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* Bible with accents, Brescia 1494
* Bible with accents, Brescia 1494


A large number of Bible commentaries was printed, including those of Abraham ibn Ezra (53), Baḥya ben Asher (87), David Ḳimḥi (6, 22, 37, 40, 46, 83), David ibn Yaḥya (82), Immanuel of Rome (39), Levi b. Gershon (4, 11, 16), Naḥmanides (14, 59, 72), and Rashi (1, 12, 25, 28, 44, 48): some of the works contained a combination of commentaries (43, 65, 79, 88). Then came the Mishnah (86) and parts of the Talmud (29, 30, 56, 57, 58, 60, 90). As further aids to these were grammars (54, 85), Ḳimḥi's Bible lexicon (21, 73, 78), and the Talmud lexicon of Nathan b. Jehiel (13). Next in popularity to Bible and Talmud came the halakic works, especially the codes of Jacob b. Asher (2, 3, 5, 27, 35, 45, 64, 67, 98)—the most popular single work—Maimonides (18, 71), and Moses de Coucy (15, 55), together with the "Agur" (89) and Kol Bo (69). To these may be added the solitary volume of responsa, that of [[Solomon ben Adret]] (17).
A large number of Bible commentaries was printed, including those of Abraham ibn Ezra (Pentateuch, Naples 1488), Baḥya ben Asher (Pentateuch, Naples 1492), David Ḳimḥi (6, 22, 37, 40, 46, 83), David ibn Yaḥya (82), Immanuel of Rome (39), Levi b. Gershon (4, 11, 16), Naḥmanides (14, 59, 72), and Rashi (1, 12, 25, 28, 44, 48): some of the works contained a combination of commentaries (43, 65, 79, 88). Then came the Mishnah (86) and parts of the Talmud (29, 30, 56, 57, 58, 60, 90). As further aids to these were grammars (54, 85), Ḳimḥi's Bible lexicon (21, 73, 78), and the Talmud lexicon of Nathan b. Jehiel (13). Next in popularity to Bible and Talmud came the halakic works, especially the codes of Jacob b. Asher (2, 3, 5, 27, 35, 45, 64, 67, 98)—the most popular single work—Maimonides (18, 71), and Moses de Coucy (15, 55), together with the "Agur" (89) and Kol Bo (69). To these may be added the solitary volume of responsa, that of [[Solomon ben Adret]] (17).


After law came prayers, of which a considerable number were printed (36, 41, 42, 47, 63, 95, 96, 97, 100); and to these may be added the tables of day durations (23)and Naḥmanides' "Sha'ar ha-Gemul" (70). Ethical works were moderately frequent (10, 31, 32, 53, 60, 61, 62, 66), which only two philosophical works received permanent form in print, Maimonides' "Moreh" (24), and Albo's "'Iḳḳarim" (38). Very few belletristic works appeared (75, 80); history is represented by Eldad ha-Dani (7) and the "Yosippon" (8); and science by [[Avicenna]] (81), in the most bulky Hebrew book printed in the fifteenth century. It is characteristic that the only book known to be printed during its author's lifetime was the "[[Nofet Ẓufim]]" of [[Judah b. Jehiel]] (9), one of the few Hebrew works showing the influence of the Renaissance. It is doubtful whether Landau's "Agur" was issued during the author's life-time, though it may have been printed with the aid of his son Abraham, who was a compositor in Naples at the time. Very few works went into a second edition, Maḥzor Romi (36, 42, 95) and the tractate Beẓah (30, 90) being the chief exceptions. The reprinting of Beẓah seems to show that this treatise was the one selected then, as it is now, for initial instruction in the Talmud.
After law came prayers, of which a considerable number were printed (36, 41, 42, 47, 63, 95, 96, 97, 100); and to these may be added the tables of day durations (23)and Naḥmanides' "Sha'ar ha-Gemul" (70). Ethical works were moderately frequent (10, 31, 32, 53, 60, 61, 62, 66), which only two philosophical works received permanent form in print, Maimonides' "Moreh" (24), and Albo's "'Iḳḳarim" (38). Very few belletristic works appeared (75, 80); history is represented by Eldad ha-Dani (7) and the "Yosippon" (8); and science by [[Avicenna]] (81), in the most bulky Hebrew book printed in the fifteenth century. It is characteristic that the only book known to be printed during its author's lifetime was the "[[Nofet Ẓufim]]" of [[Judah b. Jehiel]] (9), one of the few Hebrew works showing the influence of the Renaissance. It is doubtful whether Landau's "Agur" was issued during the author's life-time, though it may have been printed with the aid of his son Abraham, who was a compositor in Naples at the time. Very few works went into a second edition, Maḥzor Romi (36, 42, 95) and the tractate Beẓah (30, 90) being the chief exceptions. The reprinting of Beẓah seems to show that this treatise was the one selected then, as it is now, for initial instruction in the Talmud.

Revision as of 07:07, 9 July 2024

The Hebrew incunabula are a group of Hebrew books, papmphlets or broadside printed before the year 1501.

Only about 100 incunabula are determined to have been definitively printed before 1500. There are eight of which either no copy is known, or the time and place of publication can not be definitely determined. Currently, more than 100 incunabula have been discovered since an article was first written about the topic in The Jewish Encyclopedia in 1901.

The total number of identified Hebrew incunabula is about 175, though more may exist or have existed. A list of ascertained incunabula is given in tabular form below, and to these may be added the last-mentioned eight, which include the Talmud tractates Ketubot, Giṭṭin, and Baba Meẓi'a, each printed separately by Joshua Soncino in 1488–89, and of which no copy is known to exist. The same fate has met all the copies of the Leiria Edition of the Early Prophets (1494). There is also a siddur of the Roman rite, probably published by one of the Soncinos, and, from its type, likely to be of the fifteenth century. This was first described by Abraham Berliner (Aus Meiner Bibliothek, p. 58); a copy is possessed by E. N. Adler of London, and an incomplete copy is in the library [clarification needed] of Frankfort-on-the-Main. In addition, there are two editions of Maimonides' Mishneh Torah, one possibly printed in Italy in the fifteenth century, a copy of which is in the library of the Vienna community; the other, parts of which Dr. E. Mittwoch of Berlin possesses, was probably printed in Spain.

Date of first printing

The date at which printing in Hebrew began can not be definitely established. There is a whole series of works without date or place (12-21) which experts are inclined to assign to Rome (where Latin printing began in 1467), and any or all of these may be before the first dated work, which is an edition of Rashi's commentary on the Pentateuch, published in Reggio, Calabria, by Abraham Garton, 5 February 1475. It may be assumed that the actual printing of this work took some time, and that it was begun in the latter part of 1474. Even this must have been preceded by the printing of the four parts of the Ṭurim of Jacob B. Asher, finished 3 July 1475, in Piove di Sacco by Meshullam Cusi, which must have taken considerably longer to print than the Rashi. It is exceptional for Hebrew works to be dated at all before 1482, but from that time onward to 1492, during which decade two-thirds of the Hebrew incunabula were produced, most of them are dated. With the expulsion from Spain in 1492 the Hebrew printing-presses in that country were stopped, and those in Italy and Portugal produced only about a dozen works during the remainder of the century.

Places of printing

Hebrew books were produced in the fifteenth century only in the Italian and Iberian peninsulas, though several of the printers were of German origin, as Abraham Jedidiah, the Soncinos, Ḥayyim ha-Levi, Joseph and Azriel Gunzenhauser. The period under review was perhaps the nadir of Jewish fortunes in Germany. Expulsions occurred throughout the land, and it is not to be wondered at that no Hebrew presses were started in the land of printing. In all there are known seventeen places where Hebrew printing took place in the fifteenth century—eleven in Italy, three in Spain, and three in Portugal, as may be seen from the following list, which gives in chronological order the places, the names of the printers, and numbers (in parentheses) indicating the works printed by each, the numbers having reference to the following table.

Table of incunabula

Ref. no. in text Date. Author and Title. Place. Printer. Bibliography. Location of manuscript
1469/72 Leṿi ben Gershon, Perush Daniel Rome(?) Ohly, Sack[1] p. 333 Frankfurt am Main (2024)
1 1475 Feb. 5 Rashi, Pentateuch Reggio, Calabria Abraham Garton R. 3-5, St. 2342 Parma
2 1475 July 3 Jacob b. Asher, Arba' Turim Piove di Sacco Meshullam Cusi R. 5-7, St. 1182 B. C. F. G. L. O. Parma. S.
3 1476 July 6 Jacob b. Asher, Tur Orah Hayyim Mantua Abraham Conat R. 9-12, St. 1188 B. Breslau, O. Parma. S.
4 1477 May 16 Levi b. Gershon, Job Ferrara Abraham dei Tintori R. 1, St. 1613 B. Berlin Royal, F. G. O. Parma
5 1477 June 25 Jacob b. Asher, Tur Yoreh De'ah Ferrara Abraham dei Tintori R. 9-12, 19-22, St. 1186 B. Breslau, O.
6 1477 Aug. 29 Psalms with Kimhi Bologna Hayyim Mordecai, Hezekiah de Ventura R. 14, St. 1 (Add. lxxi.), G. 780-94 A. B. Breslau, Ch. F. O. Parma, S.
7 1475-80 Eldad ha-Dani Mantua Abraham Conat St. 924: Luzzatto, Litt. Or. 1846, No. 31. B. O. Padua
8 1475-80 Yosippon Mantua Abraham Conat R. 114-20, St. 1549 B. Berlin, C. F. G. Ga. L. N. O.
9 1475-80 Judah b. Jehiel, Nofet Zufim Mantua Abraham Conat R. 112, St. 1332 A. B. C. F. Ga. L. N. O. P. Parma, S.
10 1476-80 Jedaiah Bedersi, Behinat 'Olam Mantua Estellina Conat R. 110-1, St. 1283 A. B. F. O.
11 Before 1480 Levi b. Gershon, Pentateuch Mantua Abraham Conat, Abraham of Cologne R. 111, St. 1611 A. B. C. Ch. F. Fr. G. Ga. L. O. P. Parma, S.
12 Before 1480 Rashi, Pentateuch Rome (?) Obadiah, Manasseh, Benjamin R. 124, St. 2342 B. O. S.
13 Before 1480 Nathan b. Jehiel, 'Aruk Rome (?) Obadiah, Manasseh, Benjamin of Rome R. 123, St. 2040; Geiger, Zt. iii. 280, iv. 123 B. Breslau, C. F. G. Ga. L. O. Parma
14 Before 1480 Nahmanides, Pentateuch Rome (?) Obadiah, Manasseh, Benjamin of Rome R. 122, St. 1960 B. C. Ch. F. O. Parma, Stras.
15 Before 1480 Moses de Couey, Semag Rome (?) R. 122, St. 1796 Breslau, F. O. S.
16 Before 1480 Levi ben Gershon, Daniel Rome (?) R. 124, St. 1614 B. Breslau, F. Parma, S.
17 Before 1480 Solomon b. Adret, Responsa Rome (?) R. 126, St. 2272 C. Ch. F. G. O. P. Parma
18 Before 1480 Maimonides, Mishneh Torah Rome (?) Solomon b. Judah, Obadiah b. Moses R. 126-7, St. 1869 A. B. C. Ch. F. G. O. P. Parma, S.
19 Before 1480 Psalms, unpointed Italy R. 128, St. 161; Proctor, No. 7436 B. Munich Royal, O. Parma
20 Before 1480 Psalms, unpointed, with Grace Italy R. 129, St. 161 Parma,
21 Before 1480 D. Kimhi, Shorashim Rome (?) R. 125, St. 873 Amsterdam Seminary, Parma
22 Before 1480 D. Kimhi, Isaiah and Jeremiah (?) R. 109, St. 869 Parma
23 Before 1480 Mordecai Finzi, Luhot, tables Mantua Abraham Conat R. 113, St. 1658. —
24 Before 1480 Maimonides, Moreh Nebukim Rome (?) R. 121, St. 1894 A. Ch. F. G. L. O. Parma, S.
25 1482 Jan. 26 Pentateuch with Onkelos and Rashi Bologna Abraham dei Tintori R. 22, St. 1; Geiger, Zt. v. 99; G. 792-802 B. Berlin, F. N. Y. Pub., N. O. Parma
26 1482 D. Kimhi, Later Prophets Guadalajara Solomon ibn Alkabiz Geiger, Zt. v. 37; St. 869 B. Breslau
27 1482 Jacob b. Asher, Tur Eben ha-'Ezer Guadalajara Solomon ibn Alkabiz St. 1190; Häbler, Icon. Iber O.
28 1482-83 Megillot with Rashi Bologna Abraham dei Tintori R. 130, St. 158 Parma,
29 1483 Dec. 19 Talmud Babli Berakot Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino R. 28-34, St. 217, 244, H. B. i. 867 B. F. O. Parma
30 1483 Dec. 19 Talmud Babli Bezah Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino St. 246 B. F. O. Vatican
31 1484 Jan. 14 Ibn Gabirol, Mibhar ha-Peninim Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino R. 35, St. 2319 A. B. C. F. Fr. G. Munich, N. O. P. Parma, S.
32 1484 Dec. 12 Jedaiah Bedersi, Behinat 'Olam Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino R. 28, St. 1284; Rabbinovicz, Ma'amar, 11 A. B. C. Ch. F. Fr. G. L. Munich, N. O. P. S. bis
33 1484-85 Abot with Maimonides Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino R. 131, St. 228-9 A. B. C. Ch F. Fr. O. P. Parma, S.
34 1485 (?) Talmud Babli Megillah Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino St. 217; Proctor, No. 7296 O.
35 1485 Aug. Jacob b. Asher, Tur Orah Hayyim Hijar Eliezer Alantansi R. 39, St. 1186 B. F. Parma, S.
36 1485 Sept. Mahzor, Roman rite, vol. i. Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino R. 46, St. 393 A. B. C. F. L. N. bis, O. P. S.
37 1485 Oct. 15 Former Prophets with Kimhi Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino R. 40, St. 1, G. 803-7 A. B. Ch. F. Fr. G. L. N. O. P. Parma, S. Strasburg, Stuttgart
38 1485 Dec. 29 Albo, 'Ikkarim Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino R. 114, St. 1443 A. B. Berlin, C. Ch. F. G. Ga. N. O. P. Parma, S.
39 1486 Immanuel Komi, Proverbs Naples Hayyim ha-Levi Ashkenazi R. 133-4, St. 1058 A. B. Ch. F. G. O. Parma, S.
40 1486 Later Prophets with Kimhi Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino R. 131, St. 1-162 B. Ch. bis, F. Fr. L. O. P. Parma, S.
41 1486 April 7 Tefillat Yahid Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino Roest, Bet ha-Sefer; H. B. xix. 18 B. S.
41a 1486 Haggadah ED. PR. Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino S. (bound up with 41)
42 1486 Aug. 21 Mahzor, Roman rite, vol. ii Casal Maggiore Joshua Solomon Soncino R. 46, St. 393 A. B. C. Ch. F. G. Ga. L. N. bis, O. P. Parma, S.
43 1486 Sept. 8 Hagiographa Variorum Naples Joseph Günzenhäuser R. 52, St. 1, 162, 1058, G. 807-14 A. B. F. O. S.
44 1487 (1492) Rashi, Pentateuch Zamora Samuel ben Musa, Immanuel St. 2342 B. Breslau, Parma
45 1487 Jacob b. Asher, Tur Yorch De'ah Hijar Eliezer Alantansi St. 1189 B. F. Parma, S.
46 1487 Mar. 28 Psalms with Kimhi Naples Joseph Günzenhäuser St. 2 A. B. Bresiau, Ga. Munich Royal, O. Parma, S. Stuttgart
47 1487 May 16 Seder Tahanunim Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino R. 51 B. Breslau, O.
48 1487 June 6 Rashi, Pentateuch Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino St. 2342 B. Breslau
49 1487 June 30 Faro Pentateuch Faro, Portugal Don Samuel Giacon St. 163, 2781, G. 815-20 B.
50 1488 Bedersi, Bakashat ha-Memmin; Joseph Ezobi, Ka'arat Kesef, etc. Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino Wiener, Kohelet Mosheh, p. 1; R. E. J. xii. 119. N. P.
51 1488, Feb. 23 Bible Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino R. 57, St. 2, G. 820-31 B. Carlsruhe, Frankfurt am Main, O.
52 1488 M. Kimhi, Mahalak Shibbole ha-Da'at Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino Wiener, Kohelet Mosheh, p. 1 P.
53 1488 May 3 Abraham ibn Ezra, Pentateuch Naples Joseph Günzenhäuser R. 58, St. 680 B. C. Ch. F. G. O. Parma
54 1488 Aug. 8 Makre Dardeke " St. 622 B. Berlin, Ch. N. O. Parma
55 1488 Dec. 19 Moses de Coucy, Semag, 2d ed. Soncino Gershon ben Moses Soncino R. 61, St. 1797 A. B. Ch. F. Fr. N. O. P. Parma, S.
56 1489 Talmud Babli Shabbat Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino Rabbinovicz Ma'amar, 13; St. 217 F.
57 1489 Talmud Babli Baba Kamma Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino " F.
58 1489 June 13 Talmud Babli Hullin Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino R. 64, St. 249 Ch. Parma
59 1489 July Nahmanides, Pentateuch Lisbon Eliezer Toledano R. 54, St. 1961 A. B. Ch. F. G. N. O. P. Parma, S. bis
60 1489 July 22 Talmud Babli Niddah Soncino Joshua Solomon Soncino R. 66, St. 264 Ch. F. O. P. Parma, S.
61 1489 Aug. Kalonymus, Eben Bohan Naples Joseph Günzenhäuser, Yom-Tob b. Perez, Solomon b. Perez R. 67, St. 1578 A. B. Berlin, C. G. Ga. O. Parma, S.
62 1489 Nov. 18 Bahya ibn Pakuda, Hobot ha-Lebabot Naples Joseph Günzenhäuser, Yom-Tob b. Perez, Solomon b. Perez R. 78, St. 780 B. C. Ch. F. Fr. G. Ga. L. Munich, O. P.
63 1489 Nov. 25 Abudarham, Perush seder ha-tefilot Lisbon Eliezer Alantansi R. 67, St. 856 B. C. Ch. Frankfurt am Main, N. O. P. Parma, S.
64 1490 Jacob ben Asher, Turim Soncino Solomon b. Moses Soncino R. i. 138, St. 1182 A. B. Ch. F. Fr. G. N. O. P. Parma, S. bis
65 1490 Pentateuch with Onkelos, etc. Hjar Solomon Salmati ben Maimon R. 75, St. 2, G. 831-6 B. N. O. Parma
66 1490 Jeshua Levi, Halikot 'Olam Lisbon St. 1392 B. N. O.
67 1490 Jacob ben Asher, Tur Orah Hayyim Lisbon Eliezer Toledano Proctor, No. 9837 B.
68 1490 Pentateuch with Megillot, etc. Hijar Eliezer Alantansi R. 73-5, St. 156 A. B. O.
69 1490 Kol Bo Naples Proctor, No. 7437 A. B. Berlin, Ch. F. G. Ga. O. P. S.
70 1490 Jan. 23 Nahmanides, Sha'ar ha-Gemul Naples Joseph Günzenhäuser R. 69, St. 1962 B. Berlin, Munich Royal, O. Parma, S.
71 1490 Mar. 23 Maimonides, Mishneh Torah Soncino Gershon ben Moses Soncino R. 70, St. 1870; Zedner[2], 582 A. B. C. Ch. F. Fr. G. Ga. P. Parma, S.
72 1490 July 2 Nahmanides, Pentateuch Naples Isaac ben Judah ibn Katorzi R. 71, St. 1961; Proctor, No. 6741 B. C. Ch. F. Fr. O. P. Parma, S.
73 1490 Aug. Kimhi, Shorashim Naples Joseph Günzenbäuser R. 78, St. 873; Proctor, No. 6734 A. B. Berlin, G. N. O. P. Parma, S.
74 1490 Dec. 12 Psalms, Proverbs, Job Naples Joshua Solomon Soncino R. 79, St. 2 F. Parma
75 1490-91 Isaac ibn Sahula, Mashal ha-Kadmoni Soncino Gershon ben Moses Soncino St. 1151 B. S.
76 1491 Bible Naples Joshua Solomon Soncino R. 139, St. 155, G. 847-55 B. Fr.
77 1491 Pentateuch with accents Naples " R. 83, St. 3 F. N. Parma, Stuttgart
78 1491 Feb. 11 Kimhi, Shorashim Naples Isaac ben Judah ibn Katorzi R. 80, St. 873; Proctor, No. 6742; Zedner[2], 200 A. B. C. Ch. F. G. O. Parma, S.
79 1491 July Pentateuch with Onkelos, etc. Lisbon Eliezer Toledano R. 91-4, St. 2, G. 836-47 A. B. Berlin, F. Ga. N. O. P. Parma
80 1491 Oct. 30 Immanuel Romi, Mahberot Brescia Gershon Soncino R. 84, St. 1057 A. B. C. Ch. F. G. Ga. L. N. Y. Pub. N. O. P. Parma, S.
81 1491 Nov. 9 Avicenna, Canon Naples Azriel Günzenhäuser R. 86, St. 767 Amst. B. C. F. G. Ga. L. N. O. P. Parma, S. Stras.
82 1492 Proverbs with David ben Yahya Lisbon R. 143, St. 162 A. F. Fr. G. Parma,
83 1492 Isaiah and Jeremiah with Kimhi Lisbon Eliezer Toledano R. 94, St. 3, G. 855-9 B. O. Parma, S.
84 1492 Jan. 23 Pentateuch with Megillot, etc. Brescia Gershon Soncino R. 88, St. 3, G. 865-71 B. O. Parma,
85 1492 Feb. 28 Petah Debarai Naples R. 89, St. 634 Parma, Vatican
86 1492 May 8 Mishnah with Maimonides Naples Joshua Solomon Soncino R. 90, St. 280 B. Ch. F. Fr. L. N. O. P. S.
87 1492 July Bahya ben Asher, Pentateuch Naples Azriel Günzenhäuser St. 777 Amst. B. Ga. P. S.
88 1492 July 25 Proverbs with Targum Leiria Abraham d'Ortas R. 94, 174, St. 3, G. 859-65 B. O. P. Parma
89 1487-92 J. Landan, Agur Naples R. 148, St. 1225 A. B. F. Fr. Ga. O. P. Parma, S.
90 1493 Talmud Babli Bezah Soncino Gershon Soncino B.
91 1493 Nov. 24 Pentateuch Brescia Gershon Soncino St. 3 B. O.
92 1493 Dec. 16 Psalms Brescia Gershon Soncino R. 98, St. 3 Florence
93 1494 Former Prophets Leiria Abraham d'Ortas R. 104, St. 4 N. O. P. Parma
94 1494 May Bible (?) with accents Brescia Gershon Soncino R. 99-101, St. 3, G. 71 et seq., 871-80 B. Berlin, F. Munich, O. Parma, S.
95 1495 Mahzor, Roman rite, 2d ed. Soncino (Brescia?) Solomon ben Moses Soncino R. 149, St. 394 B. F. N. O. S.
96 1495 Tefillot, German rite Soncino (Brescia?) Solomon ben Moses Soncino St. 358 O.
97 1495 Selihot, German rite Soncino (Brescia?) Solomon ben Moses Soncino St. 430 B. F.
98 1495 June 2 Jacob ben Asher, Tur Orah Hayyim Leiria Abraham d'Ortas F.
99 1490-95 Pentateuch with Megillot Hijar Eliezer Alantansi R. 143, St. 156 N. O. Parma
100 1497 Sept. 15 Selihot Barco Gershon Soncino St. 430 B. F. Fr. Parma
101 1497 Nov. 16 Talmud Babli Sanhedrin Barco Gershon Soncino St. 273 (Add. lxxvii.) B.

Printers

As to the personal history of the printers enumerated in the list above very few details are known. Abraham Conat was a physician whose wife also was interested in printing; she produced the first edition of the "Beḥinat 'Olam." Garton, Cusi, and Giacon appear to have produced their works as a labor of love rather than for profit. Abraham dei Tintori, the Soncinos, and the Gunzenhausers, on the other hand, seem to have regarded their craft as a means of livelihood, The Soncinos, indeed, printed books in other characters than Hebrew (see Soncino family), as did also Abraham d'Ortas. There does not appear to have been much competition, though it is remarkable how invariably the choice of publishers fell within a limited class of works. In one case, however, two printers of the same city opposed each other with an edition of the same work. In August 1490, Joseph Gunzenhauser produced at Naples an edition of Ḳimḥi's "Shorashim"; on 11 February 1491, the same work was produced, as Zedner[2] states, by Isaac b. Judah b. David Katorzi, who, according to Proctor, was also the printer of the Naples Naḥmanides of 1490. It would seem also that the two Pentateuchs of Hijar, 1490, were produced by rival printers.

Typographical details

All forms of Hebrew type were used in this period, the square, the Rashi or rabbinic (in which the first dated work was entirely printed), and the so-called "Weiberteutsch" (in which the later Yiddish works were printed); a primitive form of this last had already been used in the Psalms of 1477. Different sizes of type were used as early as the Ṭurim of Piove di Sacco, which uses no less than three. The actual fonts have not yet been determined, and until this is done no adequate scientific treatment of the subject is possible. A beginning, however, has been made by Proctor. Generally speaking, a more rounded form was used in Spain and Portugal (perhaps under the influence of Arabic script) than in the Italian presses, whose types were somewhat Gothic in style. It has been conjectured that the Spanish printers used logotypes in addition to the single letters. The Soncinos and Alantansis used initials, in other presses vacant spaces were left for them to be inserted by hand. Vowel-points were only used for Scripture or for prayer-books, and accents seem to have been inserted for the first time in the Bologna Pentateuch of 1482 (25). Special title-pages were rare; colophons were usually short. Borders were used by the Soncinos, as well as by Toledano at Lisbon and D'Ortas in the Ṭur of 1495 (see Borders; Colophon; Title-Page). Illustrations were only used in one book, the "Mashal ha-Ḳadmoni" (75). Printers' marks appear to have been used only in Spain and Portugal, each of the works produced in Hijar having a different mark. Of the number of copies printed for an edition the only detail known is that relating to the Psalms with Ḳimḥi in 1477, of which three hundred were printed. If this number applies to many of the incunabula, it is not surprising that they are extremely rare at the present day. Twenty of them exist only in a single copy; most of the rest are imperfect through misuse or have been disfigured by censors.

Location

A majority of the examples exist or existed in seven public libraries (British Museum, London; Columbia University, New York; Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris; Bodleian, Oxford; Frankfurt (Freimann Collection); Biblioteca Palatina, Parma; Asiatic Museum, St. Petersburg) and were part of seven or eight private collections (E. N. Adler, London; Dr. Chwolson, St. Petersburg; Dr. M. Gaster, London; Baron Günzburg, St. Petersburg; H. B. Levy, Hamburg, now Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Hamburg; Mayer Sulzberger, Philadelphia). The numbers included in each of these collections are given in the following lists. The remaining locations are mentioned in the table only in sporadic instances, and do not profess to exhaust the incunabula contained in such collections as those of Amsterdam, Berlin, Breslau, Carlsruhe, Munich, etc. Dr. N. Porges of Leipzig and Dr. Simonsen of Copenhagen are also understood to have collections. see table

But few details are known as to the actual prices paid for some of these works. It would appear that Reuchlin paid three Rhine gulden for the Naples Naḥmanides of 1490 and the Former Prophets with Ḳimḥi (Soncino, 1485), and twice as much for the Soncino Bible of 1488. A note at the end of De Rossi's copy of the Guadalajara Ḳimḥi of 1482 states that three carline were paid for it in 1496 by the owner of that date.

Choice of books

The subject-matter of the works selected for the honors of print was on the whole what might have been anticipated. First came the Bible text, either a part:

  • Psalms, unpointed, Italy, before 1480
  • Megillot with Rashi, Bologna 1482-83
  • Faro Pentateuch Faro, Portugal 1487
  • Pentateuch with Megillot, etc. Hijar 1490
  • Psalms, Proverbs, Job Naples 1490
  • Pentateuch with accents, Naples 1491
  • Pentateuch with Megillot, etc. Brescia 1492
  • Psalms, Brescia 1493
  • Former Prophets, Leiria 1494

or the whole:

  • Bible, Soncino 1488
  • Bible, Naples 1491
  • Bible with accents, Brescia 1494

A large number of Bible commentaries was printed, including those of Abraham ibn Ezra (Pentateuch, Naples 1488), Baḥya ben Asher (Pentateuch, Naples 1492), David Ḳimḥi (6, 22, 37, 40, 46, 83), David ibn Yaḥya (82), Immanuel of Rome (39), Levi b. Gershon (4, 11, 16), Naḥmanides (14, 59, 72), and Rashi (1, 12, 25, 28, 44, 48): some of the works contained a combination of commentaries (43, 65, 79, 88). Then came the Mishnah (86) and parts of the Talmud (29, 30, 56, 57, 58, 60, 90). As further aids to these were grammars (54, 85), Ḳimḥi's Bible lexicon (21, 73, 78), and the Talmud lexicon of Nathan b. Jehiel (13). Next in popularity to Bible and Talmud came the halakic works, especially the codes of Jacob b. Asher (2, 3, 5, 27, 35, 45, 64, 67, 98)—the most popular single work—Maimonides (18, 71), and Moses de Coucy (15, 55), together with the "Agur" (89) and Kol Bo (69). To these may be added the solitary volume of responsa, that of Solomon ben Adret (17).

After law came prayers, of which a considerable number were printed (36, 41, 42, 47, 63, 95, 96, 97, 100); and to these may be added the tables of day durations (23)and Naḥmanides' "Sha'ar ha-Gemul" (70). Ethical works were moderately frequent (10, 31, 32, 53, 60, 61, 62, 66), which only two philosophical works received permanent form in print, Maimonides' "Moreh" (24), and Albo's "'Iḳḳarim" (38). Very few belletristic works appeared (75, 80); history is represented by Eldad ha-Dani (7) and the "Yosippon" (8); and science by Avicenna (81), in the most bulky Hebrew book printed in the fifteenth century. It is characteristic that the only book known to be printed during its author's lifetime was the "Nofet Ẓufim" of Judah b. Jehiel (9), one of the few Hebrew works showing the influence of the Renaissance. It is doubtful whether Landau's "Agur" was issued during the author's life-time, though it may have been printed with the aid of his son Abraham, who was a compositor in Naples at the time. Very few works went into a second edition, Maḥzor Romi (36, 42, 95) and the tractate Beẓah (30, 90) being the chief exceptions. The reprinting of Beẓah seems to show that this treatise was the one selected then, as it is now, for initial instruction in the Talmud.

As regards the second class of incunabula of Jewish interest—such as were printed in other languages than Hebrew—these have never before been treated, and only a few specimens can be here referred to. They deal with topics of controversial interest, as the "Contra Perfidos Judeos" of Peter Schwarz (Eslingen, 1475), his "Stella Meschiah" (ib. 1477), and the well-known "Epistle" of Samuel of Morocco (Cologne, 1493). Two earlier tractates deal with the legend of Simon of Trent (Hain, Nos. 7,733, 15,658), while there exists in Munich an illustrated broadside relating to the blood accusation at Passau, printed as early as 1470. Folz's "Die Rechnung Kolpergers von dem Gesuch die Juden" (Nuremberg, 1491; Hain, No. 7,210) may also be referred to. Chief among the incunabula of this kind, however, are those of Latin translations of the medieval Jewish scientists and philosophers, as that of Abraham ibn Ezra, "De Nativitatibus" (1485, Venice), of Bonet de Latis, Astronomy (1493, Rome), of Maimonides, Aphorisms (Bologna; Hain, No. 10,524), and of Israeli, "De Particularibus Diæctis" (Padua, 1487). One of the most interesting of Latin incunabula is the version of Abraham Zacuto's tables (Almanach perpetuum Celestium Motuum – a set of astronomical tables providing information to perform various types of astronomical calculations) published in Leiria by Abraham d'Ortas (1496).

References

  1. ^ Ohly, Kurt; Sack, Vera (1967). Inkunabelkatalog der Stadt- und Universitätsbibliothek und anderer öffentlicher Sammlungen in Frankfurt am Main (in German). Frankfurt am Main: Klostermann.
  2. ^ a b c Zedner, Joseph (1867). Catalogue of the Hebrew books in the library of the British Museum. London: British Museum.

Jewish Encyclopedia Bibliography

  • De Rossi, Annales Hebræo-Typographici, section xv., Parma, 1795;
  • Cassel and Steinschneider, Jüdische Typographie, in Ersch and Gruber, Encyc. section ii., part 28, pp. 33–37;
  • M. Schwab, Les Incunables Orientaux, Paris, 1883;
  • Chwolson, Reshit Ma'ase ha-Defut be-Yisrael, Warsaw, 1897;
  • Berliner, Ueber den Einfluss, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1897;
  • Simonsen, Hebraisk Bogtryk, Copenhagen, 1901;
  • Proctor, Index of Printed Books in the British Museum, 1901;
  • Freimann, Ueber Hebräische Inkunabeln, in Central-blatt für Bibliothekswesen, 1902, vol. xix. (printed separately, Leipsic);
  • Leone Luzzatto, in Vesillo, 1900, pp. 296 et seq.G. J.

 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Richard Gottheil and Joseph Jacobs (1901–1906). "Incunabula". In Singer, Isidore; et al. (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.

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