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[[File:Waterloosäule 2009.jpg|thumb|Waterloo Column]]
[[File:Waterloosäule 2009.jpg|thumb|Waterloo Column]]


The '''Waterloo Column''' (German: ''Waterloosäule'') is a [[victory column]] commemorating the [[Battle of Waterloo]]. While a statue of the goddess [[Victoria (goddess)|victory]] is placed atop the column, the sentiment is somewhat tempered by the tribute to fallen soldiers named on the column's base. It is located in [[Hanover]] in the [[Germany|German]] [[states of Germany|state]] of [[Lower Saxony]]. It was built from 1825 to 1832. It was designed by [[Georg Ludwig Friedrich Laves]], who had been the Hanover court architect since 1814.<ref name="g632">{{cite web | title=Waterloosäule | website=Denkmalatlas Niedersachsen | date=2020-01-31 | url=https://denkmalatlas.niedersachsen.de/viewer/metadata/30759830/1/-/ | language=de | access-date=2024-12-05}}</ref> The troops honored, though German, had been fighting in an army loyal to King George III, who ruled the [[United Kingdom]] of [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] and [[History of Ireland (1801–1923)|Ireland]], since he was also the ruler of the [[Kingdom of Hanover]] through [[Personal Union]].
The '''Waterloo Column''' (German: ''Waterloosäule'') is a [[victory column]] commemorating the [[Battle of Waterloo]] in [[Hanover]] in the German [[states of Germany|state]] of [[Lower Saxony]]. Built from 1825 to 1832, it was designed by [[Georg Ludwig Friedrich Laves]], who had been the Hanover court architect since 1814. While a statue of the goddess [[Victoria (goddess)|Victoria]] is placed atop the column, the sentiment is somewhat tempered by the tribute to fallen soldiers named on the column's base.<ref name="g632">{{cite web |title=Waterloosäule |website=Denkmalatlas Niedersachsen |date=31 January 2020 |url=https://denkmalatlas.niedersachsen.de/viewer/metadata/30759830/1/-/ |language=de |access-date=5 December 2024 |archive-date=7 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241207071700/https://denkmalatlas.niedersachsen.de/viewer/metadata/30759830/1/-/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The troops honoured, though German, had been fighting in an army loyal to [[George III|King George III]], who ruled the United Kingdom of [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] and [[History of Ireland (1801–1923)|Ireland]], since he was also the ruler of the [[Kingdom of Hanover]] through [[Personal union of Great Britain and Hanover|a personal union]].


==Description==
==Description==
[[File:Waterloo H column texts 3.jpg|thumb|View of Column's Base]]
[[File:Waterloo H column texts 3.jpg|thumb|View of the column's base]]
[[File:Waterloosäule nachts Schnee.jpg|thumb|Illuminated column]]
The column reached a height of {{convert|46.31|m|ft}}, while the diameter of the column is {{convert|3.5|m|ftin}}. Its base displays the names of fallen soldiers from regiments named for towns in the kingdom of Hanover, as well as the dedication "Den Siegern von Waterloo, das dankbare Vaterland". (To the victors of Waterloo, [from] the thankful fatherland).<ref name="w029">{{cite web | title=A damned serious business | website=Virtual Exhibitions | date=1916-11-15 | url=https://exhibitions.lib.cam.ac.uk/waterloo/artifacts/waterloosaule-hanover-1/ | access-date=2024-12-04}}</ref> The base of the column displays the names of the 876 fallen soldiers.<ref name="d395">{{cite web | title=Waterloosäule | website=Geschichte unterwegs | url=https://geschichte-unterwegs.app/stationen/gebaeude/waterloosaeule/ | language=de | access-date=2024-12-11}}</ref>
The column reached a height of {{convert|46.31|m|ft}}, while the diameter of the column is {{convert|3.5|m|ftin}}. Its base displays the names of fallen soldiers from regiments named for towns in the kingdom of Hanover, as well as the dedication "Den Siegern von Waterloo, das dankbare Vaterland" (To the victors of Waterloo, [from] the thankful fatherland).<ref name="w029">{{cite web |title=A damned serious business |website=Virtual Exhibitions |date=15 November 1916 |url=https://exhibitions.lib.cam.ac.uk/waterloo/artifacts/waterloosaule-hanover-1/ |access-date=4 December 2024 }}</ref> The base of the column displays the names of the 876 fallen soldiers.<ref name="d395">{{cite web |title=Waterloosäule |website=Geschichte unterwegs |url=https://geschichte-unterwegs.app/stationen/gebaeude/waterloosaeule/ |language=de |access-date=11 December 2024 }}</ref>


The final concept for the project was a celebration of the victory of the state and its monarch.<ref name="g632"/> The statue of victory atop the column was designed by August Hengst. The statue is {{convert|6.3|m|ft}} and is made out of copper and iron. It originated in the metalworker Conrad Beckmann's workshop.<ref name="d395"/>
The final concept for the project was a celebration of the victory of the state and its monarch.<ref name="g632"/> The statue of the [[Victoria (mythology)|goddess of victory]] atop the column was designed by August Hengst.<ref name="g632"/><ref name="d395"/> The statue is {{convert|6.3|m|ft}} and is made out of copper and iron.<ref name="d395"/> It originated in the metalworker Conrad Beckmann's workshop.<ref name="d395"/>


The column's base incorporates eight barrels of field cannons captured in the Battle, which are displayed vertically in the column's base.<ref name="g632"/> A spiral staircase with about 190 steps in the column's interior leads to an observation platform on the top.<ref name="d395"/> It is possible to visit this observation platform, but only on certain days.<ref name="p514">{{cite web | last=Brandau | first=Achim | title=Der schönste Aussichtspunkt in Hannover | website=Hannover entdecken ... | date=2023-06-05 | url=https://www.hannover-entdecken.de/aussichtspunkt-hannover/ | language=de | access-date=2024-12-12}}</ref>
The column's base incorporates eight barrels of field cannons captured in the battle, which are displayed vertically in the column's base.<ref name="g632"/> A spiral staircase with about 190 steps in the column's interior leads to an observation platform on the top.<ref name="d395"/> It is possible to visit this observation platform, but only on certain days.<ref name="p514">{{cite web |last=Brandau |first=Achim |title=Der schönste Aussichtspunkt in Hannover |website=Hannover entdecken ... |date=5 June 2023 |url=https://www.hannover-entdecken.de/aussichtspunkt-hannover/ |language=de |access-date=12 December 2024 |archive-date=11 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241211205430/https://www.hannover-entdecken.de/aussichtspunkt-hannover/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The column is illuminated at night since 2025.


==Historic background==
==Historical background==
[[File:2012-09-15 155316 Hannover Waterloosäule.jpg|thumb|List of Fallen Soldiers]]
[[File:2012-09-15 155316 Hannover Waterloosäule.jpg|thumb|List of Fallen Soldiers]]


The list of fallen soldiers includes members of the [[King's German Legion]]. Many men from Hanover had joined up with the King's German Legion. [[King George III]], who was also the [[Elector of Hanover]], created this Legion due to Napoleon's invasion and occupation of Hanover in 1803. New recruits continued to arrive in Britain in order to reject French occupation.<ref name="i250">{{cite book | last=Simms | first=Brendan | title=The longest afternoon: the 400 men who decided the Battle of Waterloo | publisher=Basic Books | publication-place=New York, NY | date=2015 | isbn=0-465-06482-5 | page=20}}</ref> The occupiers had made Hanover part of the [[puppet state]] of the [[Kingdom of Westphalia]]. While not all the soldiers in the Legion were from Hanover, the legion was meant to be specifically for German troops.<ref name="i250"/>
The list of fallen soldiers includes members of the [[King's German Legion]]. Many men from Hanover had joined up with the King's German Legion. [[King George III]], who was also the [[Elector of Hanover]], created this Legion due to [[Napoleon]]'s invasion and [[Invasion of Hanover (1803)|occupation of Hanover]] in 1803. New recruits continued to arrive in Britain in order to reject French occupation.<ref name="i250">{{cite book |last=Simms |first=Brendan |title=The longest afternoon: the 400 men who decided the Battle of Waterloo |publisher=Basic Books |publication-place=New York, NY |date=2015 |isbn=978-0-465-06482-3 |page=20 }}</ref> The occupiers had made Hanover part of the [[puppet state]] of the [[Kingdom of Westphalia]]. While not all the soldiers in the Legion were from Hanover, the Legion was meant to be specifically for German troops.<ref name="i250"/>


After the defeat of Napoleon at the [[Battle of Leipzig]] in 1813, Hanover, with somewhat expanded boundaries, was reconstituted as an electorate (even though the [[Holy Roman Empire]], which the electorate was a part of, had been dissolved). However, by the time of the Battle of Waterloo, it had become the [[Kingdom of Hanover]]. King George III was the king of Hanover as well as of Britain, but the kingdoms were still separate in many ways, as it was still a personal union.{{efn|For an analysis of the union and how it was viewed by contemporaries in each kingdom toward the end of the union, see Harding (2007)<ref name="h321">{{cite book | last=Harding | first=Nick | title=Hanover and the British Empire, 1700-1837 | publisher=Boydell & Brewer | publication-place=Woodbridge (GB) Rochester (N.Y.) | date=2007 | isbn=978-1-84383-300-0 | page=262-281}}</ref>}} This is why differing succession laws were able, in 1837, to cause [[Queen Victoria]] to become Queen of England while [[Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover|Ernest Augustus]] became the king of Hanover.<ref name="f114">{{cite web | title=European Royalty & Inheritance Rights | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | date=1998-07-20 | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Salic-Law-of-Succession | access-date=2024-12-23}}</ref>
After the defeat of Napoleon at the [[Battle of Leipzig]] in 1813, Hanover, with somewhat expanded boundaries, was reconstituted as an electorate (even though the [[Holy Roman Empire]], which the electorate was a part of, had been dissolved). However, by the time of the Battle of Waterloo, it had become the [[Kingdom of Hanover]]. George III was the king of Hanover and of Britain, but the kingdoms were still separate as it was a [[personal union]].{{efn|For an analysis of the union and how it was viewed by contemporaries in each kingdom toward the end of the union, see Harding (2007)<ref name="h321">{{cite book |last=Harding |first=Nick |title=Hanover and the British Empire, 1700-1837 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |publication-place=Woodbridge (GB) Rochester (N.Y.) |date=2007 |isbn=978-1-84383-300-0 |page=262-281 }}</ref>}} This is why differing succession laws were able, in 1837, to cause [[Queen Victoria]] to become Queen of the United Kingdom of [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] and [[History of Ireland (1801–1923)|Ireland]] while [[Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover|Ernest Augustus]] became the king of Hanover.<ref name="h321"/><ref name="f114">{{cite web |title=European Royalty & Inheritance Rights |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |date=20 July 1998 |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Salic-Law-of-Succession |access-date=23 December 2024 |archive-date=23 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241223190451/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Salic-Law-of-Succession |url-status=live }}</ref>


The [[Battle of Waterloo]] took place on June 18, 1815. The battle was between [[Napoleon|Napoleon's]] [[Napoleonic France|France]] on the one side and Hanover, the [[Duchy of Brunswick]], [[Prussia]], the United Kingdom, the [[Netherlands]] and the [[Duchy of Nassau]] on the other. The troops in this battle included those in the king's German legion.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}
The [[Battle of Waterloo]] took place on 18 June 1815. The battle was between Napoleon's [[Napoleonic France|France]] on the one side and Hanover, the [[Duchy of Brunswick]], [[Prussia]], the United Kingdom, the [[Netherlands]] and the [[Duchy of Nassau]] on the other. The troops in this battle included those in the King's German Legion.<ref name="i250"/>{{efn|In fact, Simms (2015) recounts the effect that one particular battalion of The King's German Legion had on the battle. According to this work, the 400 soldiers of the 2nd Light Battalion had an outsized role in the battle, holding a farm at the centre of the battle line until reinforcements arrived to help them continue.<ref name="i25453">{{cite book |last=Simms |first=Brendan |title=The longest afternoon: the 400 men who decided the Battle of Waterloo |publisher=Basic Books |publication-place=New York, NY |date=2015 |isbn=978-0-465-06482-3 |page= }}</ref>}} In Hanover, there was civic support for a memorial honoring the dead from Hanover by 1816. Funding issues resulted in the project stalling, then eventually picked up by the state.<ref name="g632" />

In Hanover, there was civic support for a memorial honoring the dead from Hanover by 1816. Funding issues resulted in the project stalling and then eventually being picked up by the state.<ref name="g632"/>


==Symbolism and reception==
==Symbolism and reception==
[[File:Waterloosäule Hannover Spaßguerilla-Aktion 2014 mit Fahne.JPG|thumb|Waterloo Column, Victory holding German Flag, 2014]]
[[File:Waterloosäule Hannover Spaßguerilla-Aktion 2014 mit Fahne.JPG|thumb|Waterloo Column, Victoria holding German Flag, 2014]]
During World War II, the tower remained standing despite the damage done to surrounding military targets. Though this probably had more to do with luck than anything else, a modern web exhibition by the Cambridge University library recounts that 'the column survived intact, bearing witness to an earlier era in which a coalition of powers was united against expansionist militarism.'<ref name="w029"/>
During [[World War II]], the tower remained standing despite damage to surrounding military targets.<ref name="w029"/> A modern web exhibition by the Cambridge University library recounts that "the column survived intact, bearing witness to an earlier era in which a coalition of powers was united against expansionist militarism".<ref name="w029"/> The Allied bombing of Germany in World War II is implicitly presented as similar to the coalition action against Napoleon at Waterloo.<ref name="w029"/>


In 1965, [[Queen Elizabeth II]] had intended to lay a wreath at the column. She was, after all, a direct descendant of George III, who had ruled Hanover when the Battle of Waterloo was fought. However, the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] was less comfortable with military heroism than many Germans in decades past, and the German government was also careful not to offend their French allies. The wreath-laying was called off.<ref name="i250a">{{cite book | last=Simms | first=Brendan | title=The longest afternoon: the 400 men who decided the Battle of Waterloo | publisher=Basic Books | publication-place=New York, NY | date=2015 | isbn=0-465-06482-5 | page=67}}</ref><ref name="o351">{{cite web | last=Norton-Taylor | first=Richard | title=Waterloo: A German victory? | website=the Guardian | date=2015-06-09 | url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/defence-and-security-blog/2015/jun/09/waterloo-a-german-victory | access-date=2024-12-19}}</ref>
In 1965, [[Queen Elizabeth II]] had intended to lay a wreath at the column. However, [[West Germany]] was less comfortable with military heroism than many Germans in decades past, and the West German government was also careful not to offend the French, who were now their allies.<ref name="i250a">{{cite book |last=Simms |first=Brendan |title=The longest afternoon: the 400 men who decided the Battle of Waterloo |publisher=Basic Books |publication-place=New York, NY |date=2015 |isbn=978-0-465-06482-3 |page=67 }}</ref><ref name="o351">{{cite web |last=Norton-Taylor |first=Richard |title=Waterloo: A German victory? |website=the Guardian |date=9 June 2015 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/defence-and-security-blog/2015/jun/09/waterloo-a-german-victory |access-date=19 December 2024 }}</ref> The wreath-laying was called off.<ref name="i250a"/><ref name="o351"/>


In 2014, someone gave the statue of victory at the top of the column a German flag in honor of Germany's team in the [[2014 World Cup]] in [[Brazil]].<ref name="x606">{{cite web | last=Woidtke | first=Katja | title=Hannover entdecken: Recht "rüstig" für ihr Alter | website=myheimat.de | date=2015-04-12 | url=https://www.myheimat.de/hannover-calenberger-neustadt/c-kultur/recht-ruestig-fuer-ihr-alter-viktoria-auf-der-waterloosaeule-in-hannover_a2679630 | language=de | access-date=2024-12-15}}</ref> While this display of patriotism may not have been officially sanctioned, the Waterloo Square, where the column is located, was the site of daily public viewing parties of about 17,000 during this same [[FIFA World Cup]].{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}
In 2014, the statue of Victoria at the top of the column was given a German flag, likely in honor of Germany's team in the [[2014 World Cup]] in Brazil.<ref name="x606">{{cite web |last=Woidtke |first=Katja |title=Hannover entdecken: Recht "rüstig" für ihr Alter |website=myheimat.de |date=12 April 2015 |url=https://www.myheimat.de/hannover-calenberger-neustadt/c-kultur/recht-ruestig-fuer-ihr-alter-viktoria-auf-der-waterloosaeule-in-hannover_a2679630 |language=de |access-date=15 December 2024 |archive-date=15 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241215194359/https://www.myheimat.de/hannover-calenberger-neustadt/c-kultur/recht-ruestig-fuer-ihr-alter-viktoria-auf-der-waterloosaeule-in-hannover_a2679630 |url-status=live }}</ref> While this display of patriotism may not have been officially sanctioned, the Waterloo Square, where the column is located, has hosted many large viewing parties for significant sporting events. It was the site of daily public viewing parties of up to 17,000 during the 2006 [[FIFA World Cup]] in Germany.<ref name="o745">{{cite web |title=Postcard from Hannover |website=The Washington Times |date=11 June 2006 |url=https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2006/jun/11/20060611-125741-8652r/ |access-date=25 December 2024 |archive-date=27 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227164752/https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2006/jun/11/20060611-125741-8652r/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The square hosted viewing parties for the [[UEFA European Championship]] in 2024.<ref name="e145">{{cite web |last=Wiemer |first=Pina Olivia |title=Fußball-EM 2024 in Deutschland: Hier findest du die besten Public-Viewing-Spots |website=prosieben |date=10 June 2024 |url=https://www.prosieben.de/serien/galileo/news/fussball-em2024-in-deutschland-hier-findest-du-die-besten-public-viewing-spots-384054 |language=de |access-date=25 December 2024 |archive-date=16 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816152138/https://www.prosieben.de/serien/galileo/news/fussball-em2024-in-deutschland-hier-findest-du-die-besten-public-viewing-spots-384054 |url-status=live }}</ref>


==Notes==
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
{{Notelist}}


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


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[[Category:Columns related to the Napoleonic Wars]]
[[Category:Columns related to the Napoleonic Wars]]
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[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Germany]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Germany]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials completed in the 19th century]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials completed in the 19th century]]
[[Category:Sculptures of Victoria (mythology)]]

Latest revision as of 04:55, 11 January 2025

Waterloo Column

The Waterloo Column (German: Waterloosäule) is a victory column commemorating the Battle of Waterloo in Hanover in the German state of Lower Saxony. Built from 1825 to 1832, it was designed by Georg Ludwig Friedrich Laves, who had been the Hanover court architect since 1814. While a statue of the goddess Victoria is placed atop the column, the sentiment is somewhat tempered by the tribute to fallen soldiers named on the column's base.[1] The troops honoured, though German, had been fighting in an army loyal to King George III, who ruled the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, since he was also the ruler of the Kingdom of Hanover through a personal union.

Description

[edit]
View of the column's base
Illuminated column

The column reached a height of 46.31 metres (151.9 ft), while the diameter of the column is 3.5 metres (11 ft 6 in). Its base displays the names of fallen soldiers from regiments named for towns in the kingdom of Hanover, as well as the dedication "Den Siegern von Waterloo, das dankbare Vaterland" (To the victors of Waterloo, [from] the thankful fatherland).[2] The base of the column displays the names of the 876 fallen soldiers.[3]

The final concept for the project was a celebration of the victory of the state and its monarch.[1] The statue of the goddess of victory atop the column was designed by August Hengst.[1][3] The statue is 6.3 metres (21 ft) and is made out of copper and iron.[3] It originated in the metalworker Conrad Beckmann's workshop.[3]

The column's base incorporates eight barrels of field cannons captured in the battle, which are displayed vertically in the column's base.[1] A spiral staircase with about 190 steps in the column's interior leads to an observation platform on the top.[3] It is possible to visit this observation platform, but only on certain days.[4] The column is illuminated at night since 2025.

Historical background

[edit]
List of Fallen Soldiers

The list of fallen soldiers includes members of the King's German Legion. Many men from Hanover had joined up with the King's German Legion. King George III, who was also the Elector of Hanover, created this Legion due to Napoleon's invasion and occupation of Hanover in 1803. New recruits continued to arrive in Britain in order to reject French occupation.[5] The occupiers had made Hanover part of the puppet state of the Kingdom of Westphalia. While not all the soldiers in the Legion were from Hanover, the Legion was meant to be specifically for German troops.[5]

After the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, Hanover, with somewhat expanded boundaries, was reconstituted as an electorate (even though the Holy Roman Empire, which the electorate was a part of, had been dissolved). However, by the time of the Battle of Waterloo, it had become the Kingdom of Hanover. George III was the king of Hanover and of Britain, but the kingdoms were still separate as it was a personal union.[a] This is why differing succession laws were able, in 1837, to cause Queen Victoria to become Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland while Ernest Augustus became the king of Hanover.[6][7]

The Battle of Waterloo took place on 18 June 1815. The battle was between Napoleon's France on the one side and Hanover, the Duchy of Brunswick, Prussia, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and the Duchy of Nassau on the other. The troops in this battle included those in the King's German Legion.[5][b] In Hanover, there was civic support for a memorial honoring the dead from Hanover by 1816. Funding issues resulted in the project stalling, then eventually picked up by the state.[1]

Symbolism and reception

[edit]
Waterloo Column, Victoria holding German Flag, 2014

During World War II, the tower remained standing despite damage to surrounding military targets.[2] A modern web exhibition by the Cambridge University library recounts that "the column survived intact, bearing witness to an earlier era in which a coalition of powers was united against expansionist militarism".[2] The Allied bombing of Germany in World War II is implicitly presented as similar to the coalition action against Napoleon at Waterloo.[2]

In 1965, Queen Elizabeth II had intended to lay a wreath at the column. However, West Germany was less comfortable with military heroism than many Germans in decades past, and the West German government was also careful not to offend the French, who were now their allies.[9][10] The wreath-laying was called off.[9][10]

In 2014, the statue of Victoria at the top of the column was given a German flag, likely in honor of Germany's team in the 2014 World Cup in Brazil.[11] While this display of patriotism may not have been officially sanctioned, the Waterloo Square, where the column is located, has hosted many large viewing parties for significant sporting events. It was the site of daily public viewing parties of up to 17,000 during the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany.[12] The square hosted viewing parties for the UEFA European Championship in 2024.[13]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ For an analysis of the union and how it was viewed by contemporaries in each kingdom toward the end of the union, see Harding (2007)[6]
  2. ^ In fact, Simms (2015) recounts the effect that one particular battalion of The King's German Legion had on the battle. According to this work, the 400 soldiers of the 2nd Light Battalion had an outsized role in the battle, holding a farm at the centre of the battle line until reinforcements arrived to help them continue.[8]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e "Waterloosäule". Denkmalatlas Niedersachsen (in German). 31 January 2020. Archived from the original on 7 December 2024. Retrieved 5 December 2024.
  2. ^ a b c d "A damned serious business". Virtual Exhibitions. 15 November 1916. Retrieved 4 December 2024.
  3. ^ a b c d e "Waterloosäule". Geschichte unterwegs (in German). Retrieved 11 December 2024.
  4. ^ Brandau, Achim (5 June 2023). "Der schönste Aussichtspunkt in Hannover". Hannover entdecken ... (in German). Archived from the original on 11 December 2024. Retrieved 12 December 2024.
  5. ^ a b c Simms, Brendan (2015). The longest afternoon: the 400 men who decided the Battle of Waterloo. New York, NY: Basic Books. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-465-06482-3.
  6. ^ a b Harding, Nick (2007). Hanover and the British Empire, 1700-1837. Woodbridge (GB) Rochester (N.Y.): Boydell & Brewer. p. 262-281. ISBN 978-1-84383-300-0.
  7. ^ "European Royalty & Inheritance Rights". Encyclopedia Britannica. 20 July 1998. Archived from the original on 23 December 2024. Retrieved 23 December 2024.
  8. ^ Simms, Brendan (2015). The longest afternoon: the 400 men who decided the Battle of Waterloo. New York, NY: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-06482-3.
  9. ^ a b Simms, Brendan (2015). The longest afternoon: the 400 men who decided the Battle of Waterloo. New York, NY: Basic Books. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-465-06482-3.
  10. ^ a b Norton-Taylor, Richard (9 June 2015). "Waterloo: A German victory?". the Guardian. Retrieved 19 December 2024.
  11. ^ Woidtke, Katja (12 April 2015). "Hannover entdecken: Recht "rüstig" für ihr Alter". myheimat.de (in German). Archived from the original on 15 December 2024. Retrieved 15 December 2024.
  12. ^ "Postcard from Hannover". The Washington Times. 11 June 2006. Archived from the original on 27 February 2021. Retrieved 25 December 2024.
  13. ^ Wiemer, Pina Olivia (10 June 2024). "Fußball-EM 2024 in Deutschland: Hier findest du die besten Public-Viewing-Spots". prosieben (in German). Archived from the original on 16 August 2024. Retrieved 25 December 2024.

52°21′59.4″N 9°43′39.4″E / 52.366500°N 9.727611°E / 52.366500; 9.727611

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