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| image_size =
| image_size =
| alt = Purple-red head statue
| alt = Purple-red head statue
| caption = [[Porphyry (geology)|Porphyry]] bust of Galerius, found in 1993 at [[Gamzigrad]] and held at the {{ill|National Museum Zaječar{{!}}National Museum|sr|Narodni muzej Zaječar}} in [[Zaječar]], [[Serbia]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Elsner|first=Jas|author-link=Jas Elsner|year=2018|title=The Art of the Roman Empire AD 100-450|page=58|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=9780198768630|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1HpVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|quote=A recently discovered porphyry head of a tetrarch from Romuliana in modern Serbia —the birth and burial place of Galerius (293–311) [...] It is likely that the statue portrays Galerius as Caesar after his victory over the Persians in AD 297/8.}}</ref>
| caption = Likely bust of Galerius in [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]], found in 1993 at [[Gamzigrad]] and held at the {{ill|National Museum Zaječar{{!}}National Museum|sr|Narodni muzej Zaječar}} in [[Zaječar]], [[Serbia]].<ref>[http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=1217 http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk, LSA-845 (Marianne Bergmann)]</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Elsner|first=Jas|author-link=Jas Elsner|year=2018|title=The Art of the Roman Empire AD 100–450|page=58|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=9780198768630|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1HpVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|quote=A recently discovered porphyry head of a tetrarch from Romuliana in modern Serbia—the birth and burial place of Galerius (293–311) [...] It is likely that the statue portrays Galerius as Caesar after his victory over the Persians in AD 297/8.}}</ref>
| succession = [[Roman emperor]]
| succession = [[Roman emperor]]
| moretext = (in [[Eastern Roman Empire|the East]])
| moretext = (in [[Eastern Roman Empire|the East]])
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| reign1 = 1 March 293{{efn|The earlier dates for Galerius' appointment have been argued for based on the suggestion that the appointments of Constantius and Galerius were timed to coincide (Barnes 1981, 8–9; Southern 1999, 146). Barnes (1982, 62) argues against a dating of 21 May 293 in Nicomedia originating in Seston, ''Dioclétien'', 88ff., stating that the evidence adduced (the 7th-century [[Chronicon Paschale|Paschal Chronicle]] [https://archive.org/details/chronicon-p/page/2/mode/1up Ol.268] and the contemporary [[Lactantius]], ''[[De mortibus persecutorum|DMP]]'' 19.2) is invalid and confused. Lactantius is commenting on Diocletian and the place where Diocletian was acclaimed, and that the "Maximianus" in the text is therefore a later gloss; the Paschal Chronicle is not authoritative for this period for events outside Egypt, and may simply be commenting on the day when the laureled image of the new emperors arrived in Alexandria. Moreover, Lactantius ([https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0705.htm ''DMP'' 35]) explicitly states that Galerius' ''[[dies imperii]]'' fell on 1 March. Potter (2004, 650) agrees that locating the acclamation to Nicomedia is false, but believes that Seston's other evidence makes a strong case for a temporal lag between the two Caesars' acclamations.}}&nbsp;–&nbsp;1 May 305 (under [[Diocletian]]){{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=4}}
| reign1 = 1 March 293{{efn|The earlier dates for Galerius' appointment have been argued for based on the suggestion that the appointments of Constantius and Galerius were timed to coincide (Barnes 1981, 8–9; Southern 1999, 146). Barnes (1982, 62) argues against a dating of 21 May 293 in Nicomedia originating in Seston, ''Dioclétien'', 88ff., stating that the evidence adduced (the 7th-century [[Chronicon Paschale|Paschal Chronicle]] [https://archive.org/details/chronicon-p/page/2/mode/1up Ol.268] and the contemporary [[Lactantius]], ''[[De mortibus persecutorum|DMP]]'' 19.2) is invalid and confused. Lactantius is commenting on Diocletian and the place where Diocletian was acclaimed, and that the "Maximianus" in the text is therefore a later gloss; the Paschal Chronicle is not authoritative for this period for events outside Egypt, and may simply be commenting on the day when the laureled image of the new emperors arrived in Alexandria. Moreover, Lactantius ([https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0705.htm ''DMP'' 35]) explicitly states that Galerius' ''[[dies imperii]]'' fell on 1 March. Potter (2004, 650) agrees that locating the acclamation to Nicomedia is false, but believes that Seston's other evidence makes a strong case for a temporal lag between the two Caesars' acclamations.}}&nbsp;–&nbsp;1 May 305 (under [[Diocletian]]){{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=4}}
| reign-type1 = [[Caesar (title)|''Caesar'']]
| reign-type1 = [[Caesar (title)|''Caesar'']]
| birth_date = {{circa}} 258{{sfn|Leadbetter|pp=18–21}}{{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=37}}
| birth_date = {{Circa|258}}{{sfn|Leadbetter|pp=18–21}}{{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=37}}
| birth_place = [[Felix Romuliana]]<!-- ([[Gamzigrad]])-->, [[Roman Dacia]], [[Roman Empire]]{{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=37}}
| birth_place = [[Felix Romuliana]]<!-- ([[Gamzigrad]])-->, [[Roman Dacia]], [[Roman Empire]]{{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=37}}
| birth_name = Galerius Maximinus<ref name=name>[[Lactantius]], ''[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0705.htm de Mortibus Persecutorum]'', 18. "Now Galerius had lately bestowed part of his own name on that youth [Daia], and called him Maximin, in like manner as Diocletian formerly bestowed on Galerius the name of Maximian".</ref><ref>For an analysis of the official nomenclature of the Tetrarchs, see {{cite journal |last=Salway |year=1994 |first=Benet |title=What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700 |journal=[[Journal of Roman Studies]] |volume=84 |pages=137–140 |doi=10.2307/300873 |jstor=300873 |s2cid=162435434 |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/114213/1/SalwayJRS1994.pdf |author-link=Benet Salway}}</ref>
| birth_name = Galerius Maximinus<ref name=name>[[Lactantius]], ''[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0705.htm de Mortibus Persecutorum]'', 18. "Now Galerius had lately bestowed part of his own name on that youth [Daia], and called him Maximin, in like manner as Diocletian formerly bestowed on Galerius the name of Maximian".</ref><ref>For an analysis of the official nomenclature of the Tetrarchs, see {{cite journal |last=Salway |year=1994 |first=Benet |title=What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700 |journal=[[Journal of Roman Studies]] |volume=84 |pages=137–140 |doi=10.2307/300873 |jstor=300873 |s2cid=162435434 |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/114213/1/SalwayJRS1994.pdf |author-link=Benet Salway}}</ref>
| death_date = early May 311<ref>[[Lactantius]], [https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0705.htm''DMP'' 35.4.] "This edict was promulgated at Nicomedia on the day preceding the kalends of May [30 April]... In a few days after he was consumed by the horrible disease that had brought on an universal putrefaction [...] This event was known at Nicomedia before the end of the month.".</ref> (aged c. 53)
| death_date = early May 311<ref>[[Lactantius]], [https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0705.htm''DMP'' 35.4.] "This edict was promulgated at Nicomedia on the day preceding the kalends of May [30 April]... In a few days after he was consumed by the horrible disease that had brought on an universal putrefaction [...] This event was known at Nicomedia before the end of the month.".</ref> (aged {{Circa|53}})
| death_place = [[Serdica]], [[Dacia Ripensis]], Roman Empire
| death_place = [[Serdica]], [[Dacia Ripensis]], Roman Empire
| burial_place = [[Felix Romuliana]]{{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=37}}
| burial_place = [[Felix Romuliana]]{{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=37}}
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| regnal name = Imperator Caesar Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus Augustus
| regnal name = Imperator Caesar Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus Augustus
| father = [[Diocletian]] (adoptive)
| father = [[Diocletian]] (adoptive)
| mother = Romula (alleged){{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=37–38}}
| mother = Romula (alleged){{sfn|Barnes|1982|pp=37–38}}
| religion = [[Roman polytheism]]
| religion = [[Roman polytheism]]
}}
}}


'''Galerius Valerius Maximianus'''{{efn|Sometimes called "'''Maximian II'''" ,<ref>{{cite book|last=Sandys|first=John|author-link=John Sandys (classicist)|year=1927|title=Latin Epigraphy: An Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vzc9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA232|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=232}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Maxwelll|first=Craven|year=2019|title=The Imperial Families of Ancient Rome|publisher=Fonthill Media|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VEbCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT414|page=414}}</ref>
'''Galerius Valerius Maximianus'''{{efn|Sometimes called "'''Maximian II'''" ,<ref>{{cite book|last=Sandys|first=John|author-link=John Sandys (classicist)|year=1927|title=Latin Epigraphy: An Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vzc9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA232|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=232}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Maxwelll|first=Craven|year=2019|title=The Imperial Families of Ancient Rome|publisher=Fonthill Media|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VEbCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT414|page=414}}</ref>
since ancient sources often call him "Galerius Maximianus".}} ({{IPAc-en|ɡ|ə|ˈ|l|ɛər|i|ə|s}}; [[Greek language|Greek]]: Γαλέριος; {{circa}} 258 – May 311) was [[Roman emperor]] from 305 to 311. During his reign he campaigned, aided by [[Diocletian]], against the [[Sasanian Empire]], sacking their capital [[Ctesiphon]] in 299. He also campaigned across the [[Danube]] against the [[Carpi (people)|Carpi]], defeating them in 297 and 300. Although he was a staunch opponent of [[Christianity]], Galerius ended the [[Diocletianic Persecution]] when he issued the [[Edict of Serdica|Edict of Toleration]] in [[Serdica]] (Sofia) in 311.
since ancient sources often call him "Galerius Maximianus".}} ({{IPAc-en|ɡ|ə|ˈ|l|ɛər|i|ə|s}}; [[Greek language|Greek]]: Γαλέριος; {{circa}} 258 – May 311) was [[Roman emperor]] from 305 to 311. While acting as Caesar under Emperor [[Diocletian]], Galerius obtained victory warring against the Persian [[Sassanian Empire]], defeating [[Narseh]] at the battle of Satala in 298 and possibly sacking the Sassanian capital of [[Ctesiphon]] in 299. He also campaigned across the [[Danube]] against the [[Carpi (people)|Carpi]], defeating them in 297 and 300. Although he was a staunch opponent of [[Christianity]], Galerius ended the [[Diocletianic Persecution]] when he issued the [[Edict of Serdica|Edict of Toleration]] in [[Serdica]] (Sofia) in 311.


==Early life==
==Early life==
Galerius was born near [[Sofia|Serdica]],<ref>"''Maximianus Galerius in Dacia haud longe a Serdica natus''", Eutropii Breviarum IX. 22.</ref> in [[Dacia Ripensis]], later named Dacia Mediterranea, though some modern scholars consider the strategic site where he later built his palace named after his mother – [[Gamzigrad|Felix Romuliana]] ([[Gamzigrad]]) – his birth and funeral place.{{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=37}} His [[Thracians|Thracian]] father and his [[Dacians|Dacian]] mother, Romula, had left [[Roman Dacia]] (today [[Romania]]) because of the [[Carpi people|Carpians]]' attacks.<ref>{{citation | last = Lactantius | title = de Mortibus Persecutorum}}, chapter 9</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0705.htm|title = CHURCH FATHERS: Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died (Lactantius)}}</ref>{{rp |19}} He originally followed his father's occupation, that of a herdsman, where he was nicknamed "Armentarius", herdsman ({{lang-la|armentum|lit=herd}}).{{sfn|PLRE|loc=Vol. 1|p= 574}} His original ''[[cognomen]]'' was "Maximinus", but he changed it to "Maximianus" after becoming ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]''.<ref name=name/>
Galerius was born near [[Sofia|Serdica]],<ref>"''Maximianus Galerius in Dacia haud longe a Serdica natus''", Eutropii Breviarum IX. 22.</ref> in [[Dacia Ripensis]], later named Dacia Mediterranea, though some modern scholars consider the strategic site where he later built his palace named after his mother – [[Gamzigrad|Felix Romuliana]] ([[Gamzigrad]]) – his birth and funeral place.{{sfn|Barnes|1982|p=37}} His [[Thracians|Thracian]] father and his mother, Romula, had left [[Roman Dacia]] (today [[Romania]]) because of the [[Carpi people|Carpians]]' attacks.<ref>{{citation | last = Lactantius | title = de Mortibus Persecutorum}}, chapter 9</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0705.htm|title = Church Fathers: Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died (Lactantius)}}</ref>{{rp |19}} He originally followed his father's occupation, that of a herdsman, where he was nicknamed "Armentarius", herdsman ({{langx|la|armentum|lit=herd}}).{{sfn|PLRE|loc=Vol. 1|p= 574}} His original ''[[cognomen]]'' was "Maximinus", but he changed it to "Maximianus" after becoming ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]''.<ref name=name/>


[[File:Istanbul - Museo archeol. - Diocleziano (284-305 d.C.) - Foto G. Dall'Orto 28-5-2006.jpg|thumb|Diocletian, Galerius' father-in-law and senior emperor]]
[[File:Istanbul - Museo archeol. - Diocleziano (284-305 d.C.) - Foto G. Dall'Orto 28-5-2006.jpg|thumb|Diocletian, Galerius' father-in-law and senior emperor]]
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In 294, [[Narseh]], a son of [[Shapur I]], who had been passed over for the Sassanid succession, came into power in Persia. Narseh probably moved to eliminate [[Bahram III]], a young man installed by a noble named Vahunam in the wake of Bahram II's death in 293.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=292}}<ref name = "Williams Diocletian">{{citation | last = Williams | title = Diocletian}}</ref>{{rp |69}} In early 294, Narseh sent Diocletian the customary package of gifts, but within Persia, he was destroying every trace of his immediate predecessors, erasing their names from public monuments. He sought to identify himself with the warlike reigns of [[Ardashir I|Ardashir]] (r. 226–241) and [[Shapur I|Shapur]] (r. 241–272), who had sacked Roman Antioch and captured Emperor [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]].<ref name = "Williams Diocletian" />{{rp |69–70}}
In 294, [[Narseh]], a son of [[Shapur I]], who had been passed over for the Sassanid succession, came into power in Persia. Narseh probably moved to eliminate [[Bahram III]], a young man installed by a noble named Vahunam in the wake of Bahram II's death in 293.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=292}}<ref name = "Williams Diocletian">{{citation | last = Williams | title = Diocletian}}</ref>{{rp |69}} In early 294, Narseh sent Diocletian the customary package of gifts, but within Persia, he was destroying every trace of his immediate predecessors, erasing their names from public monuments. He sought to identify himself with the warlike reigns of [[Ardashir I|Ardashir]] (r. 226–241) and [[Shapur I|Shapur]] (r. 241–272), who had sacked Roman Antioch and captured Emperor [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]].<ref name = "Williams Diocletian" />{{rp |69–70}}


In 295 or 296, Narseh declared war on Rome. He appears to have first invaded western Armenia, retaking the lands delivered to Tiridates in the peace of 287. He occupied the lands there until the following year.{{sfn|Potter|2004}}<ref name = "Southern Severus">{{citation | last = Southern | title = Severus to Constantine}}</ref>{{rp |149}}<ref name = "Barnes Constantine 17">Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', p. 17.</ref>{{rp |292}}<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus 23.5.11.</ref> The historian Ammianus Marcellinus, circa 320–395, is the only source detailing the initial invasion of Armenia.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=651–652}} Southern (1999, 149) dates the invasion to 295; Barnes (1982, 17, 293) mentions an earlier, unsuccessful invasion by Narseh based on the fact that the title ''Persici Maximi'' was given to all four emperors; Odahl (2004, 59) concurs with Barnes and suggests that Saracen princes in the Syrian desert collaborated with Narseh's invasion. Narseh then moved south into Roman Mesopotamia, where he inflicted [[Battle of Carrhae (296)|a severe defeat]] on Galerius, then commander of the eastern forces, in the region between Carrhae ([[Harran]], Turkey) and Callinicum ([[Raqqa]], Syria).<ref name = "Barnes Constantine 17" /> Diocletian may or may not have been present at the battle,{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=652}} but presented himself soon afterwards at Antioch, issuing an official version of events which placed all the blame for the affair upon Galerius. In Antioch, Diocletian forced Galerius to walk a mile in advance of his imperial cart while still clad in the purple robes of an emperor.{{sfn|Potter|2004}}<ref name = "Barnes Constantine 17" />{{rp |292–293}} [[David Stone Potter]] reads a symbolic message in the display: the loss at Carrhae was due not to the failings of the empire's soldiers, but to the failings of their commander, and Galerius' failures would not be accepted.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}} Another scholar, Roger Rees, suggests that Galerius' position at the head of the caravan was merely the conventional organization of an imperial progression, designed to show a ''Caesar''<nowiki/>'s deference to his ''Augustus''.<ref>Rees, ''Diocletian and the Tetrarchy'', p. 14.</ref>
In 295 or 296, Narseh declared war on Rome. He appears to have first invaded western Armenia, retaking the lands delivered to Tiridates in the peace of 287. He occupied the lands there until the following year.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=292}}{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=149}}{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=17}}<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus 23.5.11.</ref> The historian Ammianus Marcellinus, circa 320–395, is the only source detailing the initial invasion of Armenia.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=651–652}} Southern (1999, 149) dates the invasion to 295; Barnes (1982, 17, 293) mentions an earlier, unsuccessful invasion by Narseh based on the fact that the title ''Persici Maximi'' was given to all four emperors; Odahl (2004, 59) concurs with Barnes and suggests that Saracen princes in the Syrian desert collaborated with Narseh's invasion. Narseh then moved south into Roman Mesopotamia, where he inflicted [[Battle of Carrhae (296)|a severe defeat]] on Galerius, then commander of the eastern forces, in the region between Carrhae ([[Harran]], Turkey) and Callinicum ([[Raqqa]], Syria).{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=17}} Diocletian may or may not have been present at the battle,{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=652}} but presented himself soon afterwards at Antioch, issuing an official version of events which placed all the blame for the affair upon Galerius. In Antioch, Diocletian forced Galerius to walk a mile in advance of his imperial cart while still clad in the purple robes of an emperor.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=292–293}}{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=17}} [[David Stone Potter]] reads a symbolic message in the display: the loss at Carrhae was due not to the failings of the empire's soldiers, but to the failings of their commander, and Galerius' failures would not be accepted.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}} Another scholar, Roger Rees, suggests that Galerius' position at the head of the caravan was merely the conventional organization of an imperial progression, designed to show a ''Caesar''<nowiki/>'s deference to his ''Augustus''.{{sfn|Rees|2004|p=14}}


[[File:Arch-of-Galerius-1.jpg|right|thumb|Detail of Galerius attacking [[Narseh]] on the [[Arch and Tomb of Galerius#Arch of Galerius|Arch of Galerius]] at [[Thessaloniki]], [[Greece]], the city where Galerius carried out most of his administrative actions.<ref name="Southern Severus" />{{rp |151}}]]
[[File:Arch-of-Galerius-1.jpg|right|thumb|Detail of Galerius attacking [[Narseh]] on the [[Arch and Tomb of Galerius#Arch of Galerius|Arch of Galerius]] at [[Thessaloniki]], [[Greece]], the city where Galerius carried out most of his administrative actions.{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=151}}]]


Galerius's army was reinforced probably in the spring of 298 by new contingents collected from the empire's Danubian holdings.<ref name="Barnes, p. 18">Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', p. 18.</ref> Narseh did not advance from Armenia and Mesopotamia leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}} Diocletian may or may not have been present to assist the campaign.<ref>Lactantius (''DMP'' 9.6) derides Diocletian for his absence from the front; Southern (1999, 151, 335–336), on the basis of a dating of the African campaigns one year earlier than that given by Barnes, places him at Galerius' southern flank. Southern sees the Persian campaign progressing along the lines of [[Marcus Aurelius]]' (r. 161–180) earlier, unsuccessful [[Roman–Parthian War of 161–66|Parthian campaign]], which also had an emperor manning the southern flank.</ref> Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius' force, putting himself at a disadvantage; the rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman infantry, but not to Sassanid cavalry. Local aid gave Galerius the advantage of surprise over the Persian forces, and he defeated Narseh in two successive battles.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}}<ref name="Barnes, p. 18"/> During the second encounter, the [[Battle of Satala (298)|Battle of Satala]] in 298, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}}<ref name = "Barnes, p. 18" /> Narseh's wife would live out the remainder of the war in Daphne, a suburb of Antioch, serving as a constant reminder to the Persians of the Roman victory.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}}
Galerius's army was reinforced probably in the spring of 298 by new contingents collected from the empire's Danubian holdings.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}} Narseh did not advance from Armenia and Mesopotamia leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}} Diocletian may or may not have been present to assist the campaign.<ref>Lactantius (''DMP'' 9.6) derides Diocletian for his absence from the front; Southern (1999, 151, 335–336), on the basis of a dating of the African campaigns one year earlier than that given by Barnes, places him at Galerius' southern flank. Southern sees the Persian campaign progressing along the lines of [[Marcus Aurelius]]' (r. 161–180) earlier, unsuccessful [[Roman–Parthian War of 161–66|Parthian campaign]], which also had an emperor manning the southern flank.</ref> Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius' force, putting himself at a disadvantage; the rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman infantry, but not to Sassanid cavalry. Local aid gave Galerius the advantage of surprise over the Persian forces, and he defeated Narseh in two successive battles.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}}{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}} During the second encounter, the [[Battle of Satala (298)|Battle of Satala]] in 298, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}}{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}} Narseh's wife would live out the remainder of the war in Daphne, a suburb of Antioch, serving as a constant reminder to the Persians of the Roman victory.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}}


Galerius advanced into [[Media (region)|Media]] and [[Adiabene]], winning continuous victories, most prominently near [[Erzurum|Theodosiopolis]] (Erzurum),<ref name="Southern Severus" />{{rp |151}} and securing [[Nusaybin|Nisibis]] (Nusaybin) before 1 October 298. He moved down the [[Tigris]], taking [[Ctesiphon]], and gazing onwards to the ruins of [[Babylon]] before returning to Roman territory via the [[Euphrates]].<ref name = "Barnes, p. 18" /> No source ever specifically claims that Ctesiphon was sacked, but it is assumed to have been, primarily due to the seizure of Narseh's wife and harem.<ref name="Southern Severus"/>{{rp |150}}
Galerius advanced into [[Media (region)|Media]] and [[Adiabene]], winning continuous victories, most prominently near [[Erzurum|Theodosiopolis]] (Erzurum),{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=151}} and securing [[Nusaybin|Nisibis]] (Nusaybin) before 1 October 298. The historian Timothy Barnes argues that he moved down the [[Tigris]], taking [[Ctesiphon]]. Barnes main argument for this is that Eusebius' biography of Constantine mentions that the later emperor had seen the ruins of [[Babylon]] according to this work.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}} Patricia Southern also argues that he took Ctesiphon based on the uncertainty of the location where the seizure of Narseh's wife and harem took place. However, no source ever specifically claims that Ctesiphon was sacked and many other historians argue Diocletian prevented him from moving further into Sasanian territory.{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=150}} <ref>{{cite book |last1=Dignas |first1=Beate |last2=Winter |first2=Engelbert |title=Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals |date=13 September 2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-84925-8 |pages=29–30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MG2hqcRDvJgC&pg=PA51 |language=en}}</ref>


===Peace negotiations===
===Peace negotiations===
Narseh had previously sent an ambassador to Galerius to plead for the return of his wife and children, but Galerius had dismissed this ambassador, reminding him of how Shapur had treated Valerian.<ref name="Barnes, p. 18"/> In any case, the Romans treated Narseh's captured family well, perhaps seeking to evoke comparisons to [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] and his beneficent conduct towards the family of [[Darius III of Persia|Darius III]].{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}} Peace negotiations began in the spring of 299, with both Diocletian and Galerius presiding. Their ''magister memoriae'' (secretary) Sicorius Probus was sent to Narseh to present terms.<ref name="Barnes, p. 18"/>
Narseh had previously sent an ambassador to Galerius to plead for the return of his wife and children, but Galerius had dismissed this ambassador, reminding him of how Shapur had treated Valerian.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}} In any case, the Romans treated Narseh's captured family well, perhaps seeking to evoke comparisons to [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] and his beneficent conduct towards the family of [[Darius III of Persia|Darius III]].{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}} Peace negotiations began in the spring of 299, with both Diocletian and Galerius presiding. Their ''magister memoriae'' (secretary) Sicorius Probus was sent to Narseh to present terms.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}}


The conditions of the [[Peace of Nisibis (299)|Peace of Nisibis]] were heavy:{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}} Persia would give up territory to Rome, making the Tigris the boundary between the two empires. Further terms specified that Armenia was returned to Roman domination with the fort of Ziatha as its border; [[Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Caucasian Iberia]] would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; Nisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and Rome; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between the Tigris and Armenia: [[Ingilene]], Sophanene ([[Sophene]]), Arzanene ([[Aghdznik]]), [[Corduene]], and [[Zabdicene]] (near modern [[Hakkâri (city)|Hakkâri]], Turkey). These regions included the passage of the Tigris through the [[Anti-Taurus Mountains|Anti-Taurus]] range; the [[Bitlis]] pass, the quickest southerly route into Persian Armenia; and access to the [[Tur Abdin]] plateau. With these territories, Rome would have an advance station north of Ctesiphon, and would be able to slow any future advance of Persian forces through the region.<ref>The acceptance of these terms by the Persians also meant that Syriac culture would earn long-term influence in the region on both sides of the Tigris. With the heavily Christian Syriac peoples so near their border, Armenia would also become susceptible to Christian influence in later years, leading to its eventual conversion under Tiridates. Potter, ''The Roman Empire at Bay'', p. 293.</ref> Under the terms of the peace, Tiridates would regain both his throne and the entirety of his ancestral claim, and Rome would secure a wide zone of cultural influence in the region.<ref name="Barnes, p. 18"/> Because the empire was able to sustain such constant warfare on so many fronts, it has been taken as a sign of the essential efficacy of the Diocletianic system and the goodwill of the army towards the tetrarchic enterprise.<ref name = "Southern Severus" />{{rp |150}}
The conditions of the [[Peace of Nisibis (299)|Peace of Nisibis]] were heavy:{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=293}} Persia would give up territory to Rome, making the Tigris the boundary between the two empires. Further terms specified that Armenia was returned to Roman domination with the fort of Ziatha as its border; [[Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Caucasian Iberia]] would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; Nisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and Rome; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between the Tigris and Armenia: [[Ingilene]], Sophanene ([[Sophene]]), Arzanene ([[Aghdznik]]), [[Corduene]], and [[Zabdicene]] (near modern [[Hakkâri (city)|Hakkâri]], Turkey). These regions included the passage of the Tigris through the [[Anti-Taurus Mountains|Anti-Taurus]] range; the [[Bitlis]] pass, the quickest southerly route into Persian Armenia; and access to the [[Tur Abdin]] plateau. With these territories, Rome would have an advance station north of Ctesiphon, and would be able to slow any future advance of Persian forces through the region.<ref>The acceptance of these terms by the Persians also meant that Syriac culture would earn long-term influence in the region on both sides of the Tigris. With the heavily Christian Syriac peoples so near their border, Armenia would also become susceptible to Christian influence in later years, leading to its eventual conversion under Tiridates. Potter, ''The Roman Empire at Bay'', p. 293.</ref> Under the terms of the peace, Tiridates would regain both his throne and the entirety of his ancestral claim, and Rome would secure a wide zone of cultural influence in the region.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|p=18}} Because the empire was able to sustain such constant warfare on so many fronts, it has been taken as a sign of the essential efficacy of the Diocletianic system and the goodwill of the army towards the tetrarchic enterprise.{{sfn|Southern|2001|p=150}}


==Rule as Augustus==
==Rule as Augustus==
[[File:Galerius Caesar aureus.jpg|thumb|280px|left|[[Aureus]] of Galerius, marked: "MAXIMIANVS NOB CAES / IOVI CONS CAES".{{efn|Emperor [[Maximian]] apparently never issued any coinage when he was ''Caesar'', so coins with the name "Maximianus Caesar" must represent Galerius. The only source that refers to Maximian as having been ''Caesar'' is [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]].<ref>Nixon 2015, [https://books.google.com/books?id=lbQwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 p. 47]</ref>}}]]
[[File:Rare aureus of Galerius Caesar.jpg|thumb|280px|left|[[Aureus]] of Galerius as ''Caesar''. The reverse depicts the god [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]].{{efn|Emperor [[Maximian]] apparently never issued any coinage when he was ''Caesar'', so coins with the name "Maximianus Caesar" must represent Galerius. The only source that refers to Maximian as having been ''Caesar'' is [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]].<ref>Nixon 2015, [https://books.google.com/books?id=lbQwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 p. 47]</ref>}}]]


After the abdication of [[Diocletian]] in 305 and the elevation of [[Constantius I]] and Galerius to the rank of ''[[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]'', two new ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]''s were required to take their place. The two persons whom Galerius promoted to the rank of ''Caesar'' were very much his creatures, and he hoped to enhance his authority throughout the empire with their elevation.<ref name = "ReferenceA">{{citation | last = Gibbon | first = Edward | title = Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire | chapter = 14}}</ref>
After the abdication of [[Diocletian]] in 305 and the elevation of [[Constantius I]] and Galerius to the rank of ''[[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]'', two new ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]''s were required to take their place. Seeking to enhance his authority, Galerius gave the positions to men who were very much his creatures.<ref name = "ReferenceA">{{citation | last = Gibbon | first = Edward | title = Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire | chapter = 14}}</ref> [[Maximinus Daza]], a nephew of Galerius with little experience or formal education, was assigned the command of Egypt and Syria. [[Valerius Severus]], Galerius' comrade in arms, was sent to govern Italy and Africa from a base in [[Mediolanum]]. Officially Severus reported to the western emperor, but he was absolutely devoted to the commands of his benefactor Galerius, whose power was thus established over three-quarters of the empire.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>


Constantius died at [[Eboracum]] in 306 and the legions elevated his son [[Constantine I|Constantine]] to the position of ''Augustus''. Galerius only discovered this when he received a letter from Constantine, who apologized for the informal nature of his promotion but nonetheless treated it as valid. The first emotions of Galerius were surprise, disappointment, and rage, and as he could seldom restrain his passions, he threatened to burn both the letter and the messenger.{{sfn|Barnes|1981|pp=28–29}}<ref>Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62.</ref><ref>Odahl, 79–80.</ref>{{sfn|Rees|2004|p=160}} Calmer consideration made him reluctant to open a civil war: Constantine had the devotion of Constantius' legions, and the young man's character had impressed Galerius during an encounter at [[Nicomedia]].<ref name = "ReferenceA" /> Galerius decided on a compromise position, allowing Constantine to rule the provinces beyond the Alps but giving him only the title of ''Caesar'' and the fourth rank among the Tetrarchs. Severus received the title of ''Augustus''.
First was [[Maximinus Daza]], whose mother was Galerius' sister. An inexperienced youth with little formal education, he was invested with the purple, exalted to the dignity of ''Caesar'', and assigned the command of Egypt and Syria. Second was [[Valerius Severus|Severus]], Galerius' comrade in arms; he was sent to [[Mediolanum]] to receive the possession of Italy and Africa. According to the forms of the constitution, Severus acknowledged the supremacy of the western emperor, but he was absolutely devoted to the commands of his benefactor Galerius, who, reserving to himself the intermediate countries from the confines of Italy to those of Syria, firmly established his power over three-quarters of the empire.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

His hopes were dashed when his colleague Constantius died at [[York]] in 306 and the legions elevated his son [[Constantine I|Constantine]] to the position of ''Augustus''. Galerius only discovered this when he received a letter from Constantine, who informed him of his father's death, modestly asserted his natural claim to the succession, and respectfully lamented that the enthusiastic violence of his troops had not allowed him to obtain the imperial purple in the regular and constitutional manner. The first emotions of Galerius were those of surprise, disappointment, and rage, and as he could seldom restrain his passions, he threatened to burn both the letter and the messenger.<ref>Barnes, ''CE'', 28–9.</ref><ref>Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62.</ref><ref>Odahl, 79–80.</ref><ref>Rees, 160.</ref>

Later, however, when he had time to reconsider his position, he inevitably saw that his chances of winning a war against Constantine were doubtful at best. Galerius was well aware of Constantine's strengths – Constantine had been his guest for some time at [[Nicomedia]] – and knew that Constantius' legions were wildly devoted to his son.<ref name = "ReferenceA" /> Therefore, without either condemning or ratifying the choice of the [[Roman army]], Galerius accepted the son of his deceased colleague as the ruler of the provinces beyond the Alps; but he gave him only the title of ''Caesar'', and the fourth rank among the Roman princes, whilst he conferred the vacant place of ''Augustus'' on his favourite Severus.


[[File:Гамзиград 04а.jpg|thumb|[[Gamzigrad|Gamzigrad-Romuliana, Palace of Galerius]] in [[Zaječar]], Serbia, today an [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]]]]
[[File:Гамзиград 04а.jpg|thumb|[[Gamzigrad|Gamzigrad-Romuliana, Palace of Galerius]] in [[Zaječar]], Serbia, today an [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]]]]


The ambitious spirit of Galerius was only just over this disappointment when he beheld the unexpected loss of Italy to [[Maxentius]], who was married to his daughter [[Valeria Maximilla]].<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/maxentiu.htm |title=Maxentius (306–312 A.D.) | last=DiMaio | first=Michael Jr. |work=De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families |access-date=20 July 2013}}</ref> Galerius' need for additional revenue had persuaded him to make a very strict and rigorous examination of the property of his subjects for the purpose of a general taxation. A very minute survey was taken of their real estates and, wherever there was the slightest suspicion of concealment, torture was used to obtain a sincere declaration of their personal wealth. Italy had traditionally been exempt from any form of taxation, but Galerius ignored this precedent, and the officers of the revenue already began to number the Roman people, and to settle the proportion of the new taxes. Italy began to murmur against this indignity and Maxentius used this sentiment to declare himself emperor in Italy, to the fury of Galerius. Therefore, Galerius ordered his colleague Severus to immediately march to Rome, in the full confidence that, by his unexpected arrival, he would easily suppress the rebellion.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Severus was captured after his troops deserted to their old commander [[Maximian]], who had once again been elevated to the rank of co-emperor, this time by his son Maxentius. Severus was later executed.
Soon afterward, [[Maxentius]], son of Maximian and husband of Galerius' daughter [[Valeria Maximilla]], rebelled in Italy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/maxentiu.htm|title=Maxentius (306–312 A.D.)|last=DiMaio|first=Michael Jr.|work=De Imperatoribus Romanis|access-date=20 July 2013|archive-date=4 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304140124/http://www.roman-emperors.org/maxentiu.htm|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> A need for additional revenue had caused Galerius to disregard Italy's traditional exemption from any form of taxation, and Maxentius exploited local indignation to declare himself emperor. An army led by Severus hastened to Rome, hoping to catch the usurper by surprise,<ref name="ReferenceA"/> but Maximian, who had previously commanded many of the invading troops, came out of retirement in support of his son. The army switched sides, and Severus was arrested and later executed.


The importance of the occasion needed the presence and abilities of Galerius. At the head of a powerful army collected from [[Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum|Illyricum]] and the East, he entered Italy, determined to avenge Severus and to punish the rebellious Romans. But due to the skill of Maximian, Galerius found every place hostile, fortified, and inaccessible; and though he forced his way as far as [[Narni]], within sixty miles of Rome, his control in Italy was confined to the narrow limits of his camp.
Leaving his long-time friend and military companion [[Licinius]] to guard the Danube, Galerius personally invaded Italy with a powerful army collected from [[Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum|Illyricum]] and the East. He forced his way as far as [[Narni]], within sixty miles of Rome, but skillful prepations by Maximian prevented him from capturing any territory along the way.
[[File:Portrait of Galerius, Thessaloniki.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Galerius on his [[Arch of Galerius and Rotunda|Arch]] ]]
[[File:Portrait of Galerius, Thessaloniki.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Galerius on his [[Arch of Galerius and Rotunda|Arch]] ]]
Seeing that he was facing ever-greater difficulties, Galerius made the first advances towards reconciliation, and dispatched two officers to tempt the Romans by the offer of a conference, and the declaration of his paternal regard for Maxentius, reminding them that they would obtain much more from his willing generosity than anything that might have been obtained through a military campaign. The offers of Galerius were rejected with firmness, his friendship refused, and it was not long before he discovered that, unless he retreated, he would share Severus' fate. It was not a moment too soon; large monetary gifts from Maxentius to his soldiers had corrupted the fidelity of the Illyrian legions. When Galerius finally began his withdrawal from Italy, it was only with great difficulty that he managed to stop his veterans deserting him.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> In frustration, Galerius allowed his legions to ravage the countryside as they passed northwards. Maxentius declined to make a general engagement.
The strength of the enemy's position made Galerius send peace overtures to Rome, professing his fatherly affection for Maxentius and promising to be generous if the rebels cooperated. Maxentius refused the offer, and meanwhile compromised the loyalty of the invasion force by sending bribes to the Illyrian legions. Galerius was compelled to began a withdrawal from Italy, and it was only with great difficulty that he managed to stop his veterans deserting him.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> In frustration, Galerius allowed his legions to ravage the countryside as they passed northwards. Maxentius declined to make a general engagement.


With so many emperors now in existence, in 308 Galerius, together with the retired emperor Diocletian and the now active Maximian, called an imperial 'conference' at [[Carnuntum]] on the River Danube to rectify the situation and bring some order back into the imperial government. Here it was agreed that Galerius' long-time friend and military companion [[Licinius]], who had been entrusted by Galerius with the defense of the Danube while Galerius was in Italy, would become ''Augustus'' in the West, with Constantine as his ''Caesar''. In the East, Galerius remained ''Augustus'' and Maximinus remained his ''Caesar''. Maximian was to retire, and Maxentius was declared a usurper.
With so many emperors now in existence, in 308 Galerius, together with the retired emperor Diocletian and the now active Maximian, called an [[Conference of Carnuntum|imperial conference]] at [[Carnuntum]] on the River Danube to rectify the situation and bring some order back into the government. Here it was agreed that Licinius would become ''Augustus'' in the West, with Constantine as his ''Caesar''. In the East, Galerius remained ''Augustus'' and Maximinus remained his ''Caesar''. Maximian was to retire, and Maxentius was declared a usurper.


Galerius' plan soon failed. The news of Licinius' promotion was no sooner carried into the East, than Maximinus, who governed the provinces of Egypt and Syria, rejected his position as ''Caesar'' and, notwithstanding the prayers as well as arguments of Galerius, exacted the equal title of ''Augustus''.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Around the same time, [[Maximian]] proclaimed himself emperor in [[Arles]] in opposition to Constantine, who was campaigning against the [[Franks]]. For the first, and indeed for the last time, seven emperors administered the Roman world: Galerius (East), [[Maximinus Daza|Maximinus II]] (East), [[Licinius]] (Middle), [[Constantine the Great|Constantine I]] (West), [[Maximian]] (West), [[Maxentius]] (Italy), and [[Domitius Alexander]] (Africa).
Galerius' plan soon failed. Envious of Licinius' promotion, Maximinus also claimed the title of ''Augustus''.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Maximian, still not willing to retire, declared himself emperor in [[Arles]] in opposition to Constantine, who was campaigning against the [[Franks]]. An additional usurper, [[Domitius Alexander]], arose in Africa, bringing the number of claimants of imperial power up to seven. Galerius maintained his seniority and ceased trying to encroach on the other emperors' domains; he spent his later years in recreation and in public works, such as an extensive logging and drainage project at Lake Pelso (modern [[Lake Balaton]]).<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

The last years of Galerius saw him relinquishing his aspirations towards being the supreme ruler of the empire, though he managed to retain the position of first among equals. He spent the remainder of his years enjoying himself and ordering some important public works, such as discharging into the [[Danube]] the superfluous waters of Lake Pelso (now [[Lake Balaton]]), and cutting down the immense forests that encompassed it.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>


==Persecution of Christians==
==Persecution of Christians==
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Christians had lived pleasantly during most of the rule of Diocletian. The persecutions that began with an edict of 24 February 303, were credited by Christians to Galerius' work, as he was a fierce advocate of the old ways and old gods. Christian houses of assembly were destroyed, for fear of sedition in secret gatherings. [[Diocletian]] was not anti-Christian during the first part of his reign, and historians have claimed that Galerius decided to prod him into persecuting them by secretly burning the Imperial Palace and blaming it on Christian saboteurs. Regardless of who was at fault for the fire, Diocletian's rage was aroused and he began one of the last and greatest Christian persecutions in the history of the [[Roman Empire]].{{citation needed|date=April 2019}}
Christians had lived pleasantly during most of the rule of Diocletian. The persecutions that began with an edict of 24 February 303, were credited by Christians to Galerius' work, as he was a fierce advocate of the old ways and old gods. Christian houses of assembly were destroyed, for fear of sedition in secret gatherings. [[Diocletian]] was not anti-Christian during the first part of his reign, and historians have claimed that Galerius decided to prod him into persecuting them by secretly burning the Imperial Palace and blaming it on Christian saboteurs. Regardless of who was at fault for the fire, Diocletian's rage was aroused and he began one of the last and greatest Christian persecutions in the history of the [[Roman Empire]].{{citation needed|date=April 2019}}


It was at the insistence of Galerius that the last edicts of persecution against the [[Christians]] were published, beginning in 303, and this policy of repression was maintained by him until the appearance of the general edict of toleration, issued in [[Serdica]]<ref>{{cite book |first=Edward |last=Gibbon |author-link=Edward Gibbon |title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pksA7j6ZXLgC&pg=PA132 |date=1 January 2008 |publisher=Cosimo, Inc. |isbn=978-1-60520-122-1 |page=132}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Ramsay |last1=MacMullen |author-link=Ramsay MacMullen |first2=Eugene |last2=Lane |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q_lvnk-z5QUC&pg=PA219 |title=Paganism and Christianity, 100-425 C.E.: A Sourcebook |publisher=[[Fortress Press]] |date=1 January 1992 |page=219 |isbn=9781451407853}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Sarolta Anna |last1=Takacs |first2=Eric H. |last2=Cline |author2-link=Eric H. Cline |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SPcvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA202 |title=The Ancient World |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=17 July 2015 |page=202 |isbn=9781317458395}}</ref> in April 311, apparently during his last bout of illness (see ''[[Edict of Toleration by Galerius]]''). Galerius's last request was that Christians should pray for him as he suffered with a painful and fatal illness.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oOMkBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA338 |title=Birth of the Church: From Jesus to Constantine, AD30-312 |first=J. |last=Davidson |publisher=Monarch Books |year=2005 |isbn=978-1854246585}}</ref>
It was at the insistence of Galerius that the last edicts of persecution against the [[Christians]] were published, beginning in 303, and this policy of repression was maintained by him until the appearance of the general edict of toleration, issued in [[Serdica]]<ref>{{cite book |first=Edward |last=Gibbon |author-link=Edward Gibbon |title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pksA7j6ZXLgC&pg=PA132 |year= 2008 |publisher=Cosimo, Inc. |isbn=978-1-60520-122-1 |page=132}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Ramsay |last1=MacMullen |author-link=Ramsay MacMullen |first2=Eugene |last2=Lane |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q_lvnk-z5QUC&pg=PA219 |title=Paganism and Christianity, 100–425 C.E.: A Sourcebook |publisher=[[Fortress Press]] |date= 1992 |page=219 |isbn=9781451407853}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Sarolta Anna |last1=Takacs |first2=Eric H. |last2=Cline |author2-link=Eric H. Cline |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SPcvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA202 |title=The Ancient World |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=2015 |page=202 |isbn=9781317458395}}</ref> in April 311, apparently during his last bout of illness (see ''[[Edict of Toleration by Galerius]]''). Galerius's last request was that Christians should pray for him as he suffered with a painful and fatal illness.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oOMkBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA338 |title=Birth of the Church: From Jesus to Constantine, AD 30–312 |first=J. |last=Davidson |publisher=Monarch Books |year=2005 |isbn=978-1854246585}}</ref>


Initially one of the leading figures in the persecutions, Galerius later admitted that the policy of trying to eradicate Christianity had failed, saying: "wherefore, for this our indulgence, they ought to pray to their God for our safety, for that of the republic, and for their own, that the republic may continue uninjured on every side, and that they may be able to live securely in their homes." [[Lactantius]] gives the text of the edict in his moralized chronicle of the bad ends to which all the persecutors came, ''De Mortibus Persecutorum''.<ref>{{citation | last = Lactantius | title = De Mortibus Persecutorum |trans-title=On the Deaths of the Persecutors | chapter = 34, 35}}</ref> This marked the end of official persecution of Christians, which was officially legalized two years later by Constantine and [[Licinius]] in the [[Edict of Milan]].
Initially one of the leading figures in the persecutions, Galerius later admitted that the policy of trying to eradicate Christianity had failed, saying: "wherefore, for this our indulgence, they ought to pray to their God for our safety, for that of the republic, and for their own, that the republic may continue uninjured on every side, and that they may be able to live securely in their homes." [[Lactantius]] gives the text of the edict in his moralized chronicle of the bad ends to which all the persecutors came, ''De Mortibus Persecutorum''.<ref>{{citation | last = Lactantius | title = De Mortibus Persecutorum |trans-title=On the Deaths of the Persecutors | chapter = 34, 35}}</ref> This marked the end of official persecution of Christians, which was officially legalized two years later by Constantine and [[Licinius]] in the [[Edict of Milan]].


==Death==
==Death==
[[File:Bust of Galerius, Canellopoulos Museum.jpg|thumb|Head in the [[Museum of Pavlos and Alexandra Kanellopoulou|Canellopoulos Museum]] – once part of an over life-sized statue, probably Galerius.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Weitzmann |first=Kurt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efLuB7QPDm8C&pg=PA13 |title=Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Ar |date=1977 |publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |pages=13–14|isbn=9780870991790 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Marble portrait of Roman Emperor |url=https://camu.gr/en/item/portraito-tou-aftokratora-galeriou/ |website=CANELLOPOULOS MUSEUM |quote=}}</ref>]]
[[File:Bust of Galerius, Canellopoulos Museum.jpg|thumb|Head in the [[Museum of Pavlos and Alexandra Kanellopoulou|Canellopoulos Museum]] – once part of an over life-sized statue, probably Galerius.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Weitzmann |first=Kurt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efLuB7QPDm8C&pg=PA13 |title=Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Ar |date=1977 |publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |pages=13–14|isbn=9780870991790 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Marble portrait of Roman Emperor |url=https://camu.gr/en/item/portraito-tou-aftokratora-galeriou/ |website=Canellopoulos Museum |quote=}}</ref>]]
Galerius died in late April or early May 311<ref>{{citation | last = Corcoran | first = Simon | title = The empire of the tetrarchs: imperial pronouncements and government, AD 284–324 | page = 187}}</ref> from a horribly gruesome disease described by [[Eusebius]]<ref>Eusebius, ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Historia Ecclesiae]]'' 352–356</ref> and [[Lactantius]],<ref>Lactantius, ''De Mortibus Persecutorum'' 33</ref> possibly some form of [[Colorectal cancer|bowel cancer]], [[gangrene]] or [[Fournier gangrene]].
Galerius died in late April or early May 311<ref>{{citation | last = Corcoran | first = Simon | title = The empire of the tetrarchs: imperial pronouncements and government, AD 284–324 | page = 187}}</ref> from a horribly gruesome disease described by [[Eusebius]]<ref>Eusebius, ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Historia Ecclesiae]]'' 352–356</ref> and [[Lactantius]],<ref>Lactantius, ''De Mortibus Persecutorum'' 33</ref> possibly some form of [[Colorectal cancer|bowel cancer]], [[gangrene]] or [[Fournier gangrene]].


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==References==
==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
{{reflist}}



==Sources==
==Sources==
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**Unknown edition (in Latin). Online at [http://ancientrome.ru/ius/library/codex/theod/ AncientRome.ru]. Accessed 15 August 2009.
**Unknown edition (in Latin). Online at [http://ancientrome.ru/ius/library/codex/theod/ AncientRome.ru]. Accessed 15 August 2009.
*''Epitome de Caesaribus''.
*''Epitome de Caesaribus''.
**Banchich, Thomas M., trans. ''A Booklet About the Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperatores''. ''Canisius College Translated Texts'' 1. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2009. Online at [http://www.roman-emperors.org/epitome.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis]. Accessed 15 August 2009.
**Banchich, Thomas M., trans. ''A Booklet About the Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperatores''. ''Canisius College Translated Texts'' 1. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2009. Online at [https://web.archive.org/web/20220311020340/http://www.roman-emperors.org/epitome.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis]. Accessed 15 August 2009.
*Eusebius of Caesarea.
*Eusebius of Caesarea.
**''Historia Ecclesiastica'' (''Church History'').
**''Historia Ecclesiastica'' (''Church History'').
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***Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. ''Life of Constantine''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2502.htm New Advent]. Accessed 25 August 2009.
***Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. ''Life of Constantine''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2502.htm New Advent]. Accessed 25 August 2009.
*Festus. ''Breviarium''.
*Festus. ''Breviarium''.
**Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. ''Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People''. ''Canisius College Translated Texts'' 2. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2001. Online at [http://www.roman-emperors.org/festus.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis]. Accessed 15 August 2009.
**Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. ''Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People''. ''Canisius College Translated Texts'' 2. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2001. Online at [https://web.archive.org/web/20220422150556/http://www.roman-emperors.org/festus.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis]. Accessed 15 August 2009.
*Lactantius. ''De Mortibus Persecutorum'' (''On the Deaths of the Persecutors'').
*Lactantius. ''De Mortibus Persecutorum'' (''On the Deaths of the Persecutors'').
**Fletcher, William, trans. ''Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0705.htm New Advent]. Accessed 25 August 2009.
**Fletcher, William, trans. ''Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0705.htm New Advent]. Accessed 25 August 2009.
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===Modern sources===
===Modern sources===
{{Refbegin|2|indent=y}}
{{Refbegin|2|indent=y}}
* Barnes, Timothy D. "Lactantius and Constantine." ''The Journal of Roman Studies'' 63 (1973): 29–46.
*{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/299163 | jstor=299163 | title=Lactantius and Constantine | last1=Barnes | first1=T. D. | journal=The Journal of Roman Studies | date=7 December 1973 | volume=63 | pages=29–46 | doi=10.2307/299163 | s2cid=163051414 }}
* Barnes, Timothy D. ''Constantine and Eusebius''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981. {{ISBN|978-0-674-16531-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Barnes |first=Timothy D. |author-link=Timothy Barnes (classicist) |title=Constantine and Eusebius |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LGDjJK-JeSwC |year=1981 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, MA |isbn=978-0-674-16531-1 }}
* {{cite book |last=Barnes |year=1982 |first=Timothy D. |title=The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine |publisher=Harvard University Press |place=Cambridge, MA |isbn=0-674-28066-0 |url={{googlebooks|K3poAAAAMAAJ|plainurl=y}} |author-link=Timothy Barnes (classicist) }}
* {{cite book |last=Barnes |year=1982 |first=Timothy D. |title=The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine |publisher=Harvard University Press |place=Cambridge, MA |isbn=0-674-28066-0 |url={{googlebooks|K3poAAAAMAAJ|plainurl=y}} |author-link=Timothy Barnes (classicist) }}
* Bleckmann, Bruno. "Diocletianus." In ''Brill's New Pauly, Volume 4'', edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmut Schneider, 429–438. Leiden: Brill, 2002. {{ISBN|90-04-12259-1}}
* Bleckmann, Bruno. "Diocletianus." In ''Brill's New Pauly, Volume 4'', edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmut Schneider, 429–438. Leiden: Brill, 2002. {{ISBN|90-04-12259-1}}
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* Lenski, Noel. "The Reign of Constantine." In ''The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine'', edited by Noel Lenski, 59–90. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006b. Hardcover {{ISBN|0-521-81838-9}} Paperback {{ISBN|0-521-52157-2}}
* Lenski, Noel. "The Reign of Constantine." In ''The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine'', edited by Noel Lenski, 59–90. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006b. Hardcover {{ISBN|0-521-81838-9}} Paperback {{ISBN|0-521-52157-2}}
* Mackay, Christopher S. "Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian." ''Classical Philology'' 94:2 (1999): 198–209.
* Mackay, Christopher S. "Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian." ''Classical Philology'' 94:2 (1999): 198–209.
* Mathisen, Ralph W. "[http://www.roman-emperors.org/dioclet.htm Diocletian (284–305 AD.)]." ''De Imperatoribus Romanis'' (1997). Accessed 16 February 2008.
* Mathisen, Ralph W. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20220326091219/http://www.roman-emperors.org/dioclet.htm Diocletian (284–305 AD.)]." ''De Imperatoribus Romanis'' (1997). Accessed 16 February 2008.
* Odahl, Charles Matson. ''Constantine and the Christian Empire''. New York: Routledge, 2004. Hardcover {{ISBN|0-415-17485-6}} Paperback {{ISBN|0-415-38655-1}}
* Odahl, Charles Matson. ''Constantine and the Christian Empire''. New York: Routledge, 2004. Hardcover {{ISBN|0-415-17485-6}} Paperback {{ISBN|0-415-38655-1}}
* Pohlsander, Hans. ''The Emperor Constantine''. London & New York: Routledge, 2004a. Hardcover {{ISBN|0-415-31937-4}} Paperback {{ISBN|0-415-31938-2}}
* Pohlsander, Hans. ''The Emperor Constantine''. London & New York: Routledge, 2004a. Hardcover {{ISBN|0-415-31937-4}} Paperback {{ISBN|0-415-31938-2}}
* Pohlsander, Hans. "[http://www.roman-emperors.org/conniei.htm Constantine I (306 – 337 AD)]." ''De Imperatoribus Romanis'' (2004b). Accessed 16 December 2007.
* Pohlsander, Hans. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20220317022900/http://www.roman-emperors.org/conniei.htm Constantine I (306 – 337 AD)]." ''De Imperatoribus Romanis'' (2004b). Accessed 16 December 2007.
* {{cite book |last=Potter |first=David S. |title=The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395 |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=0-415-10057-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott }}
* {{cite book |last=Potter |first=David S. |title=The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395 |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=0-415-10057-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/romanempireatbay0000pott }}
* {{Cite book|last=Rees|first=Roger|title=Diocletian and the Tetrarchy|year=2004|location=Edinburgh, UK|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=9780748616602|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wV5oAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Rees|first=Roger|title=Diocletian and the Tetrarchy|year=2004|location=Edinburgh, UK|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=9780748616602|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wV5oAAAAMAAJ}}
* Southern, Pat. ''The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine''. New York: Routledge, 2001. {{ISBN|0-415-23944-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Southern|first=Pat. |title=The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |isbn=0-415-23944-3}}
* Rostovtzeff, Michael. ''The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966. {{ISBN|978-0-19-814231-7}}
* Rostovtzeff, Michael. ''The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966. {{ISBN|978-0-19-814231-7}}
* Treadgold, Warren. ''A History of the Byzantine State and Society''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997. {{ISBN|0-8047-2630-2}}
* Treadgold, Warren. ''A History of the Byzantine State and Society''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997. {{ISBN|0-8047-2630-2}}
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{{Roman emperors}}
{{Pharaohs}}
{{authority control}}
{{authority control}}


Latest revision as of 00:25, 9 December 2024

Galerius
Purple-red head statue
Likely bust of Galerius in porphyry, found in 1993 at Gamzigrad and held at the National Museum [sr] in Zaječar, Serbia.[1][2]
Roman emperor
(in the East)
Augustus1 May 305 – early May 311
PredecessorDiocletian and Maximian
SuccessorMaximinus II and Licinius
(both in the East)
Co-rulers
See list
Caesar1 March 293[i] – 1 May 305 (under Diocletian)[3]
BornGalerius Maximinus[4][5]
c. 258[6][7]
Felix Romuliana, Roman Dacia, Roman Empire[7]
Diedearly May 311[8] (aged c. 53)
Serdica, Dacia Ripensis, Roman Empire
Burial
Felix Romuliana[7]
SpouseGaleria Valeria[9]
Issue
Names
Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus[3]
Regnal name
Imperator Caesar Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus Augustus
FatherDiocletian (adoptive)
MotherRomula (alleged)[10]
ReligionRoman polytheism

Galerius Valerius Maximianus[j] (/ɡəˈlɛəriəs/; Greek: Γαλέριος; c. 258 – May 311) was Roman emperor from 305 to 311. While acting as Caesar under Emperor Diocletian, Galerius obtained victory warring against the Persian Sassanian Empire, defeating Narseh at the battle of Satala in 298 and possibly sacking the Sassanian capital of Ctesiphon in 299. He also campaigned across the Danube against the Carpi, defeating them in 297 and 300. Although he was a staunch opponent of Christianity, Galerius ended the Diocletianic Persecution when he issued the Edict of Toleration in Serdica (Sofia) in 311.

Early life

[edit]

Galerius was born near Serdica,[13] in Dacia Ripensis, later named Dacia Mediterranea, though some modern scholars consider the strategic site where he later built his palace named after his mother – Felix Romuliana (Gamzigrad) – his birth and funeral place.[7] His Thracian father and his mother, Romula, had left Roman Dacia (today Romania) because of the Carpians' attacks.[14][15]: 19  He originally followed his father's occupation, that of a herdsman, where he was nicknamed "Armentarius", herdsman (Latin: armentum, lit. 'herd').[16] His original cognomen was "Maximinus", but he changed it to "Maximianus" after becoming Caesar.[4]

Diocletian, Galerius' father-in-law and senior emperor

He served with distinction as a soldier under Emperors Aurelian and Probus, and in 293, at the establishment of the Tetrarchy, was designated Caesar along with Constantius Chlorus, receiving in marriage Diocletian's daughter Valeria (later known as Galeria Valeria), and at the same time being entrusted with the care of the Illyrian provinces. After a few years campaigning against Sarmatians and Goths on the Danube, he received command of the legions on the eastern imperial limits. Soon after his appointment, Galerius was dispatched to Egypt to fight the rebellious cities Busiris and Coptos.[17]

War with Persia

[edit]
See also: Roman–Iranian relations and Roman–Persian Wars

Invasion, counterinvasion

[edit]

In 294, Narseh, a son of Shapur I, who had been passed over for the Sassanid succession, came into power in Persia. Narseh probably moved to eliminate Bahram III, a young man installed by a noble named Vahunam in the wake of Bahram II's death in 293.[18][19]: 69  In early 294, Narseh sent Diocletian the customary package of gifts, but within Persia, he was destroying every trace of his immediate predecessors, erasing their names from public monuments. He sought to identify himself with the warlike reigns of Ardashir (r. 226–241) and Shapur (r. 241–272), who had sacked Roman Antioch and captured Emperor Valerian.[19]: 69–70 

In 295 or 296, Narseh declared war on Rome. He appears to have first invaded western Armenia, retaking the lands delivered to Tiridates in the peace of 287. He occupied the lands there until the following year.[18][20][21][22] The historian Ammianus Marcellinus, circa 320–395, is the only source detailing the initial invasion of Armenia.[23] Southern (1999, 149) dates the invasion to 295; Barnes (1982, 17, 293) mentions an earlier, unsuccessful invasion by Narseh based on the fact that the title Persici Maximi was given to all four emperors; Odahl (2004, 59) concurs with Barnes and suggests that Saracen princes in the Syrian desert collaborated with Narseh's invasion. Narseh then moved south into Roman Mesopotamia, where he inflicted a severe defeat on Galerius, then commander of the eastern forces, in the region between Carrhae (Harran, Turkey) and Callinicum (Raqqa, Syria).[21] Diocletian may or may not have been present at the battle,[24] but presented himself soon afterwards at Antioch, issuing an official version of events which placed all the blame for the affair upon Galerius. In Antioch, Diocletian forced Galerius to walk a mile in advance of his imperial cart while still clad in the purple robes of an emperor.[25][21] David Stone Potter reads a symbolic message in the display: the loss at Carrhae was due not to the failings of the empire's soldiers, but to the failings of their commander, and Galerius' failures would not be accepted.[26] Another scholar, Roger Rees, suggests that Galerius' position at the head of the caravan was merely the conventional organization of an imperial progression, designed to show a Caesar's deference to his Augustus.[27]

Detail of Galerius attacking Narseh on the Arch of Galerius at Thessaloniki, Greece, the city where Galerius carried out most of his administrative actions.[28]

Galerius's army was reinforced probably in the spring of 298 by new contingents collected from the empire's Danubian holdings.[29] Narseh did not advance from Armenia and Mesopotamia leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia.[26] Diocletian may or may not have been present to assist the campaign.[30] Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius' force, putting himself at a disadvantage; the rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman infantry, but not to Sassanid cavalry. Local aid gave Galerius the advantage of surprise over the Persian forces, and he defeated Narseh in two successive battles.[26][29] During the second encounter, the Battle of Satala in 298, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife.[26][29] Narseh's wife would live out the remainder of the war in Daphne, a suburb of Antioch, serving as a constant reminder to the Persians of the Roman victory.[26]

Galerius advanced into Media and Adiabene, winning continuous victories, most prominently near Theodosiopolis (Erzurum),[28] and securing Nisibis (Nusaybin) before 1 October 298. The historian Timothy Barnes argues that he moved down the Tigris, taking Ctesiphon. Barnes main argument for this is that Eusebius' biography of Constantine mentions that the later emperor had seen the ruins of Babylon according to this work.[29] Patricia Southern also argues that he took Ctesiphon based on the uncertainty of the location where the seizure of Narseh's wife and harem took place. However, no source ever specifically claims that Ctesiphon was sacked and many other historians argue Diocletian prevented him from moving further into Sasanian territory.[31] [32]

Peace negotiations

[edit]

Narseh had previously sent an ambassador to Galerius to plead for the return of his wife and children, but Galerius had dismissed this ambassador, reminding him of how Shapur had treated Valerian.[29] In any case, the Romans treated Narseh's captured family well, perhaps seeking to evoke comparisons to Alexander and his beneficent conduct towards the family of Darius III.[26] Peace negotiations began in the spring of 299, with both Diocletian and Galerius presiding. Their magister memoriae (secretary) Sicorius Probus was sent to Narseh to present terms.[29]

The conditions of the Peace of Nisibis were heavy:[26] Persia would give up territory to Rome, making the Tigris the boundary between the two empires. Further terms specified that Armenia was returned to Roman domination with the fort of Ziatha as its border; Caucasian Iberia would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; Nisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and Rome; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between the Tigris and Armenia: Ingilene, Sophanene (Sophene), Arzanene (Aghdznik), Corduene, and Zabdicene (near modern Hakkâri, Turkey). These regions included the passage of the Tigris through the Anti-Taurus range; the Bitlis pass, the quickest southerly route into Persian Armenia; and access to the Tur Abdin plateau. With these territories, Rome would have an advance station north of Ctesiphon, and would be able to slow any future advance of Persian forces through the region.[33] Under the terms of the peace, Tiridates would regain both his throne and the entirety of his ancestral claim, and Rome would secure a wide zone of cultural influence in the region.[29] Because the empire was able to sustain such constant warfare on so many fronts, it has been taken as a sign of the essential efficacy of the Diocletianic system and the goodwill of the army towards the tetrarchic enterprise.[31]

Rule as Augustus

[edit]
Aureus of Galerius as Caesar. The reverse depicts the god Jupiter.[k]

After the abdication of Diocletian in 305 and the elevation of Constantius I and Galerius to the rank of Augustus, two new Caesars were required to take their place. Seeking to enhance his authority, Galerius gave the positions to men who were very much his creatures.[35] Maximinus Daza, a nephew of Galerius with little experience or formal education, was assigned the command of Egypt and Syria. Valerius Severus, Galerius' comrade in arms, was sent to govern Italy and Africa from a base in Mediolanum. Officially Severus reported to the western emperor, but he was absolutely devoted to the commands of his benefactor Galerius, whose power was thus established over three-quarters of the empire.[35]

Constantius died at Eboracum in 306 and the legions elevated his son Constantine to the position of Augustus. Galerius only discovered this when he received a letter from Constantine, who apologized for the informal nature of his promotion but nonetheless treated it as valid. The first emotions of Galerius were surprise, disappointment, and rage, and as he could seldom restrain his passions, he threatened to burn both the letter and the messenger.[36][37][38][39] Calmer consideration made him reluctant to open a civil war: Constantine had the devotion of Constantius' legions, and the young man's character had impressed Galerius during an encounter at Nicomedia.[35] Galerius decided on a compromise position, allowing Constantine to rule the provinces beyond the Alps but giving him only the title of Caesar and the fourth rank among the Tetrarchs. Severus received the title of Augustus.

Gamzigrad-Romuliana, Palace of Galerius in Zaječar, Serbia, today an UNESCO World Heritage Site

Soon afterward, Maxentius, son of Maximian and husband of Galerius' daughter Valeria Maximilla, rebelled in Italy.[40] A need for additional revenue had caused Galerius to disregard Italy's traditional exemption from any form of taxation, and Maxentius exploited local indignation to declare himself emperor. An army led by Severus hastened to Rome, hoping to catch the usurper by surprise,[35] but Maximian, who had previously commanded many of the invading troops, came out of retirement in support of his son. The army switched sides, and Severus was arrested and later executed.

Leaving his long-time friend and military companion Licinius to guard the Danube, Galerius personally invaded Italy with a powerful army collected from Illyricum and the East. He forced his way as far as Narni, within sixty miles of Rome, but skillful prepations by Maximian prevented him from capturing any territory along the way.

Portrait of Galerius on his Arch

The strength of the enemy's position made Galerius send peace overtures to Rome, professing his fatherly affection for Maxentius and promising to be generous if the rebels cooperated. Maxentius refused the offer, and meanwhile compromised the loyalty of the invasion force by sending bribes to the Illyrian legions. Galerius was compelled to began a withdrawal from Italy, and it was only with great difficulty that he managed to stop his veterans deserting him.[35] In frustration, Galerius allowed his legions to ravage the countryside as they passed northwards. Maxentius declined to make a general engagement.

With so many emperors now in existence, in 308 Galerius, together with the retired emperor Diocletian and the now active Maximian, called an imperial conference at Carnuntum on the River Danube to rectify the situation and bring some order back into the government. Here it was agreed that Licinius would become Augustus in the West, with Constantine as his Caesar. In the East, Galerius remained Augustus and Maximinus remained his Caesar. Maximian was to retire, and Maxentius was declared a usurper.

Galerius' plan soon failed. Envious of Licinius' promotion, Maximinus also claimed the title of Augustus.[35] Maximian, still not willing to retire, declared himself emperor in Arles in opposition to Constantine, who was campaigning against the Franks. An additional usurper, Domitius Alexander, arose in Africa, bringing the number of claimants of imperial power up to seven. Galerius maintained his seniority and ceased trying to encroach on the other emperors' domains; he spent his later years in recreation and in public works, such as an extensive logging and drainage project at Lake Pelso (modern Lake Balaton).[35]

Persecution of Christians

[edit]
Main article: Diocletian Persecution
Detail of the Arch of Galerius in Thessaloniki.

Christians had lived pleasantly during most of the rule of Diocletian. The persecutions that began with an edict of 24 February 303, were credited by Christians to Galerius' work, as he was a fierce advocate of the old ways and old gods. Christian houses of assembly were destroyed, for fear of sedition in secret gatherings. Diocletian was not anti-Christian during the first part of his reign, and historians have claimed that Galerius decided to prod him into persecuting them by secretly burning the Imperial Palace and blaming it on Christian saboteurs. Regardless of who was at fault for the fire, Diocletian's rage was aroused and he began one of the last and greatest Christian persecutions in the history of the Roman Empire.[citation needed]

It was at the insistence of Galerius that the last edicts of persecution against the Christians were published, beginning in 303, and this policy of repression was maintained by him until the appearance of the general edict of toleration, issued in Serdica[41][42][43] in April 311, apparently during his last bout of illness (see Edict of Toleration by Galerius). Galerius's last request was that Christians should pray for him as he suffered with a painful and fatal illness.[44]

Initially one of the leading figures in the persecutions, Galerius later admitted that the policy of trying to eradicate Christianity had failed, saying: "wherefore, for this our indulgence, they ought to pray to their God for our safety, for that of the republic, and for their own, that the republic may continue uninjured on every side, and that they may be able to live securely in their homes." Lactantius gives the text of the edict in his moralized chronicle of the bad ends to which all the persecutors came, De Mortibus Persecutorum.[45] This marked the end of official persecution of Christians, which was officially legalized two years later by Constantine and Licinius in the Edict of Milan.

Death

[edit]
Head in the Canellopoulos Museum – once part of an over life-sized statue, probably Galerius.[46][47]

Galerius died in late April or early May 311[48] from a horribly gruesome disease described by Eusebius[49] and Lactantius,[50] possibly some form of bowel cancer, gangrene or Fournier gangrene.

Galerius was buried in his mausoleum at Gamzigrad-Romuliana, which was part of the palace he built at his birthplace, today's Zaječar in Serbia. Several lumps composed of corroded iron ring mail (lorica hamata) have been found at the site. This mail armour may have been worn by the wax figure of the emperor that was burned during the imperial funeral and apotheosis ceremony.[51] The entire site has been inscribed into the World Heritage List in June 2007.

Anti-Roman accusations

[edit]

According to Lactantius, a Christian and adviser to Constantine, Galerius affirmed his Dacian identity and avowed himself the enemy of the Roman name once made emperor, even proposing that the empire should be called, not the Roman, but the Dacian Empire, much to the horror of the patricians and senators. Lactantius further states that Galerius exhibited anti-Roman attitude as soon as he had attained the highest power, treating the Roman citizens with ruthless cruelty, like the conquerors treated the conquered, all in the name of the same treatment that the victorious Trajan had applied to the conquered Dacians, forefathers of Galerius, two centuries before.[52]

Honours

[edit]

Galerius Peak in Antarctica is named after Emperor Galerius.[53]

Family tree

[edit]


See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ In the West; proclaimed by Maximian.
  2. ^ In the West; proclaimed by Galerius.
  3. ^ In the West; not recognized by the other tetrarchs.
  4. ^ In Italy; not recognized by the other tetrarchs.
  5. ^ In Italy; not recognized by the other tetrarchs. He was defeated in 308, but rebelled again in 310.
  6. ^ In the Middle realms; proclaimed by Galerius. Emperor of the East following Maximinus' death.
  7. ^ Usurper in Africa, unrecognized elsewhere.
  8. ^ In the East; proclaimed by his troops.
  9. ^ The earlier dates for Galerius' appointment have been argued for based on the suggestion that the appointments of Constantius and Galerius were timed to coincide (Barnes 1981, 8–9; Southern 1999, 146). Barnes (1982, 62) argues against a dating of 21 May 293 in Nicomedia originating in Seston, Dioclétien, 88ff., stating that the evidence adduced (the 7th-century Paschal Chronicle Ol.268 and the contemporary Lactantius, DMP 19.2) is invalid and confused. Lactantius is commenting on Diocletian and the place where Diocletian was acclaimed, and that the "Maximianus" in the text is therefore a later gloss; the Paschal Chronicle is not authoritative for this period for events outside Egypt, and may simply be commenting on the day when the laureled image of the new emperors arrived in Alexandria. Moreover, Lactantius (DMP 35) explicitly states that Galerius' dies imperii fell on 1 March. Potter (2004, 650) agrees that locating the acclamation to Nicomedia is false, but believes that Seston's other evidence makes a strong case for a temporal lag between the two Caesars' acclamations.
  10. ^ Sometimes called "Maximian II" ,[11][12] since ancient sources often call him "Galerius Maximianus".
  11. ^ Emperor Maximian apparently never issued any coinage when he was Caesar, so coins with the name "Maximianus Caesar" must represent Galerius. The only source that refers to Maximian as having been Caesar is Eutropius.[34]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk, LSA-845 (Marianne Bergmann)
  2. ^ Elsner, Jas (2018). The Art of the Roman Empire AD 100–450. Oxford University Press. p. 58. ISBN 9780198768630. A recently discovered porphyry head of a tetrarch from Romuliana in modern Serbia—the birth and burial place of Galerius (293–311) [...] It is likely that the statue portrays Galerius as Caesar after his victory over the Persians in AD 297/8.
  3. ^ a b Barnes 1982, p. 4.
  4. ^ a b Lactantius, de Mortibus Persecutorum, 18. "Now Galerius had lately bestowed part of his own name on that youth [Daia], and called him Maximin, in like manner as Diocletian formerly bestowed on Galerius the name of Maximian".
  5. ^ For an analysis of the official nomenclature of the Tetrarchs, see Salway, Benet (1994). "What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700" (PDF). Journal of Roman Studies. 84: 137–140. doi:10.2307/300873. JSTOR 300873. S2CID 162435434.
  6. ^ Leadbetter, pp. 18–21.
  7. ^ a b c d Barnes 1982, p. 37.
  8. ^ Lactantius, DMP 35.4. "This edict was promulgated at Nicomedia on the day preceding the kalends of May [30 April]... In a few days after he was consumed by the horrible disease that had brought on an universal putrefaction [...] This event was known at Nicomedia before the end of the month.".
  9. ^ Barnes 1982, p. 38.
  10. ^ Barnes 1982, pp. 37–38.
  11. ^ Sandys, John (1927). Latin Epigraphy: An Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions. Cambridge University Press. p. 232.
  12. ^ Maxwelll, Craven (2019). The Imperial Families of Ancient Rome. Fonthill Media. p. 414.
  13. ^ "Maximianus Galerius in Dacia haud longe a Serdica natus", Eutropii Breviarum IX. 22.
  14. ^ Lactantius, de Mortibus Persecutorum, chapter 9
  15. ^ "Church Fathers: Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died (Lactantius)".
  16. ^ PLRE, p. 574, Vol. 1.
  17. ^ Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, p. 14, citing William Leadbetter, "Galerius and the Revolt of the Thebaid, 293/4," Antichthon 34 (2000) 82–94.
  18. ^ a b Potter 2004, p. 292.
  19. ^ a b Williams, Diocletian
  20. ^ Southern 2001, p. 149.
  21. ^ a b c Barnes 1981, p. 17.
  22. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus 23.5.11.
  23. ^ Potter 2004, p. 651–652.
  24. ^ Potter 2004, p. 652.
  25. ^ Potter 2004, p. 292–293.
  26. ^ a b c d e f g Potter 2004, p. 293.
  27. ^ Rees 2004, p. 14.
  28. ^ a b Southern 2001, p. 151.
  29. ^ a b c d e f g Barnes 1981, p. 18.
  30. ^ Lactantius (DMP 9.6) derides Diocletian for his absence from the front; Southern (1999, 151, 335–336), on the basis of a dating of the African campaigns one year earlier than that given by Barnes, places him at Galerius' southern flank. Southern sees the Persian campaign progressing along the lines of Marcus Aurelius' (r. 161–180) earlier, unsuccessful Parthian campaign, which also had an emperor manning the southern flank.
  31. ^ a b Southern 2001, p. 150.
  32. ^ Dignas, Beate; Winter, Engelbert (13 September 2007). Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals. Cambridge University Press. pp. 29–30. ISBN 978-0-521-84925-8.
  33. ^ The acceptance of these terms by the Persians also meant that Syriac culture would earn long-term influence in the region on both sides of the Tigris. With the heavily Christian Syriac peoples so near their border, Armenia would also become susceptible to Christian influence in later years, leading to its eventual conversion under Tiridates. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, p. 293.
  34. ^ Nixon 2015, p. 47
  35. ^ a b c d e f g Gibbon, Edward, "14", Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
  36. ^ Barnes 1981, pp. 28–29.
  37. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62.
  38. ^ Odahl, 79–80.
  39. ^ Rees 2004, p. 160.
  40. ^ DiMaio, Michael Jr. "Maxentius (306–312 A.D.)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Archived from the original on 4 March 2022. Retrieved 20 July 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  41. ^ Gibbon, Edward (2008). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Cosimo, Inc. p. 132. ISBN 978-1-60520-122-1.
  42. ^ MacMullen, Ramsay; Lane, Eugene (1992). Paganism and Christianity, 100–425 C.E.: A Sourcebook. Fortress Press. p. 219. ISBN 9781451407853.
  43. ^ Takacs, Sarolta Anna; Cline, Eric H. (2015). The Ancient World. Routledge. p. 202. ISBN 9781317458395.
  44. ^ Davidson, J. (2005). Birth of the Church: From Jesus to Constantine, AD 30–312. Monarch Books. ISBN 978-1854246585.
  45. ^ Lactantius, "34, 35", De Mortibus Persecutorum [On the Deaths of the Persecutors]
  46. ^ Weitzmann, Kurt (1977). Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Ar. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 13–14. ISBN 9780870991790.
  47. ^ "Marble portrait of Roman Emperor". Canellopoulos Museum.
  48. ^ Corcoran, Simon, The empire of the tetrarchs: imperial pronouncements and government, AD 284–324, p. 187
  49. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiae 352–356
  50. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 33
  51. ^ RING MAIL FROM GALERIUS' BURIAL RITE AT GAMZIGRAD (ROMULIANA), ANTE PORTAM AUREAM : STUDIA IN HONOREM PROFESSORIS ALEKSANDAR JOVANOVIĆ, Belgrade 2017, 239–250. MIROSLAV B. VUJOVIĆ.
  52. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 23
  53. ^ Galerius Peak. SCAR Composite Gazetteer of Antarctica

Sources

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Ancient sources

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  • Codex Theodosianus.
    • Mommsen, T. and Paul M. Meyer, eds. Theodosiani libri XVI cum Constitutionibus Sirmondianis et Leges novellae ad Theodosianum pertinentes2 (in Latin). Berlin: Weidmann, [1905] 1954. Compiled by Nicholas Palmer, revised by Tony Honoré for Oxford Text Archive, 1984. Prepared for online use by R.W.B. Salway, 1999. Preface, books 1–8. Online at University College London Archived 26 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine and the University of Grenoble. Accessed 25 August 2009.
    • Unknown edition (in Latin). Online at AncientRome.ru. Accessed 15 August 2009.
  • Epitome de Caesaribus.
    • Banchich, Thomas M., trans. A Booklet About the Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperatores. Canisius College Translated Texts 1. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2009. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis. Accessed 15 August 2009.
  • Eusebius of Caesarea.
    • Historia Ecclesiastica (Church History).
      • McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 25 August 2009.
    • Vita Constantini (Life of Constantine).
      • Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 25 August 2009.
  • Festus. Breviarium.
    • Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People. Canisius College Translated Texts 2. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2001. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis. Accessed 15 August 2009.
  • Lactantius. De Mortibus Persecutorum (On the Deaths of the Persecutors).
    • Fletcher, William, trans. Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Accessed 25 August 2009.
  • XII Panegyrici Latini (Twelve Latin Panegyrics).
    • Nixon, C.E.V., and Barbara Saylor Rodgers, ed. and trans. In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015.
  • Zosimus. Historia Nova (New History).
    • Unknown, trans. The History of Count Zosimus. London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at Tertullian. Accessed 15 August 2009.{{efn|This edition and translation is not very good. The pagination is broken in several places, there are many typographical errors (including several replacements of "Julian" with "Jovian" and "Constantine" with "Constantius"). It is nonetheless the only translation of the Historia Nova in the public domain.

Modern sources

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Galerius.
Galerius
Born: c. 258 Died: May 311
Regnal titles
Preceded by Roman emperor
305–311
With: Constantius I, Severus II, Constantine I, Maxentius,
Licinius, Maximian and Maximinus II 		Succeeded by
Political offices
Preceded by Roman consul
294
with Constantius Chlorus 		Succeeded by
Preceded by Roman consul
297
with Maximian 		Succeeded by
Preceded by Roman consul
300
with Constantius Chlorus 		Succeeded by
Preceded by Roman consul
302
with Constantius Chlorus 		Succeeded by
Preceded by Roman consul
305–308
with Constantius Chlorus,
Maximian,
Constantine I,
Valerius Severus,
Maximinus Daza,
Diocletian,
Maxentius,
Valerius Romulus 		Succeeded by
Preceded by Roman consul
311
with Maximinus Daza ,
G. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus,
Aradius Rufinus 		Succeeded by
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