Sniper

For other uses, see Sniper (disambiguation).

Arkansas Army National Guard soldiers practice sniper marksmanship at their firing range near Baghdad, Iraq in 2005.

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A U.S. Marine sniper team, with a M40 sniper rifle in 2004.

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Member of the French special forces sniper team.

A sniper is an infantry soldier who specializes in shooting from a concealed position over longer ranges than regular infantry, often with a specially designed or adapted sniper rifle. It requires skill in marksmanship, camouflage and field craft.

The term sniper is attested from 1824 in the sense of “sharpshooter.” The verb to snipe originated in the 1770s among soldiers in British India-in the sense of: “to shoot from a hidden place”, in allusion to snipe hunting, a game bird known for being extremely difficult to hunt. Those who were skilled at the hunting of this bird were thus dubbed "snipers".

During the American Civil War, the common term used in the United States for much the same function was "skirmisher". A Civil War army often protected itself by using such concealed marksmen, who were deployed individually on the extremes of the moving army. Generally, such skirmishers were selected on the basis of prior proven hunting and marksmanship skills. Often these were either young soldiers with promising maneuverability and field craft, or older men with refined marksmanship and tactical skills. The term 'sniper' was not in widespread use in the United States until after the American Civil War.

In the last few decades, the term “sniper” has been used rather loosely, especially by media in association with police precision riflemen, those responsible for assassination, any shooting from all but the shortest range in war, and any criminal equipped with a rifle in a civil context. In the Bosnian War, and for much of the Siege of Beirut, the term 'sniper' was used to refer to what were generally ill-trained soldiers who terrorized civilians, mainly by firing at them from windows and rooftops. During the Siege of Sarajevo, the main street of the city became known as “Sniper Alley”.

This has rather expanded the meaning of the term. It has also given “sniper” mixed connotations. Official sources often use other terms, especially for police snipers: “counter-sniper,” “precision marksman,” “tactical marksman,” “sharpshooter,” or “precision shooter”. Some of these alternatives have been in common use for a long time; others are closer to undisguised euphemisms.

Snipers in warfare

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A sniper from the Jalalabad Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT) looks for enemy activity along the hilltops near Dur Baba, Afghanistan, November 2006.

Different countries have different military doctrines regarding snipers in military units, settings, and tactics. Generally, a sniper’s goal in warfare is to reduce the enemy’s fighting ability by striking at a small number of high value targets, such as officers.

Soviet Russian and derived military doctrines include squad-level snipers, which may be called “sharpshooters” or “designated riflemen” in other doctrines (see below). They do so because this ability was lost to ordinary troops when assault rifles (which are optimized for close-in, rapid-fire combat) were adopted. See the “Soviet sniper” article for details.

Military snipers from the US, UK, and other countries that adopt their military doctrine are typically deployed in two-man sniper teams consisting of a shooter and spotter. The two have different functions and hence their assignment corresponds to their skills, but a common practice is for the shooter and spotter to take turns in order to avoid eye fatigue.

Typical sniper missions include reconnaissance and surveillance, counter-sniper, killing enemy commanders, selecting targets of opportunity, and even anti-matériel tasks (destruction of military equipment), which tend to require use of rifles in the larger calibers such as the .50 BMG. Snipers have of late been increasingly demonstrated as useful by US and UK forces in the recent Iraq campaign in a fire support role to cover the movement of infantry, especially in urban areas.

The current world record for the longest range sniper kill is 2,430 meters (7,972 feet), accomplished by a Canadian sniper, Corporal Rob Furlong, of the third battalion Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry (3 PPCLI), during the invasion of Afghanistan, using a .50 BMG (12.7mm) McMillan TAC-50 bolt-action rifle. This meant that the bullet had a flight time of ≈ 4.5 seconds, and a {{#invoke:Trajectory_of_a_projectile|Height_at_x|drop}} of ≈ 70 meters (230 feet).

This impressive feat of marksmanship is not typical for the effective range with a high first hit probability of the employed rifle (see Sniper rifle: maximum effective range). The ambient air density in the Shah-i-Kot Valley where Corporal Furlong operated is significantly lower than at sea level due to its 2,432 m (9,000 ft) mean elevation. This increases the maximum effective range of a high powered sniper rifle like Corporal Furlong used by ≈ 600 m (1968 ft).

The previous record was held by US Marine sniper Carlos Hathcock, achieved during the Vietnam War, at a distance of 2,250 meters.

By contrast, much of the US/Coalition urban sniping in support of operations in Iraq is at much shorter ranges, although in one notable incident on April 3 2003, Corporals Matt and Sam Hughes, a two-man sniper team of the Royal Marines, armed with L96 sniper rifles each killed targets at a range of about 860m with shots that, due to strong wind, had to be “fire[d] exactly 17 meters [56 ft] to the left of the target for the bullet to bend in the wind.”

Police snipers

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Honolulu Police Department Specialized Services Division Counter-Sniper Team doing aerial platform training.

Police forces typically deploy snipers in hostage scenarios. They are trained to shoot only as a last resort, when there is a direct threat to life. Police snipers typically operate at much shorter ranges than military snipers, generally under 100 meters and sometimes even less than 50 meters. Police snipers do not generally attempt to shoot to incapacitate; when they shoot, they shoot to kill, though there have been some notable exceptions with varying success.

The need for specialized training for police snipers was made apparent in 1972 during the Munich massacre; the police deployed untrained personnel with sniper equipment during the standoff at the airport in the closing phase of the crisis, and consequently all of the Israeli hostages were killed. The use of snipers of the German army was impossible due to the German constitution's explicit prohibition of the use of the military in domestic matters. This situation was later addressed with the founding of GSG-9.

In one high-profile incident, a SWAT sniper in Columbus, Ohio prevented a suicide by shooting a revolver out of the potential victim's hand, leaving him unharmed. Despite this success, video footage later revealed that the target narrowly avoided severe injury from shrapnel. Marksmen shooting at loaded guns to test this technique under controlled conditions have shown very mixed results. The gun can discharge in a random direction; and even a direct hit on the gun may fail to fully disable it. Also, firing a bullet in the direction of a target is considered to be deadly force in most jurisdictions, and the use of deadly force to subdue a potential suicide victim is illegal in some of these.

In peacetime, police snipers like those of the FBI’s Critical Incident Response Group (the Hostage Rescue Team) typically serve longer in the role, receiving more training and more operational experience than their military counterparts.

Training

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A Marine extracts fired brass and chambers a new round in his M40-A3

Good training is essential to provide a sniper with the skills needed to perform well. Military sniper training aims to teach a high degree of proficiency in camouflage and concealment, stalking and observation as well as precision marksmanship under various operational conditions. Trainees typically shoot thousands of rounds over a number of weeks, while learning these core skills.

Snipers are trained to squeeze the trigger straight back with the ball of their finger, to avoid jerking the gun sideways. The most accurate position is prone, with a sandbag supporting the stock, and the stock’s cheek-piece against the cheek. In the field, a bipod can be used instead. Sometimes a sling is wrapped around the weak arm (or both) to reduce stock movement. Some doctrines train a sniper to breathe deeply before shooting, then hold their lungs empty while they line up and take their shot. Some go further, teaching their snipers to shoot between heartbeats to minimize barrel motion.

Since the GWOT began in 2001, the US military has maintained a high operational tempo making training more difficult. Private training organizations such as Blackwater USA and GPS Defense aka McMillan Sniper School, have been training hundreds of military personnel in both basic sniper skills and pre-deployment sniper training. Many units such as the 82nd Airborne and the 10th Mountain Division are seeking sniper and squad designated marksman training for scout companies to increase their unit ability and become a greater force multiplier.

As of 2006, US military schools are overbooked and have waiting lists of up to twelve to eighteen months. Also, these military schools cannot accommodate more than one or two candidates from any particular units, making it extremely difficult for units to stay up to date and train at the same level.

GPS Defense Sniper School alone has trained more than thirty-three government units from four nations. High profile units trained include; Navy SEAL Sniper School Instructor Staff, SEAL Teams 2, 3, 4, 5, and 7; Marine Corps MARSOC/Det 1, 2nd Force Recon, 2nd & 4th Recon Battalion; Army 20th Special Forces Group (ABN), 2/75th Ranger Regiment, 82nd ABN, 101st ABN, 40th ID/1ST Cav Div; Air Force SOCOM.

Consistency

A sniper, using a modified M14 rifle uses two stakes to help steady his aim while providing overwatch for his fellow soldiers in Iraq.

The key to sniping is consistency, which applies to both the weapon and the shooter. While consistency does not necessarily ensure accuracy (which requires training), sniping cannot be accurately carried out without it.

Although there is always a degree of randomness due to physics and the nature of bullets, a precision sniping rifle must limit this effect. When fired from a fixed position, all shots must be extremely close together, even at long range. Similarly, a sniper must have the ability to estimate range, wind, elevation, and any other major factors that can alter the shot. Mistakes in estimation compound over distance and can decrease lethality or even cause a shot to miss completely.

Snipers generally prefer to zero their weapons at a target range, although it can also be done in the field. This is where the sniper calibrates his rifle with his scope at a particular range (typically at the most common encounter distance) such that shots will reliably strike their target. A rifle must maintain its zero in the field, or else it must be re-zeroed before the next encounter. Once zeroed, the rifle can be adjusted for other distances or for wind using estimates, calculations, and scope features.

The military need for consistency is highest when a sniper is firing the first shot against an enemy unaware of the sniper’s presence. At this point, high-priority targets such as enemy snipers, officers, and critical equipment are most prominent and can be more accurately targeted. A sniper must know how a hot or cold gun barrel, different surrounding temperatures, and different altitudes, can affect the flight of the bullet. Once the first shot has been fired, any surviving enemy will attempt to take cover or locate the sniper, and attacking strategic targets becomes more difficult.

The need for police sniper consistency is high when in a hostage situation. Firing a shot but failing to immediately incapacitate an armed threat is likely to result in the death of hostages, and cause the aggressor to cease negotiations and retreat to cover. In this situation, lives can depend on the result of a single shot, and it is this pressure that police snipers must overcome when firing.

A sandbag helps a sniper achieve the best accuracy. In the field, a bipod is more common, although any soft surface such as a rucksack will steady a rifle and contribute to consistency. In particular, bipods help when firing from a prone position, and enable the firing position to be sustained for an extended period of time. Many police and military sniper rifles come equipped with an adjustable bipod.

US Military

Snipers are volunteers accepted for sniper training on the basis of their aptitude as perceived by their commanders. Military snipers may be trained as Forward Air Controllers (FACs) to direct military air strikes, Forward Observers (FOs) in artillery target indication, and as mortar fire controllers (MFCs). Effective sniping in a military context may necessitate assuming a stationary position for days at a time. Fatigue and muscle stiffness often result from the mandatory immobility. Also, urination and defecation into a bag or other container may become essential. These factors alone contradict much of the glamour portrayed in popular movies.

British Military

The first British sniper unit began life as Lovat's Scouts, a Scottish Highland regiment that earned high praise during the Second Boer War. The unit was led by Lord Lovat. This unit was known to an American, Major Frederick Russell Burnham, the British Army Chief of Scouts under Lord Roberts. Burnham fittingly described these scouts as "half wolf and half jackrabbit." They were well practiced in the arts of marksmanship, field craft, and military tactics. They were also phenomenal woodsmen always ready to tempt fate, but also practitioners of discretion: "He who shoots and runs away, lives to shoot another day." After the war, this regiment went on to formally become the British Army's first sniper unit.

Targeting

U.S. Army sniper team in Afghanistan with M24 SWS, 19 October 2006.

The range to the target is measured or estimated as precisely as conditions permit and correct range estimation becomes absolutely critical at long ranges, because a bullet travels with a curved trajectory and the sniper must compensate for this by aiming higher at longer distances. If the exact distance is not known the sniper will compensate incorrectly and the bullet path will be too high or low. As an example, for a typical military sniping cartridge such as 7.62 × 51 mm NATO M118 Special Ball round this difference (or “drop”) between 700 m and 800 m is 8 in (200 mm). This means that if the sniper incorrectly estimated the distance as 700 m when the target was in fact 800 m away, the bullet will be 8 in (200 mm) lower than the barrel by the time it reaches the target.

Laser range-finders may be used, but are not preferred on the battlefield because a laser can be seen by both the sender and the receiver. One useful method is comparing the height of the target (or nearby objects) to their size on the mil dot scope, or taking a known distance and using some sort of measure (utility poles, fence posts) to determine the additional distance. The average human head is 150 millimeters (6 inches) in width, average human shoulders are 500 mm (20 inches) apart and the average distance from a person’s crotch to the top of their head is 1 meter (39 inches).

To determine the range to a target without a laser rangefinder, the sniper must use the mil dot reticle on a scope to accurately find the range. Mil dots are used like a slide rule to measure the height of a target, and if the height is known, the range can be as well. The height of the target (in yards) ×1000, divided by the height of the target (in mils), gives the range in yards. This is only in general, however, as both scope magnification (7×, 40×) and mil dot spacing change. The USMC standard is that 1 mil (that is, 1 milliradian) equals 3.438 MOA (minute of arc, or, equivalently, minute of angle), while the US Army standard is 3.6 MOA, chosen so as to give a diameter of 1 yard (36 inches) at 1,000 yards. Many commercial manufacturers use 3.5, splitting the difference, since it is easier with which to work.

Explanation: 1 MIL = 1 milli-radian. That is, 1 MIL = 1x10^-3 radian. But, 10^-3 rad x (360 deg/ (2 x Pi) radians) = 0.0573 degrees. Now, 1 MOA = 1/60 degree = 0.01667 degrees. Hence, there are 0.0573/0.01667 = 3.43775 MOA per MIL, where MIL is defined as a milli-radian. On the other hand, defining a mil-dot by the US Army way, to equate it to 1 yard at 1000 yards, means the Army's mil-dot is approximately 3.6 MOA.

It is important to note that angular mil (mil) is only an approximation of a milliradian and different organizations use different approximations. Please see three definitions of the angular mil.

At longer ranges, bullet drop plays a significant role in targeting. The effect can be estimated from a chart which may be memorised or taped to the rifle, although some scopes come with Bullet Drop Compensator (BDC) systems that only require the range be dialed in. These are tuned to both a specific class of rifle and specific ammunition. It must be noted that every bullet type and load will have different ballistics. .308 Federal 175 grain (11.3 g) BTHP match shoots at 2,600 ft/s (790 m/s). Zeroed at 100 yards, a 16.2 MOA adjustment would have to be made to hit a target at 600 yards. If the same bullet was shot with 168 grain (10.9 g), a 17.1 MOA adjustment would be necessary.

Shooting uphill or downhill can require more adjustment due to the effects of gravity. Wind also plays a role, the effect increasing with wind speed or the distance of the shot. The slant of visible convections near the ground can be used to estimate crosswinds, and correct the point of aim.

All adjustments for range, wind, and elevation can be performed by “holding over” by eye, also known as Kentucky windage. The most accurate way is called “dialing in” the scope. This adjusts the scope so that the crosshairs point at the target, while also accounting for the effect of the factors above. With precision mechanics, dialing in is more accurate, as the eye can more easily line up and hold the target.

For moving targets, the point of aim is in front of the target. This is known as “leading” the target, where the amount of lead depends on the speed and angle of the target’s movement. For this technique, holding over is the preferred method. Anticipating the behavior of the target is necessary to accurately place the shot.

Sniper equipment

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M40A3

A US Marine sniper wearing a ghillie suit

Main article: Sniper equipment

The major components of sniper's equipment are the sniper rifle, ammunition, camouflage and a ghillie suit.

Sniper tactics

Shot placement

Shot placement varies considerably with the type of sniper being discussed. Military snipers, who generally do not engage targets at less than 300 m (330 yd), usually attempt body shots, aiming at the chest. These shots depend on tissue damage, organ trauma and blood loss to make the kill. Police snipers who generally engage at much shorter distances may attempt head shots to ensure the kill. In instant-death hostage situations, police snipers shoot for the cerebellum, a part of the brain that controls voluntary movement that lies at the base of the skull. Some ballistics and neurological researchers have argued that severing the spinal cord at an area near the second cervical vertebra is actually achieved, usually having the same effect of preventing voluntary motor activity, but the debate on the matter remains largely academic at present.

Targets

Snipers can target personnel or materiel, but most often they target the most important enemy personnel such as officers or specialists (e.g. communications operators) so as to cause maximum disruption to enemy operations. Other personnel they might target include those who pose an immediate threat to the sniper, like dog handlers, who are often employed in a search for snipers.

A sniper identifies officers by their appearance and behavior such as symbols of rank, talking to radio operators, sitting as a passenger in a car, having military servants, or talking and moving position more frequently. If possible, snipers shoot in descending order by rank, or if rank is unavailable, they shoot to disrupt communications.

Since most kills in modern warfare are by crew-served weapons, reconnaissance is one of the most effective uses of snipers. They use their aerobic conditioning, infiltration skills and excellent long-distance observation equipment and tactics to approach and observe the enemy. In this role, their rules of engagement let them engage only high value targets of opportunity.

Some rifles, such as the Mechem NTW 20mm are designed for a purely anti-materiel (AM) role, i.e. shooting turbine disks of parked jet fighters, missile guidance packages, expensive optics, the bearings, tubes or wave guides of radar sets. A sniper equipped with the correct rifle can target radar dishes, water containers, the engines of vehicles, and any number of other targets. Other rifles, such as the .50 caliber rifles produced by Barret and McMillan are not designed exclusively as AM rifles, but are often employed in such a way, providing the range and power needed for AM applications in a lightweight package compared to most traditional AM rifles. However, according to the Geneva Convention, the .50 caliber multipurpose round is restricted to AM uses only. Other calibers, such as the .408 Cheyenne Tactical and the .338 Lapua are designed to be capable of limited AM application, but ideally suited as anti-personnel rounds.

Psychological warfare

Only during the 20th century have snipers been considered heroes of war, and before were often given names such as "Filthy dogs" , "Devil Rats" and "Bottom feeders" due to their inability to be seen or caught. Credit for this reputation traces to The American Revolution, when American "Marksman" would intentionally target British officers, an act considered uncivilized by the British Army at the time(this reputation would be cemented during the Battle of Saratoga, when Benedict Arnold allegedly ordered his marksmen to target British General Simon Fraser, an act that would win the battle and French support).

To demoralize enemy troops, snipers can follow predictable patterns. During the Cuban revolutionary war, the 26th of July Movement always killed the foremost man in a group of Batista's soldiers. Realizing this, none of them would walk first, as it was suicidal. This effectively decreased the army's willingness to search for rebel bases in the mountains. An alternative approach is to kill the second man in a row, leading to the psychological effect that nobody will want to follow the "leader" on first position.

The phrase "one shot, one kill" has gained notoriety in popular culture as a glorification of the "sniper mystique." The phrase embodies the sniper's tactics and philosophy of stealth and efficiency. The exact meaning can be explained thus:

• a single round should be fired, avoiding unnecessary and indiscreet firing
• every shot should be accurately placed.

Whether the phrase actually reflects reality is of course subject to debate, but it has been widely used in literature and movies.

Counter-sniper tactics

Main article: Counter-sniper tactics

The occurrence of sniper warfare has led to the evolution of many counter-sniper tactics in modern military strategies. These aim to reduce the damage caused by a sniper to an army, which can often be harmful to both fighting capabilities and morale.

The risk of damage to a chain of command can be reduced by removing/concealing features which would otherwise indicate an officer’s rank. Armies nowadays tend to avoid saluting officers in the field and eliminate rank insignia on BDUs. Officers can seek maximum cover before revealing themselves as good candidates for sniping through actions like reading maps and using radios.

Friendly snipers can be used to hunt the enemy sniper. Besides direct observation, defending forces can use other techniques. These include calculating the trajectory of a bullet by triangulation. Traditionally, triangulation of a sniper's position was done manually, though radar-based technology has recently become available. Once located, the defenders can try to approach the sniper from cover and overwhelm him. The United States military is funding a project known as RedOwl, which uses laser and acoustic sensors to determine the exact direction from which a sniper round has been fired.

The more shots a sniper fires, the more chances the defenders have to locate him, so they often try to draw fire, sometimes by offering a helmet slightly out of concealment. A tactic successfully employed in the Winter War by the Finns is known as "Kylmä-Kalle" (Cold Charlie). They used a shop mannequin or other doll dressed as a tempting target, like an officer. The doll was then presented as if it were a real man sloppily covering himself. Usually, Soviet snipers were unable to resist the temptation of an apparently easy kill. Once the angle where the bullet came from was determined, a shot of a heavy-calibre gun such as a Lahti L-39 "Norsupyssy" ("Elephant rifle") anti-tank rifle was shot at the sniper's direction to eliminate him.

Other tactics include directing artillery or mortar fire onto suspected sniper positions, the use of smoke screens, and placing tripwire-operated munitions, mines, or other booby-traps near suspected sniper positions. Even dummy trip-wires can be placed to inconvenience sniper movement. Where anti-personnel mines are unavailable, it is possible to improvise booby-traps by connecting trip-wires to hand grenades, smoke grenades or flares. Even though these may not kill the sniper, they will reveal his location. Booby-trap devices should be placed close to likely sniper hides or along the probable routes used into and out of the sniper's work area. Knowledge of sniper fieldcraft will assist in this task.

One very old counter-sniper tactic is to tie rags onto bushes or similar items in the danger area. The rags flutter in the breeze creating random movements in the corner of the sniper's eye, which they find distracting. The main virtue of this tactic is that it is easy to use, though it will definitely not stop a professional sniper from selecting targets, and may in fact provide a sniper with additional information about the wind near the target.

The use of K9 units was also very successful, especially during the Vietnam war. A trained dog can easily determine the direction of the sniper from the sound of the bullet and will lie down with his head aiming at the sniper to give his handler the direction of the firing.

Snipers in irregular and asymmetric warfare

Main article: Asymmetric warfare

The use of sniping (in the sense of shooting at relatively long range from a concealed position) to murder came to public attention in a number of sensational U.S. cases, including the Austin sniper incident of 1966, the John F. Kennedy assassination, and the Beltway sniper attacks of late 2002. However, these incidents usually do not involve the range or skill of military snipers; in all three cases the perpetrators had US military training, but in other specialties. News reports will often (inaccurately) use the term sniper to describe anyone shooting with a rifle at another person.

Sniping has also been used in asymmetric warfare situations, for example in the Northern Ireland troubles, where in the early seventies a number of soldiers were shot by concealed riflemen, some at considerable range. There were also a few instances in the early 1990s of British soldiers being shot with .50 caliber Barrett rifles. In Northern Ireland, in addition to the uses listed above, a sniper was quite often a form of bait called a "come-on", whereby the sniper's position would be made obvious to a British patrol so as to draw them into an ambush in their attempt to close on the sniper.

The sniper is particularly suited to combat environments where one side is at a disadvantage. A careful sniping strategy can use a few individuals and resources to thwart the movement or other progress of a much better equipped or larger force.

Because of this perceived difference in force size, the sniping attacks may be viewed as the act of a few persons to terrorize (earning the moniker 'terrorists') a much larger, regular force — regardless of the size of the force the snipers are attached to.

These perceptions stem from the precept that sniping, while effective in specific instances, is much more effective as a broadly deployed psychological attack (see elsewhere in article).

In the civil war between Bosnian Muslim and Croat Forces and Bosnian Serbs in the early 1990s, Serbian snipers in Sarajevo used sniping as a terror tool by shooting at any person, whether military or civilian, adult or child. These snipers would be classified as war criminals for deliberately targeting non-combatants.

It is also a fact that snipers are less likely to be treated mercifully if captured by the enemy. The rationale for this is that ordinary soldiers shoot at each other at 'equal opportunity' whilst snipers take their time in tracking and killing individual targets in a methodical fashion.

"Sniper" versus "marksman" or "sharpshooter"

Some doctrines distinguish a "sniper" from a "marksman"/"sharpshooter" or "designated marksman". While snipers are intensively trained to master field craft and camouflage, these skills are not necessarily required for sharpshooters. Snipers often perform valuable reconnaissance and have a psychological impact on the enemy. A sharpshooter's role is mainly to extend the range of the squad to which he is attached.

A sniper also uses intensive training for mastering the art of stealth, concealment, and infiltration for forward placement and surveillance duties, making the role more strategic than a squad-level sharpshooter. Sharpshooters are often attached at the squad level (in the case of squad designated marksmen), while snipers are often attached at higher levels such as battalion. A notable exception to this are military units such as the United States Army Rangers and United States Marine Corps Reconnaissance Battalions which utilize snipers at the company level.

The main difference in these two rather different roles are that a sharpshooter is often used in urban areas, where they may work with police or other such law enforcement agencies, while a sniper will work mostly in the field, often in jungle and other well-covered grounds. A sniper is also usually equipped with a highly accurate bolt-action sniper rifle and a sidearm, while a sharpshooter may utilise semi-automatic rifles (not necessarily sniper rifles), bolt-action hunting rifles, or even accurate assault rifles (carbines are usually not chosen as they have less accuracy, greater recoil from less weight, and less velocity). As such, a sniper specialises in well-placed single shots, where stealth, timing, and a good choice of target will determine their effectiveness in their use; sharpshooters, on the other hand, are mostly used in hostage and other such police related situations. Sharpshooters work at closer distances, often with the need to place their shots in a far shorter length of time, and often several in quick succession. In addition, because sharpshooters have neither the same degree of surprise or stealth at hand, they are often forced to shoot rapidly moving targets (albeit from shorter distances). With the proliferation of larger caliber weapons, especially .50 sniper rifles, the sniper support may carry an anti-material rifle in addition to his assault rifle, although the weight can be prohibitive.

Most importantly, sharpshooters aren't taught the same level of camouflage and stealth skills which come with the role of a sniper, as these skills are less necessary in both their application and working environments. The distinction is often blurred by sharpshooters such as police marksmen, who often act as the eyes and ears of a situation's response team before entry, or squad designated marksmen, who use their rifle's enhanced optics from covered and concealed positions to provide effective and accurate aimed fire.

Selected snipers in history

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Marie Ljalková with an SVT-40. She was a Czechoslovak sniper who fought for the Soviet Union during World War II.

Sergeant H.A. Marshall of The Calgary Highlanders. Canadian snipers in the Second World War were also trained scouts. Specialized equipment includes No. 4 Mk I(T) rifle and scope combination and a camouflaged Denison smock. PAC Photo, by Ken Bell (September 1944).

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British Army sniper in the Second World War. IWM Photo.

Even before firearms were available, soldiers such as archers were specially trained as elite marksmen.

Pre 20th century

• Ninja or Shinobi (16th century Japan) – supposedly trained to cover retreating armies, targeting officers from concealed positions. One of Japan's most famous warlords, Takeda Shingen, was reportedly fatally wounded by a sniper's bullet.
• Timothy Murphy (American Revolutionary War) – killed British General Simon Fraser during the pivotal Battle of Saratoga, faltering the British advance and causing them to lose the battle.
• Napoleonic Wars – Use of Marine sharpshooters in the mast tops was common usage in navies of the period and Admiral Nelson's death at Trafalgar is attributed to the actions of French Sharpshooters. The British Army developed the concept of directed fire (as opposed to massive unaimed volleys) and formed Rifle regiments, famously the 95th and the 60th who wore green jackets instead of the usual redcoats. Fighting as Skirmishers, usually in pairs and trusted to choose their own targets they wrought havoc amongst the French during the peninsular war against Napoleon's Forces
• British Rifleman Thomas Plunkett (Peninsular war) – shot French General Colbert at a range of between 200 and 600 metres using a Baker rifle.
• Colonel Hiram Berdan (American Civil War) – commanded 1st and 2nd US Sharpshooters and were trained and equipped Union marksmen with the .52 caliber Sharps Rifle. It has been claimed that Berdan's units killed more enemies than any other in the Union Army.
• Sgt. Grace (American Civil War)– sniped Major General John Sedgwick at the then incredible distance of 730 m (800 yd) during the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House, with a British Whiteworth target rifle causing administrative delays in the Union's attack, leading to Confederate victory. Sedgwick ignored advice to take cover, his last words according to urban legend being, "They couldn't hit an elephant at this dist-" upon which he was shot. In reality, he was shot a few minutes later.
• Major Frederick Russell Burnham - assassinated Mlimo, the Ndebele religious leader, in his cave in Matobo Hills, Rhodesia, effectively ending the Second Matabele War (1896). Burnham started as a cowboy and Indian tracker in the American Old West, but he left the United States to scout in Africa and went on to command the British Army Scouts in the Second Boer War. For his ability to track, even at night, the Africans dubbed him, He-who-sees-in-the-dark, but in the press he became more widely known as England's American Scout.

20th century

• Billy Sing (Gallipoli Campaign, World War I) - killed between 150 and 201 Turkish soldiers.
• Corporal Francis Pegahmagabow (World War I) - credited with killing up to 378 Germans and capturing 300 more.
• Korpraali (Lance Corporal) Simo Häyhä (Winter War) – regarded by many as the most effective sniper in the history of warfare, being credited with killing up to 542 Soviet soldiers (an average of 5 a day) using a Mosin-Nagant Model 28 and iron sights.
• Junior Lieutenant Vasily Zaytsev (World War II) – credited with sniping 225 German officers and soldiers during the Battle of Stalingrad; subject of the film Enemy at the Gates and the book War of the Rats, both fictionalized accounts. Total number of verified kills was 242.
• Fyodor Okhlopkov (World War II) - despite being credited with 429 kills, his actions were largely overlooked by the Soviet military command due to him being a minority (a Yakut). He was eventually granted the status of Hero of the Soviet Union in 1965, three years before his death.
• Gefreiter (Private) Matthias Hetzenauer (World War II) - Austrian sniper that was credited with 345 kills on the Eastern Front, the most successful in the Wehrmacht.
• Obergefreiter (Private First Class) Josef 'Sepp' Allerberger (World War II) - Austrian sniper credited with 257 kills on the Eastern Front.
• Lieutenant Lyudmila Pavlichenko (World War II) – female sniper with 309 confirmed kills, making her the most successful female sniper in history.
• Gunnery Sergeant Carlos Hathcock (Vietnam war) – achieved 93 confirmed kills. He held the record of longest confirmed kill at a distance of 2,250 meter (made with a scoped M2 Browning machine gun) for 35 years until 2002.

21st century

• PPCLI Canadian Soldier Corporal Rob Furlong (Operation Anaconda, Afghanistan) - holds the record for the longest-ever recorded and confirmed sniper kill at 2,430 metres (1.509 miles) using a .50 caliber (12.7 mm) McMillan TAC-50 rifle.
• Juba - an alleged sniper involved in the Iraqi insurgency featured in several propaganda videos, in which he is credited to have shot 37 American soldiers. To this day, Juba's existence and true identity remains a mystery.

See also

• Special forces
• Jäger (military)
• Adopt a Sniper
• Anti-tank Rifle

References

• " Snipers, tireurs d'élite et armes de précision du monde " Edition Mission Spéciale Production. 2006 * [1]
• Plaster, Maj. John (1993). The Ultimate Sniper: An Advanced Training Manual for Military & Police Snipers. Paladin. ISBN 0-87364-704-1.
• "Sniper Tactics: Going for the Gun". Retrieved January 26. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
• Law, Clive M. (2005). Without Warning: Canadian Sniper Equipment. Service Publications. ISBN.
• Shore, C. (1988). With British Snipers to the Reich. Lancaster Militaria. ISBN 0-935856-02-1.
• Brooksmith, Peter (2000). Sniper: Training, Techniques and Weapons. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-26098-9.
• Pegler, Martin (2004). Out of Nowhere: A History of the Military Sniper. Osprey. ISBN 1-84176-854-5.

Further reading

• HowStuffWorks: How Military Snipers Work
• Snipercentral.com
• Israeli Special Forces Snipers at isayeret.com
• Russian Snipers of the Great Patriotic War Including High Score lists by Christopher Eger, military historian