4370 42800
RR Turbomeca Adour turbofan 1999 Jaguar retrofit 0.81 23 4400 44000
Honeywell/ITEC F124 turbofan 1979 L-159, X-45 0.81[21] 22.9 4440 43600
Honeywell/ITEC F125 turbofan F-CK-1 0.8[21] 22.7 4500 44100
PW J52-P-408 turbojet A-4M/N, TA-4KU, EA-6B 0.79 22.4 4560 44700
Saturn AL-41F-1S turbofan Su-35S/T-10BM 0.79 22.4 4560 44700
Snecma M88-2 turbofan 1989 Rafale 0.782 22.14 4600 45100
Klimov RD-33 turbofan 1974 MiG-29 0.77 21.8 4680 45800
RR Pegasus 11-61 turbofan AV-8B+ 0.76 21.5 4740 46500
Eurojet EJ200 turbofan 1991 Eurofighter 0.74–0.81 21–23[23] 4400–4900 44000–48000
GE F414-GE-400 turbofan 1993 F/A-18E/F 0.724[24] 20.5 4970 48800
Kuznetsov NK-32 turbofan 1980 Tu-144LL, Tu-160 0.72-0.73 20–21 4900–5000 48000–49000
Soloviev D-30F6 turbofan MiG-31, S-37/Su-47 0.716[21] 20.3 5030 49300
Snecma Larzac turbofan 1972 Alpha Jet 0.716 20.3 5030 49300
IHI F3 turbofan 1981 Kawasaki T-4 0.7 19.8 5140 50400
Saturn AL-31F turbofan Su-27 /P/K 0.666-0.78[22][24] 18.9–22.1 4620–5410 45300–53000
RR Spey RB.168 turbofan AMX 0.66[21] 18.7 5450 53500
GE F110-GE-129 turbofan F-16C/D, F-15 0.64[24] 18 5600 55000
GE F110-GE-132 turbofan F-16E/F 0.64[24] 18 5600 55000
Turbo-Union RB.199 turbofan Tornado ECR 0.637[21] 18.0 5650 55400
PW F119-PW-100 turbofan 1992 F-22 0.61[24] 17.3 5900 57900
Turbo-Union RB.199 turbofan Tornado 0.598[21] 16.9 6020 59000
GE F101-GE-102 turbofan 1970s B-1B 0.562 15.9 6410 62800
PW TF33-P-3 turbofan B-52H, NB-52H 0.52[21] 14.7 6920 67900
RR AE 3007H turbofan RQ-4, MQ-4C 0.39[21] 11.0 9200 91000
GE F118-GE-100 turbofan 1980s B-2 0.375[21] 10.6 9600 94000
GE F118-GE-101 turbofan 1980s U-2S 0.375[21] 10.6 9600 94000
General Electric CF6-50C2 turbofan A300, DC-10-30 0.371[21] 10.5 9700 95000
GE TF34-GE-100 turbofan A-10 0.37[21] 10.5 9700 95000
CFM CFM56-2B1 turbofan C-135, RC-135 0.36[25] 10 10000 98000
Progress D-18T turbofan 1980 An-124, An-225 0.345 9.8 10400 102000
PW F117-PW-100 turbofan C-17 0.34[26] 9.6 10600 104000
PW PW2040 turbofan Boeing 757 0.33[26] 9.3 10900 107000
CFM CFM56-3C1 turbofan 737 Classic 0.33 9.3 11000 110000
GE CF6-80C2 turbofan 744, 767, MD-11, A300/310, C-5M 0.307-0.344 8.7–9.7 10500–11700 103000–115000
EA GP7270 turbofan A380-861 0.299[24] 8.5 12000 118000
GE GE90-85B turbofan 777-200/200ER/300 0.298[24] 8.44 12080 118500
GE GE90-94B turbofan 777-200/200ER/300 0.2974[24] 8.42 12100 118700
RR Trent 970-84 turbofan 2003 A380-841 0.295[24] 8.36 12200 119700
GE GEnx-1B70 turbofan 787-8 0.2845[24] 8.06 12650 124100
RR Trent 1000C turbofan 2006 787-9 0.273[24] 7.7 13200 129000
Jet engines, cruise
Model Type First
run 		Application TSFC Isp (by weight) Isp (by mass)
lb/lbf·h g/kN·s s m/s
Ramjet Mach 1 4.5 130 800 7800
J-58 turbojet 1958 SR-71 at Mach 3.2 (Reheat) 1.9[21] 53.8 1895 18580
RR/Snecma Olympus turbojet 1966 Concorde at Mach 2 1.195[27] 33.8 3010 29500
PW JT8D-9 turbofan 737 Original 0.8[28] 22.7 4500 44100
Honeywell ALF502R-5 GTF BAe 146 0.72[26] 20.4 5000 49000
Soloviev D-30KP-2 turbofan Il-76, Il-78 0.715 20.3 5030 49400
Soloviev D-30KU-154 turbofan Tu-154M 0.705 20.0 5110 50100
RR Tay RB.183 turbofan 1984 Fokker 70, Fokker 100 0.69 19.5 5220 51200
GE CF34-3 turbofan 1982 Challenger, CRJ100/200 0.69 19.5 5220 51200
GE CF34-8E turbofan E170/175 0.68 19.3 5290 51900
Honeywell TFE731-60 GTF Falcon 900 0.679[29] 19.2 5300 52000
CFM CFM56-2C1 turbofan DC-8 Super 70 0.671[26] 19.0 5370 52600
GE CF34-8C turbofan CRJ700/900/1000 0.67-0.68 19–19 5300–5400 52000–53000
CFM CFM56-3C1 turbofan 737 Classic 0.667 18.9 5400 52900
CFM CFM56-2A2 turbofan 1974 E-3, E-6 0.66[25] 18.7 5450 53500
RR BR725 turbofan 2008 G650/ER 0.657 18.6 5480 53700
CFM CFM56-2B1 turbofan C-135, RC-135 0.65[25] 18.4 5540 54300
GE CF34-10A turbofan ARJ21 0.65 18.4 5540 54300
CFE CFE738-1-1B turbofan 1990 Falcon 2000 0.645[26] 18.3 5580 54700
RR BR710 turbofan 1995 G. V/G550, Global Express 0.64 18 5600 55000
GE CF34-10E turbofan E190/195 0.64 18 5600 55000
General Electric CF6-50C2 turbofan A300B2/B4/C4/F4, DC-10-30 0.63[26] 17.8 5710 56000
PowerJet SaM146 turbofan Superjet LR 0.629 17.8 5720 56100
CFM CFM56-7B24 turbofan 737 NG 0.627[26] 17.8 5740 56300
RR BR715 turbofan 1997 717 0.62 17.6 5810 56900
GE CF6-80C2-B1F turbofan 747-400 0.605[27] 17.1 5950 58400
CFM CFM56-5A1 turbofan A320 0.596 16.9 6040 59200
Aviadvigatel PS-90A1 turbofan Il-96-400 0.595 16.9 6050 59300
PW PW2040 turbofan 757-200 0.582[26] 16.5 6190 60700
PW PW4098 turbofan 777-300 0.581[26] 16.5 6200 60800
GE CF6-80C2-B2 turbofan 767 0.576[26] 16.3 6250 61300
IAE V2525-D5 turbofan MD-90 0.574[30] 16.3 6270 61500
IAE V2533-A5 turbofan A321-231 0.574[30] 16.3 6270 61500
RR Trent 700 turbofan 1992 A330 0.562[31] 15.9 6410 62800
RR Trent 800 turbofan 1993 777-200/200ER/300 0.560[31] 15.9 6430 63000
Progress D-18T turbofan 1980 An-124, An-225 0.546 15.5 6590 64700
CFM CFM56-5B4 turbofan A320-214 0.545 15.4 6610 64800
CFM CFM56-5C2 turbofan A340-211 0.545 15.4 6610 64800
RR Trent 500 turbofan 1999 A340-500/600 0.542[31] 15.4 6640 65100
CFM LEAP-1B turbofan 2014 737 MAX 0.53-0.56 15–16 6400–6800 63000–67000
Aviadvigatel PD-14 turbofan 2014 MC-21-310 0.526 14.9 6840 67100
RR Trent 900 turbofan 2003 A380 0.522[31] 14.8 6900 67600
GE GE90-85B turbofan 777-200/200ER 0.52[26][32] 14.7 6920 67900
GE GEnx-1B76 turbofan 2006 787-10 0.512[28] 14.5 7030 69000
PW PW1400G GTF MC-21 0.51[33] 14.4 7100 69000
CFM LEAP-1C turbofan 2013 C919 0.51 14.4 7100 69000
CFM LEAP-1A turbofan 2013 A320neo family 0.51[33] 14.4 7100 69000
RR Trent 7000 turbofan 2015 A330neo 0.506[b] 14.3 7110 69800
RR Trent 1000 turbofan 2006 787 0.506[c] 14.3 7110 69800
RR Trent XWB-97 turbofan 2014 A350-1000 0.478[d] 13.5 7530 73900
PW 1127G GTF 2012 A320neo 0.463[28] 13.1 7780 76300

Units

English and SI units for various rocket motor performance measurements.
Specific Impulse
(by weight)
 Specific Impulse
(by mass)
 Effective exhaust velocity
 Specific fuel consumption
SI =X seconds =9.8066 X N•s/kg =9.8066 X m/s =(101,972/X) g/kN•s
English units =X seconds =X lbf•s/lb =32.16 X ft/s =(3,600/X) lb/lbf•h

By far the most common unit used for specific impulse today is the second, and this is used both in the SI world as well as where English units are used. Its chief advantages are that its units and numerical value are identical everywhere, and essentially everyone understands it. Nearly all manufacturers quote their engine performance in these units and it is also useful for specifying aircraft engine performance.[34]

The effective exhaust velocity of m/s is also in reasonably common usage; for rocket engines it is reasonably intuitive, although for many rocket engines the effective exhaust speed is considerably different from the actual exhaust speed due to, for example, fuel and oxidizer that is dumped overboard after powering turbopumps. For airbreathing engines it is not physically meaningful although can be used for comparison purposes nevertheless.[35]

The N•s/kg is not uncommonly seen, and is numerically equal to the effective exhaust velocity in m/s (from Newton's second law and the definition of the Newton.)

Another equivalent unit is specific fuel consumption. This has units of g/kN.s or lbf/lb•h and is inversely proportional to specific impulse. This is used extensively for describing air-breathing jet engines.[36]

References

  1. ^ a b "What is specific impulse?". Qualitative Reasoning Group. Retrieved 22 December 2009.
  2. ^ Benson, Tom (11 July 2008). "Specific impulse". NASA. Retrieved 22 December 2009.
  3. ^ http://www.geoffreylandis.com/laser_ion_pres.htp
  4. ^ "Mission Overview". exploreMarsnow. Retrieved 23 December 2009.
  5. ^ In-flight performance of the NSTAR ion propulsion system on the Deep Space One mission. Aerospace Conference Proceedings. IEEExplore. 2000. doi:10.1109/AERO.2000.878373.
  6. ^ Glover, Tim W.; Chang Diaz, Franklin R.; Squire, Jared P.; Jacobsen, Verlin; Chavers, D. Gregory; Carter, Mark D. "Principal VASIMR Results and Present Objectives" (PDF).
  7. ^ Cassady, Leonard D.; Longmier, Benjamin W.; Olsen, Chris S.; Ballenger, Maxwell G.; McCaskill, Greg E.; Ilin, Andrew V.; Carter, Mark D.; Gloverk, Tim W.; Squire, Jared P.; Chang, Franklin R.; Bering, III, Edgar A. (28 July 2010). "VASIMR R Performance Results" (PDF). www.adastra.com.
  8. ^ "Vasimr VX 200 meets full power efficiency milestone". spacefellowship.com. Retrieved 2021-05-13.
  9. ^ "ESA and Australian team develop breakthrough in space propulsion". cordis.europa.eu. 18 January 2006.
  10. ^ http://www.astronautix.com/engines/ssme.htm
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  12. ^ http://www.dunnspace.com/isp.htm
  13. ^ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/198045/effective-exhaust-velocity
  14. ^ ARBIT, H. A., CLAPP, S. D., DICKERSON, R. A., NAGAI, C. K., Combustion characteristics of the fluorine-lithium/hydrogen tripropellant combination. AMERICAN INST OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS, PROPULSION JOINT SPECIALIST CONFERENCE, 4TH, CLEVELAND, OHIO, Jun 10-14, 1968.
  15. ^ http://trajectory.grc.nasa.gov/projects/ntp/index.shtml
  16. ^ http://www.mendeley.com/research/characterization-of-a-high-specific-impulse-xenon-hall-effect-thruster/
  17. ^ http://www.nasa.gov/vision/space/travelinginspace/future_propulsion.html
  18. ^ Estes 2011 Catalog www.acsupplyco.com/estes/estes_cat_2011.pdf
  19. ^ "NK33". Encyclopedia Astronautica.
  20. ^ "SSME". Encyclopedia Astronautica.
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag Nathan Meier (21 Mar 2005). "Military Turbojet/Turbofan Specifications". Archived from the original on 11 February 2021.
  22. ^ a b "Flanker". AIR International Magazine. 23 March 2017.
  23. ^ a b "EJ200 turbofan engine" (PDF). MTU Aero Engines. April 2016.
  24. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Kottas, Angelos T.; Bozoudis, Michail N.; Madas, Michael A. "Turbofan Aero-Engine Efficiency Evaluation: An Integrated Approach Using VSBM Two-Stage Network DEA" (PDF). doi:10.1016/j.omega.2019.102167.
  25. ^ a b c Élodie Roux (2007). "Turbofan and Turbojet Engines: Database Handbook" (PDF). p. 126. ISBN 9782952938013.
  26. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Nathan Meier (3 Apr 2005). "Civil Turbojet/Turbofan Specifications". Archived from the original on 17 August 2021.
  27. ^ a b Ilan Kroo. "Data on Large Turbofan Engines". Aircraft Design: Synthesis and Analysis. Stanford University. Archived from the original on 11 January 2017.
  28. ^ a b c David Kalwar (2015). "Integration of turbofan engines into the preliminary design of a high-capacity short-and medium-haul passenger aircraft and fuel efficiency analysis with a further developed parametric aircraft design software" (PDF).
  29. ^ "Purdue School of Aeronautics and Astronautics Propulsion Web Page - TFE731".
  30. ^ a b Lloyd R. Jenkinson & al. (30 Jul 1999). "Civil Jet Aircraft Design: Engine Data File". Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann.
  31. ^ a b c d "Gas Turbine Engines" (PDF). Aviation Week. 28 January 2008. pp. 137–138.
  32. ^ Élodie Roux (2007). "Turbofan and Turbojet Engines: Database Handbook". ISBN 9782952938013.
  33. ^ a b Vladimir Karnozov (August 19, 2019). "Aviadvigatel Mulls Higher-thrust PD-14s To Replace PS-90A". AIN Online.
  34. ^ http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/specimp.html
  35. ^ http://www.qrg.northwestern.edu/projects/vss/docs/propulsion/3-what-is-specific-impulse.html
  36. ^ http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/sfc.html

See also


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