Kingdom of Polonnaruwa: Difference between revisions

Kingdom of Polonnaruwa
පොළොන්නරුව රාජධානිය
Kingdom of Polonnaruwa පොළොන්නරුව රාජධානිය
1055–1232
	Kingdom of Polonnaruwa before 1153 Principality of Maya Rata Principality of Ruhuna
Capital	Vijayarajapura
Common languages	Sinhala; Sanskrit
Other languages	Khmer
Religion	Theravada Buddhism; Hinduism
Demonym(s)	Sinhala: පොළොන්නරු, romanized: Polańaru
Government	Monarchy
Monarch
• 1055-1111	Vijayabahu I
• 1153-1186	Parakramabahu I
• 1187-1196	Nissanka Malla
• 1215-1232	Kalinga Magha
Historical era	Polonnaruwa period
• Established	1055
• Disestablished	1232
Currency	Coins
Preceded by	Succeeded by
	Anuradhapura Kingdom
Kingdom of Dambadeniya
Jaffna Kingdom
Today part of	Sri Lanka; India

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The Kingdom of Polonnaruwa^[a] (Sinhala: පොළොන්නරුව රාජධානිය, romanized: Polonnaruwa Rājādhaniya) was the Sinhalese kingdom that expanded across the island of Sri Lanka and several overseas territories, from 1070 until 1232. The kingdom started expanding its overseas authority during the reign of Parakramabahu the Great.^[3]

It had a stronghold in South India since its involvement in a civil war in the Pandya country. During this war, Pandya Nadu was seized as a province administered by the military of Polonnaruwa. The tributaries of the Chola empire, Tondi and Pasi, also came under its military rule.^[4] Rameshwaram was under Sinhalese rule until 1182.^[5] Its currency Kahapana was struck in these provinces. During the occupation of South India, construction works were undertaken.

Despite being a kingdom, it had been under the control of its royal military, which captured power twice and remained dominant in politics. Other militaries also had captured power in the kingdom. The kings of Polonnaruwa also had to crush rebellions from several parts of the country, including the Kingdom of Ruhuna under Sugala.

Following the capture of the kingdom's capital Polonnaruwa by Hindu invader Kalinga Magha, who established himself in there, a new Buddhist kingdom was established in Dambadeniya, while the city of Polonnaruwa was recaptured in an invasion, it was not reestablished as the capital.

History

After ruling the country for over 1,400 years, the Kingdom of Anuradhapura fell in 1017 to the Chola King Rajaraja and his son Rajendra, who took King Mahinda V as a prisoner of war to Tamil Nadu; he died there in 1029. The Cholas shifted the capital from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa and ruled for nearly 53 years. Polonnaruwa was named Jananathapuram by the Cholas. King Vijayabahu I (or Kitti) eventually defeated the Cholas and re-established the Sinhalese monarchy.^[6] Polonnaruwa had always been considered an important settlement in the island, as it commanded the crossings of the Mahaveli River towards Anuradhapura.^{[citation needed]}

3 years after restoring Anuradhapura, Vijayabahu prepared to fight a possible invasion. He moved the capital out of Anuradhapura to a more defensive position, Polonnaruwa.^[7]^[8] After the victory at Polonnaruwa, Vijayabahu had to face more rebellions. This caused him to delay his coronation, which took place in 1072 or 1073,^[9] eighteen years after being crowned as Vijayabahu in Ruhuna, and after a military campaign that lasted seventeen years. Polonnaruwa was renamed Vijayarajapura and chosen as the capital. The coronation ceremony was held in a palace built for this purpose in Anuradhapura, the former capital of the country. Vijayabahu married Lilavati, the daughter of Jagatipala of Kanauj, as his queen. He later married Tilokasundari, a princess from Kalinga, with the view of strengthening ties with the Kalingas.^[10]

Succession war

Vijayabahu's death left a disputed throne; the absolute successor Parakramabahu I was only selected after a war between the claimants to the throne.

Firstly, he entered secret negotiations with Gajabahu's military chief, but these attempts to capture power failed. He then sent the army of Dakkhinadesa to capture Rajarata, but he was introduced to Manabaraha, who allied with Gajabahu. Despite the setback, he captured Rajarata. Gajabahu, his army weakened, found himself in a battle against Manabharana as well. He later declared that he had passed over Rajarata to Parakramabahu of Dakkhinadesa. Manabharana was also defeated.^[11]

Parakramabahu

Following the end of the Kalinga-Arya conflict, Parakramabahu I, unified the three principalities: Rohana, Malaya, and Rajarata; declaring the islandwide Dakkhinadesa, he formed the Polonnaruwa kingdom in the latter. His reign saw the expansion of the kingdom, leading raids and large-scale invasions against his opponents. He launched an invasion against the kings of Ramanna (currently lower Burma) due to their acts of hostility, such as the kidnapping of a princess by Narathu's son Narapatisithu. In this invasion, he captured the Burmese city Bassein.^[12]

After Parakramabahu

Following the death of Parakramabahu, Vijayabahu II ascended the throne. He called Nissanka Malla to visit the country and take the throne. Vijayabahu II was, however, killed by the invader Mahinda VI.

Nissanka Malla assassinated Mahinda VI and justified his killing by claiming he was the rightful ancestor of Vijaya Singha.

Kingdom

Agriculture

Starting from the era of Parakramabahu I, there was great interest in irrigation.^[13] He ordered:

Let no water drop that falls from the rain make it to the sea without being useful to the mankind

Mass tanks were built for this purpose. Some of his notable works are the Parakrama Samudra and the Giritale tank. These works surpassed what existed during the Anuradhapura period. Previously built dams were largely renovated during this period.^[14]^[15]

Demographics

The Sinhalese accounted for the majority, and the Sinhalese language was the common language. Settlements from Cambodia are recorded, the Khmer settled in an area called Kambojavâsaĺa.^[16] The Khmer script was used to write Pali texts such as the Khmer script version of the Mahavamsa.^[b]

Trade

Most trade was carried out through the main seaports of the principality, Kalpitiya, Halaavatha (Chilaw) and Colombo.^[17]

Coinage

The coins, which were mostly made of copper, were modelled after their ruler. While gold coins also existed within the kingdom and were used, they largely disappeared in the very last days of Parakramabahu I. This may have been due to an economic crisis caused by the burden. It is to be noted that the coinage of Polonnaruwa shows a great resemblance to that of RajaRaja I of the Chola kingdom. The Setu coins found in South India are also likely from the kingdom of Polonnaruwa, as the Chola or Pandya kingdoms had no reason to use these.^[18]

Trade with the Chinese dynasties was extensively high at the period, and coins belonging to the Song dynasty have been found throughout Polonnaruwa.^[19]

Meanwhile, in its colonial territories in South India, the Kahapana currency was used.^[20]

Technology and structures

The ancient Sinhalese civilization was technologically advanced. The irrigation technology of Polonnaruwa was much similar to the Anuradhapura period ones but was even more advanced. James Emerson Tennent writes:

they attain a facility unsurpassed by any other people in the world.^[21]

Divine architecture ranging from larger dams to artificial seas, such as the Parakrama Samudra, always required advanced technology and were built in unique ways.^[22]

Vatedage

The Vatadages were built since the Anuradhapura period, however, the peak was reached during the Polonnaruwa period. The Polonnaruwa Vatadage is considered the "ultimate creation" out of all Vatadages. A Vatedage is built for the protection of a small stupa.^[23] The structure has two stone platforms decorated with elaborate stone carvings. The lower platform is entered through a single entrance facing the north, while the second platform can be accessed through four doorways facing the four cardinal points. The upper platform, surrounded by a brick wall, contains the stupa. Four Buddha statues are seated around it, each facing one of the entrances. Three concentric rows of stone columns had also been positioned here, presumably to support a wooden roof. The entire structure is decorated with stone carvings. Some of the carvings at the Polonnaruwa Vatadage, such as its sandakada pahanas, are considered to be the best examples of such architectural features. Although some archaeologists have suggested that it also had a wooden roof, this theory is disputed by others.

Nissanka Malla reign

The Hatedage and Nissanka Latha Mandapaya were built by Nissanka Malla (1187-1197) to store the relics. Several relics including relics of the Tooth of Buddha and Rice Bowls used by the Buddha are said to have been held in the Hatadage. Several historical sources including the Rajaveliya, Poojavaliya and the Galpotha inscription itself mention that it was built in sixty hours. Since the Sinhalese word Hata means sixty and Dage means relic shrine, it is possible that the structure was named Hatadage to commemorate this feat. Another theory is that it is so named because it held sixty relics.

Despite having built many structures, Nissanka Malla's major intention was to outdo the works of Parakramabahu I. He also built a statue of himself.

Military (1153–1186)

Parakramabahu organized the military of the kingdom. There were auxiliary forces made up mostly of other Buddhist ethnicities.

Ground forces

There were several branches of the ground forces of Polonnaruwa of Parakramabahu. The Culawamsa suggests that the strength may have been as many as 100,000 during the 1140s prior to the first battle of Rajarata. Its strength during the Pandyan war is not said, however, it may have been numerous as well. The ground forces could be divided between the main armies led by Lankapura Dandanatha and the auxiliary forces made up mostly of minorities.

Army

The armies of Parakramabahu in the early days were led by Rakkha. There were other important generals who Parakramabahu dispatched in order to reinforce Rakkha fighting the forces of Ruhunan separatists.^[24]^[25]

Auxiliaries

The auxiliary units were used to reinforce the Sinhalese army on multiple occasions. These units were largely made up of Buddhist minorities, and tribals.

Naval forces

The first navy was organized in 1165. This was used for the invasion of Burma.^[26]^[27]

Fall

Following the death of Kalinga Lokeshvara, his son Vira Bahu I took up power. However, he was killed by the military commander Tavuru Senavirat.^[28] A period of military rule was followed by the ascension of Vikramabahu I; who was assassinated by a nephew of Kalinga Lokeshvara, Chodaganga. The military once again organized a coup and arrested Chodaganga.^[29] The military became more dominant, ousting the monarchy; as a result, king Anikanga appealed for support from the Cholas. An army was sent, and Anikanga ascended the throne.^[30] The three month-old Dharmásoka of Polonnaruwa was slaughtered along with the commander of the Polonnaruwa Royal Army.

The military once again seized power, and Lilavati was installed on the throne. She was ousted by Lokissara, a military commander. The Royal Army, being a rival to Lokissara's forces, killed him.^[31]

Sacking of Lilavati

Parakrama Pandyan II from Pandyan Kingdom invaded Polonnaruwa, thus forcing Lilavati into exile. Parakrama Pandyan II ascended the throne, reigned between 1212 and 1215 CE. He was ousted by the invader, Kalinga Magha, who in the aftermath founded the Jaffna kingdom. Kalinga Magha ruled for 21 years until he was also expelled from Polonnaruwa in 1236, with an invasion from the south.

Succession

After defeating and expelling Kalinga Magha^[c] from Polonnaruwa, Vijayabahu III moved the capital to Dambadeniya. He founded the House of Sri Sanga Bo.

Religion

Buddhism continued to be the main religion in the Polonnaruwa era. Its monarchs enjoyed the exchange of religious jewels and other expensive items with the Theravada Buddhist kings of Siam, Burma, and Kampuchea. Prior to the Buddhist kings' takeover, there was a strong influence of Hinduism caused by Cholas. It is evident from the removal of cow shape in Polonnaruwa moonstone, and also by the presence of Shiva temples in Polonnaruwa. After Chola rule, many viharas were renovated by Vijayabahu I and his successor Parakramabahu I.

Buddhism

The primary form of Buddhism practiced in the Polonnaruwa kingdom was the orthodox school of Buddhism; following religious reforms in Burma, many monks there aligned themselves with the Polonnaruwan monks.^[32]

Distribution to Cambodia

Khmer King Jayavarman VII sent his son Tamalinda to Polonnaruwa to be ordained as a Buddhist monk and study Theravada Buddhism according to the Pali scriptural traditions. Tamalinda then returned to the Angkor, and promoted Buddhist traditions according to the Theravada training he had received, galvanizing the long-standing Theravada presence that had existed throughout the Angkor for centuries.^[33]

Gallery

Buddha statues in Gal Vihara
Seven storeyed Satmahal Prasada
Moonstone of Polonnaruwa
Parakrama Samudra built by king Parakramabahu I
Giritale Tank was the deepest tank in Sri Lanka during the Polonnaruwa era.
Shiva Devalaya in Polonnaruwa, dating back to the early years of Chola rule in Sri Lanka.
Polonnaruwa velaikkara (Tamil) inscription of Vijayabahu I

Notes

^ Pulatthinagara as mentioned in the Culawamsa
^ This version of the Mahamvamsa was written during the Polonnaruwa period, it includes the content from the Culawamsa.
^ Magha was defeated and his forces abandoned Polonnaruwa, Vijayabahu decided to not invade further into Jaffna which would have led to a weakening of his armies

Citations

^ de Silva 1981, p. 101.
^ de Silva 1981, p. 58.
^ Wright, p. 37.
^ Balasubrahmanyam, p. 255.
^ Sri Lanka in Early Indian Inscriptions. p. 5
^ Finegan 1989, p. 323.
^ Keuneman 1983, p. 39.
^ Fernando & Pieris 1973, p. 14;15;19.
^ Haraprasad Ray 2007, p. 172.
^ Corrington 1926, pp. IV.
^ Obesekara, p. 136-8.
^ Mendis 1996, p. 65
^ Manchanayake & Bandara 1999, p. 4.
^ Yapa 2010.
^ Finegan 1989, p. 468
^ Robert, p. 224;225.
^ Paranavitana & Nicolas 1961, pp. 204–205.
^ Davids, p. 31.
^ Barnes & Parkin 2015.
^ Davids, p. 31;32.
^ Mendis, p. 248.
^ Siriweera 2002, p. 174.
^ Siriweera 2002, p. 285.
^ De Soysa, p. 25.
^ Edirisuriya, C., Parakramabahu I
^ Richard, S. Sri Lanka. p. 228.
^ The Maritime Frontier of Burma: Exploring Political, Cultural and Commercial Interaction in the Indian Ocean World, 1200-1800. p. 43
^ Obesekara, p. 38.
^ Wijesekera 1984, p. 176.
^ Rambukwalle, pp. 136, 163.
^ Corrington 1926, p. 67.
^ Harvey 1925, p. 55.
^ Lester, p. 75.

Sources

Barnes; Parkin (2015). Ships and the Development of Maritime Technology on the Indian Ocean. India: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-79343-4.
Corrington, H.W (1926). A Short History of Ceylon. London: Macmillian publishers.
de Silva, K. (1981). A History of Sri Lanka. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04320-6.
Fernando, M.; Pieris, M. (1973). History of Ceylon (Sri Lanka).^{[full citation needed]}
Finegan, Jack (1989). An Archaeological History of Religions of Indian Asia. Paragon. ISBN 0-913729-43-4.
Haraprasad Ray, ed. (2007). Studies on India, China, and South East Asia: Posthumous Papers of Prof. Adhir Chakravarti. RNB. ISBN 978-81-87661-39-9.
Keuneman, Hubert (1983). Gottberg, John; Anthonis, Ravindralal (eds.). Sri Lanka. Apa Productions. ISBN 978-9971-925-22-2.
Manchanayake, Palitha; Bandara, M. (1999). Water Resources of Sri Lanka. National Science Foundation. ISBN 978-955-590-008-9.
Obesekara. Heritage of Sri Lanka.^{[full citation needed]}
Paranavitana, Senarat; Nicolas, C. (1961). A Concise History of Ceylon. Colombo: Ceylon University Press. OCLC 465385.
Rambukwelle, P. B. (1993). Commentary on Sinhala Kingship: Vijaya to Kalinga Magha. P.B. Rambukwelle. ISBN 978-955-95565-0-3.
Robert, R. A history of Early Southeast Asia.^{[full citation needed]}
Siriweera, W. I. (2002). History of Sri Lanka: From Earliest Times Up to the Sixteenth Century. Dayawansa Jayakody & Company. ISBN 978-955-551-257-2.
Wijesekera, Nandadeva (1984). Heritage of Sri Lanka. Archaeological Society of Sri Lanka.

External links

Polonnaruwa. www.ancientworlds.com
gov.lk

[3] Pulatthinagara as mentioned in the Culawamsa

[18] This version of the Mahamvamsa was written during the Polonnaruwa period, it includes the content from the Culawamsa.

[34] Magha was defeated and his forces abandoned Polonnaruwa, Vijayabahu decided to not invade further into Jaffna which would have led to a weakening of his armies

[FOOTNOTEde_Silva1981101-1] Silva 1981, p. 101.

[FOOTNOTEde_Silva198158-2] Silva 1981, p. 58.

[FOOTNOTEWright37-4] Wright, p. 37.

[FOOTNOTEBalasubrahmanyam255-5] Balasubrahmanyam, p. 255.

[6] Sri Lanka in Early Indian Inscriptions. p. 5

[FOOTNOTEFinegan1989323-7] Finegan 1989, p. 323.

[FOOTNOTEKeuneman198339-8] Keuneman 1983, p. 39.

[FOOTNOTEFernandoPieris197314;15;19-9] Fernando & Pieris 1973, p. 14;15;19.

[FOOTNOTEHaraprasad_Ray2007172-10] Haraprasad Ray 2007, p. 172.

[FOOTNOTECorrington1926IV-11] Corrington 1926, pp. IV.

[FOOTNOTEObesekara136-8-12] Obesekara, p. 136-8.

[aes-13] Mendis 1996, p. 65

[FOOTNOTEManchanayakeBandara19994-14] Manchanayake & Bandara 1999, p. 4.

[FOOTNOTEYapa2010-15] Yapa 2010.

[parakrarama-16] Finegan 1989, p. 468

[FOOTNOTERobert224;225-17] Robert, p. 224;225.

[FOOTNOTEParanavitanaNicolas1961204–205-19] Paranavitana & Nicolas 1961, pp. 204–205.

[FOOTNOTEDavids31-20] Davids, p. 31.

[FOOTNOTEBarnesParkin2015-21] Barnes & Parkin 2015.

[FOOTNOTEDavids31;32-22] Davids, p. 31;32.

[FOOTNOTEMendis248-23] Mendis, p. 248.

[FOOTNOTESiriweera2002174-24] Siriweera 2002, p. 174.

[FOOTNOTESiriweera2002285-25] Siriweera 2002, p. 285.

[FOOTNOTEDe_Soysa25-26] De Soysa, p. 25.

[27] Edirisuriya, C., Parakramabahu I

[28] Richard, S. Sri Lanka. p. 228.

[29] The Maritime Frontier of Burma: Exploring Political, Cultural and Commercial Interaction in the Indian Ocean World, 1200-1800. p. 43

[FOOTNOTEObesekara38-30] Obesekara, p. 38.

[FOOTNOTEWijesekera1984176-31] Wijesekera 1984, p. 176.

[FOOTNOTERambukwalle136,_163-32] Rambukwalle, pp. 136, 163.

[FOOTNOTECorrington192667-33] Corrington 1926, p. 67.

[FOOTNOTEHarvey192555-35] Harvey 1925, p. 55.

[FOOTNOTELester75-36] Lester, p. 75.

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@@ Line 15: / Line 15: @@
 | s2                     = Jaffna Kingdom
 | capital                = [[Polonnaruwa|Vijayarajapura]]
-| common_languages       = [[Sinhalese language|Sinhala]]<br />[[Sanskrit]]{{sfn|de Silva|page=101}}
+| common_languages       = [[Sinhalese language|Sinhala]]<br />[[Sanskrit]]{{sfn|de Silva|1981|page=101}}
 | languages              = [[Khmer language|Khmer]]
 | languages_type         = Other languages
-| religion               = [[Theravada Buddhism]]<br />[[Hinduism]]{{sfn|de Silva|p=58}}
+| religion               = [[Theravada Buddhism]]<br />[[Hinduism]]{{sfn|de Silva|1981|p=58}}
 | title_leader           = [[List of Sri Lankan monarchs|Monarch]]
 | leader1                = [[Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa|Vijayabahu I]]
@@ Line 50: / Line 50: @@
 ==History==
-After ruling the country for over 1,400 years, the [[Kingdom of Anuradhapura]] fell in 1017 to the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] [[Raja Raja Chola I|King Rajaraja]] and his son Rajendra, who took King Mahinda V as a [[POW|prisoner of war]] to Tamil Nadu; he died there in 1029. The Cholas shifted the capital from [[Anuradhapura]] to [[Polonnaruwa]] and ruled for nearly 53 years. Polonnaruwa was named Jananathapuram by the Cholas. King [[Vijayabahu I]] (or Kitti) eventually defeated the Cholas and re-established the Sinhalese monarchy.{{sfn|Finegan|page=323}} Polonnaruwa had always been considered an important settlement in the island, as it commanded the crossings of the [[Mahaweli Ganga|Mahaveli River]] towards Anuradhapura.{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}
+After ruling the country for over 1,400 years, the [[Kingdom of Anuradhapura]] fell in 1017 to the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] [[Raja Raja Chola I|King Rajaraja]] and his son Rajendra, who took King Mahinda V as a [[POW|prisoner of war]] to Tamil Nadu; he died there in 1029. The Cholas shifted the capital from [[Anuradhapura]] to [[Polonnaruwa]] and ruled for nearly 53 years. Polonnaruwa was named Jananathapuram by the Cholas. King [[Vijayabahu I]] (or Kitti) eventually defeated the Cholas and re-established the Sinhalese monarchy.{{sfn|Finegan|1989|page=323}} Polonnaruwa had always been considered an important settlement in the island, as it commanded the crossings of the [[Mahaweli Ganga|Mahaveli River]] towards Anuradhapura.{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}
-years after restoring Anuradhapura, Vijayabahu prepared to fight a possible invasion. He moved the capital out of Anuradhapura to a more defensive position, Polonnaruwa.{{sfn|Keuneman|1983|page=39}}{{sfn|Fernando|Pieris|1973|page=14;15;19}} After the victory at Polonnaruwa, Vijayabahu had to face more rebellions. This caused him to delay his coronation, which took place in 1072 or 1073,{{sfn|Haraprasad|2007|page=172}} eighteen years after being crowned as Vijayabahu in Ruhuna, and after a military campaign that lasted seventeen years. Polonnaruwa was renamed Vijayarajapura and chosen as the capital. The coronation ceremony was held in a palace built for this purpose in Anuradhapura, the former capital of the country. Vijayabahu married Lilavati, the daughter of [[Jagatipala of Kanauj]], as his queen. He later married Tilokasundari, a princess from [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]], with the view of strengthening ties with the Kalingas.{{sfn|Corrington|1926|pages=IV}}
+years after restoring Anuradhapura, Vijayabahu prepared to fight a possible invasion. He moved the capital out of Anuradhapura to a more defensive position, Polonnaruwa.{{sfn|Keuneman|1983|page=39}}{{sfn|Fernando|Pieris|1973|page=14;15;19}} After the victory at Polonnaruwa, Vijayabahu had to face more rebellions. This caused him to delay his coronation, which took place in 1072 or 1073,{{sfn|Haraprasad Ray|2007|page=172}} eighteen years after being crowned as Vijayabahu in Ruhuna, and after a military campaign that lasted seventeen years. Polonnaruwa was renamed Vijayarajapura and chosen as the capital. The coronation ceremony was held in a palace built for this purpose in Anuradhapura, the former capital of the country. Vijayabahu married Lilavati, the daughter of [[Jagatipala of Kanauj]], as his queen. He later married Tilokasundari, a princess from [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]], with the view of strengthening ties with the Kalingas.{{sfn|Corrington|1926|pages=IV}}
 ===Succession war===
@@ Line 74: / Line 74: @@
 Starting from the era of Parakramabahu I, there was great interest in irrigation.{{sfn|Manchanayake|Bandara|1999|page=4}} He ordered:
 {{quote|Let no water drop that falls from the rain make it to the sea without being useful to the mankind}}
-Mass tanks were built for this purpose. Some of his notable works are the [[Parakrama Samudra]] and the [[Giritale tank]]. These works surpassed what existed during the [[Anuradhapura period]]. Previously built dams were largely renovated during this period.{{sfn|Yapa|2010}}<ref name='parakrarama'>{{harvnb|Finegan|page=468}}</ref>
 [[File:The Delightful Sunset in Parakrama Samudra.jpg|thumb|The Parakrama Samudra|300px]]
+Mass tanks were built for this purpose. Some of his notable works are the [[Parakrama Samudra]] and the [[Giritale tank]]. These works surpassed what existed during the [[Anuradhapura period]]. Previously built dams were largely renovated during this period.{{sfn|Yapa|2010}}<ref name='parakrarama'>{{harvnb|Finegan|1989|page=468}}</ref>
 ===Demographics===
@@ Line 101: / Line 101: @@
 ====Vatedage====
 {{main|Vatadage}}
 [[File:Watadageya.jpg|thumb|Vatadage|200px]]
 The Vatadages were built since the Anuradhapura period, however, the peak was reached during the Polonnaruwa period. The [[Polonnaruwa Vatadage]] is considered the "ultimate creation" out of all Vatadages. A Vatedage is built for the protection of a small stupa.{{sfn|Siriweera|2002|page=285}} The structure has two stone platforms decorated with elaborate stone carvings. The lower platform is entered through a single entrance facing the north, while the second platform can be accessed through four doorways facing the four cardinal points. The upper platform, surrounded by a brick wall, contains the stupa. Four Buddha statues are seated around it, each facing one of the entrances. Three concentric rows of stone columns had also been positioned here, presumably to support a wooden roof. The entire structure is decorated with stone carvings. Some of the carvings at the Polonnaruwa Vatadage, such as its sandakada pahanas, are considered to be the best examples of such architectural features. Although some archaeologists have suggested that it also had a wooden roof, this theory is disputed by others.
@@ Line 131: / Line 128: @@
 ==Fall==
 Following the death of Kalinga Lokeshvara, his son [[Vira Bahu I]] took up power. However, he was killed by the military commander Tavuru Senavirat.{{sfn|Obesekara|page=38}} A period of
-[[military junta|military rule]] was followed by the ascension of [[Vikramabahu I]]; who was assassinated by a nephew of Kalinga Lokeshvara, [[Chodaganga]]. The military once again organized a coup and arrested Chodaganga.{{sfn|Wijesekara|page=176}} The military became more dominant, ousting the monarchy; as a result, king Anikanga appealed for support from the Cholas. An army was sent, and Anikanga ascended the throne.{{sfn|Rambukwalle|pages=136;163}} The three month-old [[Dharmásoka of Polonnaruwa]] was slaughtered along with the commander of the Polonnaruwa Royal Army.
+[[military junta|military rule]] was followed by the ascension of [[Vikramabahu I]]; who was assassinated by a nephew of Kalinga Lokeshvara, [[Chodaganga]]. The military once again organized a coup and arrested Chodaganga.{{sfn|Wijesekera|1984|page=176}} The military became more dominant, ousting the monarchy; as a result, king Anikanga appealed for support from the Cholas. An army was sent, and Anikanga ascended the throne.{{sfn|Rambukwalle|pages=136;163}} The three month-old [[Dharmásoka of Polonnaruwa]] was slaughtered along with the commander of the Polonnaruwa Royal Army.
 The military once again seized power, and [[Lilavati of Polonnaruwa|Lilavati]] was installed on the throne. She was ousted by [[Lokissara]], a military commander. The Royal Army, being a rival to Lokissara's forces, killed him.{{sfn|Corrington|1926|page=67}}

v t e Sinhalese monarchy
Sinhala Kingdom
Timeline	Dipavamsa Mahavamsa Culavamsa Rajavaliya
Periods	Pre Anuradhapura & Anuradhapura period Tambapanni Anuradhapura Polonnaruwa period Chola occupation Polonnaruwa Transitional period Dambadeniya Gampola Kotte Sitawaka Kandyan period Kandy
Dynasties	Vijaya Lambakanna I Moriya Lambakanna II Vijayabahu Kalinga Siri Sanga Bo Senasammata Vikramabahu Vimaladharmasuriya Nayaks
Monarchs	By reign Family tree Interregnums 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Sinhalese female monarchs Sinhalese Queens Usurpers Regnal name
Institutions	Royal court Amātya Mandalaya Rājākariya Relic of the tooth of the Buddha
Royal Residences	Tambapaṇṇī Upatissagāma Vijithapura Anuradhapura Sigiriya Rohana Polonnaruwa Dambadeniya Yapahuwa Kurunegala Gampola Dedigama Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte Rayigama Sitawaka Kandy
Related dynasties	Kalinga Vanga Shakya Vedda Pandyan Mauryan Madurai Nayak
Other	Sinhapura Sinhabahu Titles Crown Jewels Royal Standards Pretenders Abhisheka Vijayabā Kollaya

v t e Monarchs of the Sinhala Kingdom
List of monarchs by reign Queens Family tree
Pre-Anuradhapura period House of Vijaya (543–237 BCE)	Prince Vijaya (543 BCE–505 BCE) Upatissa (505 BCE–504 BCE) Panduvasdeva (504 BCE–474 BCE) Abhaya (474 BCE–454 BCE) Tissa (454 BCE–437 BCE)
Anuradhapura period House of Vijaya (543–237 BCE) Chola dynasty (237–215 BCE) House of Vijaya (215–205 BCE) Chola dynasty (205–161 BCE) House of Vijaya (161–103 BCE) The Five Dravidians (103–89 BCE) House of Vijaya (89 BCE–66 CE) House of Lambakanna I (66–436) The Six Dravidians (436–463) House of Moriya (463–691) House of Lambakanna II (691–1017)	Pandukabhaya (437–367 BCE) Mutasiva (367–307 BCE) Devanampiya Tissa (307–267 BCE) Uttiya (267–257 BCE) Mahasiva (257–247 BCE) Suratissa (247–237 BCE) Sena and Guttika (237–215 BCE) Asela (215–205 BCE) Elara (205–161 BCE) Dutugamunu (161–137 BCE) Saddha Tissa (137–119 BCE) Thulatthana (119 BCE) Lanja Tissa (119–109 BCE) Khallata Naga (109–104 BCE) Valagamba (104–103 BCE) Pulahatta (103–100 BCE) Bahiya (100–98 BCE) Panya Mara (98–91 BCE) Pilaya Mara (91–90 BCE) Dathika (90–88 BCE) Valagamba (89–76 BCE) Mahakuli Mahatissa (76–62 BCE) Chora Naga (62–50 BCE) Kuda Tissa (50–47 BCE) Siva I (47 BCE) Vatuka (47 BCE) Darubhatika Tissa (47 BCE) Niliya (47 BCE) Anula (47 BCE) Kutakanna Tissa (42–20 BCE) Bhatikabhaya Abhaya (20 BCE–9 CE) Mahadathika Mahanaga (9–21) Amandagamani Abhaya (21–30) Kanirajanu Tissa (30–33) Chulabhaya (33–35) Sivali (35–35) Interregnum (35–38) Ilanaga (38–44) Chandamukha (44–52) Yassalalaka Tissa (52–60) Subharaja (60–66) Vasabha (66–110) Vankanasika Tissa (110–113) Gajabahu I (113–135) Mahallaka Naga (135–141) Bhatika Tissa (141–165) Kanittha Tissa (165–193) Cula Naga (193–195) Kuda Naga (195–196) Siri Naga I (196–215) Voharika Tissa (215–237) Abhaya Naga (237–245) Siri Naga II (245–247) Vijaya Kumara (247–248) Sangha Tissa I (248–252) Siri Sangha Bodhi I (252–254) Gothabhaya (254–267) Jettha Tissa I (267–277) Mahasena (277–304) Sirimeghavanna (304–332) Jettha Tissa II (332–341) Buddhadasa (341–370) Upatissa I (370–412) Mahanama (412–434) Soththisena (434) Chattagahaka Jantu (434–435) Mittasena (435–436) Pandu (436–441) Parindu (441) Khudda Parinda (441–447) Tiritara (447) Dathiya (447–450) Pithiya (450–452) Dhatusena (463–479) Kashyapa I (479–497) Moggallana I (497–515) Kumara Dhatusena (515–524) Kittisena (524) Siva II (524–525) Upatissa II (525–526) Silakala Ambosamanera (526–539) Dathappabhuti (539–540) Moggallana II (540–560) Kittisiri Meghavanna (560–561) Maha Naga (561–564) Aggabodhi I (564–598) Aggabodhi II (598–608) Sangha Tissa II (608) Moggallana III (608–614) Silameghavanna (614–623) Aggabodhi III (623) Jettha Tissa III (623–624) Aggabodhi III (624–640) Dathopa Tissa I (640–652) Kassapa II (652–661) Dappula I (661–664) Dathopa Tissa II (664–673) Aggabodhi IV (673–689) Unhanagara Hatthadatha (691) Manavanna (691–726) Aggabodhi V (726–732) Kassapa III (732–738) Mahinda I (738–741) Aggabodhi VI (741–781) Aggabodhi VII (781–787) Mahinda II (787–807) Dappula II (807–812) Mahinda III (812–816) Aggabodhi VIII (816–827) Dappula III (827–843) Aggabodhi IX (843–846) Sena I (846–866) Sena II (866–901) Udaya I (901–912) Kassapa IV (912–929) Kassapa V (929–939) Dappula IV (939–940) Dappula V (940–952) Udaya II (952–955) Sena III (955–964) Udaya III (964–972) Sena IV (972–975) Mahinda IV (975–991) Sena V (991–1001) Mahinda V (1001–1029)
Anuradhapura from Rohana	Kassapa VI (1029–1040) Mahalana–Kitti (1040–1042) Vikrama Pandu (1042–1043) Jagatipala (1043–1046) Parakrama Pandu (1046–1048) Loka (1048–1054) Kassapa VII (1054–1055)
Polonnaruwa period House of Vijayabahu (1055–1187) House of Kalinga (1187–1197) House of Vijayabahu (1197–1200) House of Kalinga (1200–1209) House of Vijayabahu (1209–1210) Lokissara (1210–1211) House of Vijayabahu (1211–1212) Pandyan dynasty (1212–1215) Eastern Ganga dynasty (1215–1236)	Vijayabahu I (1055–1110) Jayabahu I (1110–1111) Vikramabahu I (1111–1132) Gajabahu II (1132–1153) Parakramabahu I (1153–1186) Vijayabahu II (1186–1187) Mahinda VI (1187) Nissanka Malla (1187–1196) Vira Bahu I (1196) Vikramabahu II (1196) Chodaganga (1196–1197) Lilavati (1197–1200) Sahassa Malla (1200–1202) Kalyanavati (1202–1208) Dharmasoka (1208–1209) Anikanga (1209) Lilavati (1209–1210) Lokissara (1210–1211) Lilavati (1211–1212) Parakrama Pandya (1212–1215) Kalinga Magha (1215–1236)
Transitional period House of Siri Sanga Bo (1220–1597) House of Senasammata Vikramabahu (1469–1592)	Vijayabahu III (1220–1234) Parakramabahu II (1234–1270) Vijayabahu IV (1270–1272) Bhuvanaikabahu I (1272–1284) Interregnum (1285–1286) Parakramabahu III (1287–1293) Bhuvanaikabahu II (1293–1302) Parakramabahu IV (1302–1326) Bhuvanaikabahu III (1326–1335) Vijayabahu V (1335–1341) Bhuvanaikabahu IV (1341–1351) Parakramabahu V (1344–1359) Vikramabahu III (1357–1374) Bhuvanaikabahu V (1371–1408) Vira Bahu II (1391/92–1397) Vijayabahu VI (1397–1409) Parakramabahu Epa (1409–1412) Parakramabahu VI (1410–1467) Jayabahu II (1467–1472) Bhuvanaikabahu VI (1469–1477) Parakramabahu VII (1477) Parakramabahu VIII (1477–1489) Parakramabahu IX (1489–1513) Vijayabahu VII (1513–1521) Bhuvanaikabahu VII (1521–1551) Dharmapala (1551–1597) Sitawaka Line: Mayadunne (1521–1581) Rajasinha I (1581–1593) Rajasuriya (1593–1594) Kandyan Line: Senasammata Vikramabahu (1469– 1511) Jayavira Bandara (1511–1551) Karalliyadde Bandara (1551–1581) Kusumasana Devi (1582–1582) Rajasinha I (1582–1592)
Kandyan period House of Vimaladharmasuriya (1592–1739) Nayaks of Kandy (1739–1815)	Vimaladharmasuriya I (1592–1604) Senarat (1604–1635) Rajasinha II (1635–1687) Vimaladharmasuriya II (1687–1707) Vira Narendra Sinha (1707–1739) Sri Vijaya Rajasinha (1739–1747) Kirti Sri Rajasinha (1747–1782) Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha (1782–1798) Sri Vikrama Rajasinha (1798–1815)
Italics indicate regent. Category