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The '''milkfish''' ('''''Chanos chanos''''') is a widespread species of [[Actinopterygii|ray-finned fish]] found throughout the [[Indo-Pacific]]. It is the sole living [[species]] in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Chanidae]], and the only living member of the genus '''''Chanos'''''.<ref name=CoF>{{cite web |url=http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/Ichthyology/catalog/SpeciesByFamily.asp |title=Catalog of Fishes |editor=Eschmeyer, W. N. |editor2=R. Fricke |date=4 January 2016 |publisher=California Academy of Sciences |access-date=25 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{FishBase family |family=Chanidae |month=October |year=2015}}</ref><ref name=Nelson>{{Cite book| last = Nelson| first = J. S.| title = [[Fishes of the World]]| author-link = Joseph S. Nelson| location = Hoboken, NJ| date = 2006| edition = 4th| publisher = John Wiley & Sons| isbn = 978-0-471-25031-9| pages=135–136}}</ref>
The '''milkfish''' ('''''Chanos chanos''''') is a widespread species of [[Actinopterygii|ray-finned fish]] found throughout the [[Indo-Pacific]]. It is the sole living [[species]] in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Chanidae]], and the only living member of the genus '''''Chanos'''''.<ref name=CoF>{{cite web |url=http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/Ichthyology/catalog/SpeciesByFamily.asp |title=Catalog of Fishes |editor=Eschmeyer, W. N. |editor2=R. Fricke |date=4 January 2016 |publisher=California Academy of Sciences |access-date=25 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{FishBase family |family=Chanidae |month=October |year=2015}}</ref><ref name=Nelson>{{Cite book| last = Nelson| first = J. S.| title = [[Fishes of the World]]| author-link = Joseph S. Nelson| location = Hoboken, NJ| date = 2006| edition = 4th| publisher = John Wiley & Sons| isbn = 978-0-471-25031-9| pages=135–136}}</ref>
The repeating scientific name ([[tautonym]]) is from Greek {{transliteration|grc|khanos}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|χάνος}} ‘mouth’).<ref>{{M-W|Chanidae}} “from Greek ''chanos'' mouth”</ref><ref name="JordanEvermann1896">{{cite book | author1 = David Starr Jordan |display-authors=etal | date = 1896 | title = The Fishes of North and Middle America, pt. 1 | publisher = Government Printing Office | pages = 414 | oclc = 1052833 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xaEbAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA414 |quote= from {{lang|grc|χάνος}}, the open mouth}}</ref> They are grouped in the order '''Gonorhynchiformes''' and are most closely related to the [[Ostariophysi]]—freshwater fishes such as carps, catfish, and loaches. <ref name = "EF"> Bagarinao, T. (1999). ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10862/2976 Ecology and farming of milkfish]''. Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center.</ref>
The repeating scientific name ([[tautonym]]) is from Greek {{transliteration|grc|khanos}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|χάνος}} ‘mouth’).<ref>{{M-W|Chanidae}} "from Greek ''chanos'' mouth"</ref><ref name="JordanEvermann1896">{{cite book | author1 = David Starr Jordan |display-authors=etal | date = 1896 | title = The Fishes of North and Middle America, pt. 1 | publisher = Government Printing Office | pages = 414 | oclc = 1052833 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xaEbAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA414 |quote= from {{lang|grc|χάνος}}, the open mouth}}</ref> They are grouped in the order '''Gonorhynchiformes''' and are most closely related to the [[Ostariophysi]]—freshwater fishes such as carps, catfish, and loaches. <ref name = "EF"> Bagarinao, T. (1999). ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10862/2976 Ecology and farming of milkfish]''. Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center.</ref>


The species has many common names. The [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] name for the fish is ''awa'', and in [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]] it is ''ava''. It is called ''bangús'' ({{IPA|tl|bɐˈŋus|lang}}) in the [[Philippines]], where it is popularly known as the [[national animal|national fish]], although the [[National Commission for Culture and the Arts]] has stated that this is not the case as it has no basis in Philippine law.<ref>{{cite web | last=Pangilinan | first=Leon Jr. | title = In Focus: 9 Facts You May Not Know About Philippine National Symbols | url=http://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/in-focus/9-facts-you-may-not-know-about-philippine-national-symbols/ | date = 3 October 2014 | access-date = 8 January 2019 | publisher = [[National Commission for Culture and the Arts]]}}</ref> In the [[Nauruan language]], it is referred to as {{transliteration|na|ibiya}}. Milkfish is also called ''bandeng'' or ''bolu'' in [[Indonesia]].<ref name=FishBase/>
The species has many common names. The [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] name for the fish is ''awa'', and in [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]] it is ''ava''. It is called ''bangús'' ({{IPA|tl|bɐˈŋus|lang}}) in the [[Philippines]], where it is popularly known as the [[national animal|national fish]], although the [[National Commission for Culture and the Arts]] has stated that this is not the case as it has no basis in Philippine law.<ref>{{cite web | last=Pangilinan | first=Leon Jr. | title=In Focus: 9 Facts You May Not Know About Philippine National Symbols | url=http://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/in-focus/9-facts-you-may-not-know-about-philippine-national-symbols/ | date=3 October 2014 | access-date=8 January 2019 | publisher=[[National Commission for Culture and the Arts]] | archive-date=26 November 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126154959/http://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/in-focus/9-facts-you-may-not-know-about-philippine-national-symbols/ | url-status=dead }}</ref> In the [[Nauruan language]], it is referred to as {{transliteration|na|ibiya}}. Milkfish is also called ''bandeng'' or ''bolu'' in [[Indonesia]].<ref name=FishBase/>


The following are common names for milkfish by country:<ref name="EF" />
The following are common names for milkfish by country:<ref name="EF" />
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[[File:Indo-Pacific map outlines with ASEAN overlay.jpg|thumb|left|Estimated geographical range of ''Chanos'' in the Indo-Pacific ]]
[[File:Indo-Pacific map outlines with ASEAN overlay.jpg|thumb|left|Estimated geographical range of ''Chanos'' in the Indo-Pacific ]]
''Chanos chanos'' occurs in the [[Indian Ocean]] and across the [[Pacific Ocean]], from South Africa to Hawaii and the Marquesas, from California to the Galapagos, north to Japan, south to Australia. A single specimen was reported in 2012 in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.<ref>Atlas of Exotic Fishes in the Mediterranean Sea (''Chanos chanos''). 2nd Edition. 2021. 366p. CIESM Publishers, Paris, Monaco.https://ciesm.org/atlas/fishes_2nd_edition/Chanos_chanos.pdf</ref>
''Chanos chanos'' occurs in the [[Indian Ocean]] and across the [[Pacific Ocean]], from South Africa to Hawaii and the Marquesas, from California to the Galapagos, north to Japan, south to Australia. A single specimen was reported in 2012 in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.<ref>Atlas of Exotic Fishes in the Mediterranean Sea (''Chanos chanos''). 2nd Edition. 2021. 366p. CIESM Publishers, Paris, Monaco.https://ciesm.org/atlas/fishes_2nd_edition/Chanos_chanos.pdf</ref>
In 1877, the [[California Fish and Game Commission]] introduced one hundred milkfish from Hawaii to the inland waters of [[Solano County, California]]. The introduced population could not establish itself permanently and it’s currently unknown how their presence affected the native ecosystem.<ref>Duffy, J. M., & Bernard, H. J. (1985). ''[https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=413 MILKFISH, CHANOS-CHANOS (FORSSKAL, 1775), TAKEN IN SOUTHERN-CALIFORNIA ADDS NEW FAMILY (CHANIDAE) TO THE CALIFORNIA MARINE FAUNA.]'' California Fish and Game, 71(2), 122-125.</ref>
In 1877, the [[California Fish and Game Commission]] introduced one hundred milkfish from Hawaii to the inland waters of [[Solano County, California]]. The introduced population could not establish itself permanently and it’s currently unknown how their presence affected the native ecosystem.<ref>Duffy, J. M., & Bernard, H. J. (1985). ''[https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=413 MILKFISH, CHANOS-CHANOS (FORSSKAL, 1775), TAKEN IN SOUTHERN-CALIFORNIA ADDS NEW FAMILY (CHANIDAE) TO THE CALIFORNIA MARINE FAUNA.]'' California Fish and Game, 71(2), 122–125.</ref>


Milkfishes commonly live in tropical offshore marine waters around islands and along continental shelves, at depths of 1 to 30 m. They also frequently enter estuaries and rivers.<ref name="FishBase" />
Milkfishes commonly live in tropical offshore marine waters around islands and along continental shelves, at depths of 1 to 30 m. They also frequently enter estuaries and rivers.<ref name="FishBase" />


== Taxonomy ==
== Taxonomy ==
''Chanos'' is the only surviving genus of the ancient family [[Chanidae]], which has existed since the [[Early Cretaceous]]. The only surviving species is the widespread ''C. chanos''. Several fossil species of ''Chanos'' are known from the [[Paleogene]] of the [[Tethys Ocean|Tethys]] and [[North Sea]]s, dating as far back as the earliest [[Eocene]].<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Taverne |first=Emmanuel Fara, Mireille Gayet, Louis |title=The Fossil Record of Gonorynchiformes |date=2010 |work=Gonorynchiformes and Ostariophysan Relationships |url=https://hal.science/hal-00441945v1/file/Fara2009.pdf |access-date=2024-04-03 |publisher=CRC Press |doi=10.1201/b10194-6/fossil-record-gonorynchiformes-emmanuel-fara-mireille-gayet-louis-taverne |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |isbn=978-0-429-06156-1}}</ref> The earliest fossil Chanos were found in freshwater Eocene deposits in Europe and North America—hinting that the species first appeared in freshwater environments 40–50 million years ago. It’s possible that their invasion into the ocean happened during high sea-level or flooding events after the Eocene. Global cooling during the Mid-Eocene likely wiped out the population of milkfish in the Atlantic, but the species persisted in the Indo-Pacific. <ref name = "SDGL"> Bagarinao, T. (1994). [http://hdl.handle.net/10862/1443 Systematics, distribution, genetics and life history of milkfish, Chanos chanos.] ''Environmental biology of fishes'', 39, 23-41.</ref>
''Chanos'' is the only surviving genus of the ancient family [[Chanidae]], which has existed since the [[Early Cretaceous]]. The only surviving species is the widespread ''C. chanos''. Several fossil species of ''Chanos'' are known from the [[Paleogene]] of the [[Tethys Ocean|Tethys]] and [[North Sea]]s, dating as far back as the earliest [[Eocene]].<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Taverne |first=Emmanuel Fara, Mireille Gayet, Louis |title=The Fossil Record of Gonorynchiformes |date=2010 |work=Gonorynchiformes and Ostariophysan Relationships |url=https://hal.science/hal-00441945v1/file/Fara2009.pdf |access-date=2024-04-03 |publisher=CRC Press |doi=10.1201/b10194-6/fossil-record-gonorynchiformes-emmanuel-fara-mireille-gayet-louis-taverne |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |isbn=978-0-429-06156-1}}</ref> The earliest fossil Chanos were found in freshwater Eocene deposits in Europe and North America—hinting that the species first appeared in freshwater environments 40–50 million years ago. It’s possible that their invasion into the ocean happened during high sea-level or flooding events after the Eocene. Global cooling during the Mid-Eocene likely wiped out the population of milkfish in the Atlantic, but the species persisted in the Indo-Pacific. <ref name = "SDGL"> Bagarinao, T. (1994). [http://hdl.handle.net/10862/1443 Systematics, distribution, genetics and life history of milkfish, Chanos chanos.] ''Environmental biology of fishes'', 39, 23–41.</ref>


The following fossil species of ''Chanos'' are known:<ref name=":0" />
The following fossil species of ''Chanos'' are known:<ref name=":0" />
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The milkfish can grow to {{convert|1.80|m|ftin|0|abbr=on}}, but are most often no more than {{convert|1|m|in|abbr=on}} in length. They can reach a weight of about {{convert|14|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. and an age of 15 years. They have an elongated and almost compressed body, with a generally symmetrical and streamlined appearance, one dorsal fin, falcate pectoral fins and a sizable forked [[caudal fin]]. The head is small relative to the body. The mouth is small and toothless. The body is olive green, with silvery flanks and dark bordered fins. They have 13–17 dorsal soft rays, 8–10 anal soft rays and 31 caudal fin rays. There are numerous fine intramuscular bones, which may complicate human consumption of the fish (see "Consumption" below).<ref name=FishBase>{{FishBase |genus=Chanos |species=chanos |month=October |year=2015}}</ref>
The milkfish can grow to {{convert|1.80|m|ftin|0|abbr=on}}, but are most often no more than {{convert|1|m|in|abbr=on}} in length. They can reach a weight of about {{convert|14|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. and an age of 15 years. They have an elongated and almost compressed body, with a generally symmetrical and streamlined appearance, one dorsal fin, falcate pectoral fins and a sizable forked [[caudal fin]]. The head is small relative to the body. The mouth is small and toothless. The body is olive green, with silvery flanks and dark bordered fins. They have 13–17 dorsal soft rays, 8–10 anal soft rays and 31 caudal fin rays. There are numerous fine intramuscular bones, which may complicate human consumption of the fish (see "Consumption" below).<ref name=FishBase>{{FishBase |genus=Chanos |species=chanos |month=October |year=2015}}</ref>


Their silvery complexion is similar to many other fish species of the Indo-Pacific. They are often mistaken for species of Clupeidae, ''Megalops cyprinoides'', ''Gonorhynchus gonorhynchus'', and ''Elops machnata''. ''Chanos'' can be distinguished from these species by their size, absence of scutes, tubercle on the lower jaw, fin placement, no gular plate between arms of the lower jaw, and having only four branchiostegal rays.<ref> Fischer, W. and G. Bianchi (eds), [https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/publications/query/Hypoplectrus%20indigo,Indigo%20hamlet* FAO species 1984 identification sheets for fishery purposes. Western Indian Ocean]; (Fishing Area 51). Prepared and printed with the support of the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA). Rome, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, vols 1-6:pag. var.</ref>
Their silvery complexion is similar to many other fish species of the Indo-Pacific. They are often mistaken for species of Clupeidae, ''Megalops cyprinoides'', ''Gonorhynchus gonorhynchus'', and ''Elops machnata''. ''Chanos'' can be distinguished from these species by their size, absence of scutes, tubercle on the lower jaw, fin placement, no gular plate between arms of the lower jaw, and having only four branchiostegal rays.<ref> Fischer, W. and G. Bianchi (eds), [https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/publications/query/Hypoplectrus%20indigo,Indigo%20hamlet* FAO species 1984 identification sheets for fishery purposes. Western Indian Ocean]; (Fishing Area 51). Prepared and printed with the support of the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA). Rome, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, vols 1–6:pag. var.</ref>


Variant milkfish body types have occasionally been found. The ‘goldfish-type’ milkfish was discovered in the Philippines and is characterized by distinctly elongated dorsal, pelvic, and anal fins, and a caudal fin as long as the body. In Hawaii, Indonesia, and Australia, dwarf or hunchback ‘shad-type’ specimens have been recorded. They have a standard length-to-depth ratio of 2.0-2.5 instead of the usual 3.5-4.0. In Northern Australia, a milkfish with a red head, red fins, and blue dorsal coloration was reported.<ref name=SDGL />
Variant milkfish body types have occasionally been found. The ‘goldfish-type’ milkfish was discovered in the Philippines and is characterized by distinctly elongated dorsal, pelvic, and anal fins, and a caudal fin as long as the body. In Hawaii, Indonesia, and Australia, dwarf or hunchback ‘shad-type’ specimens have been recorded. They have a standard length-to-depth ratio of 2.0-2.5 instead of the usual 3.5-4.0. In Northern Australia, a milkfish with a red head, red fins, and blue dorsal coloration was reported.<ref name=SDGL />
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Reproduction of milkfish in nature is far less understood than populations of milkfish bred and propagated in captivity (see "Aquaculture" below). In the wild, milkfish take 3–5 years to mature. Females can produce 0.5-6 million eggs and have the ability to spawn more than once a year. Spawning takes place at night, may be lunar periodic, and is strongly seasonal. Milkfish eggs are [[pelagic]] and range between 1.1–1.25 mm in diameter. Spawning sites are clear, warm, shallow waters above sand or coral reefs. It is believed milkfish prefer these locations to minimize predation from benthic [[planktivores]].<ref name=SDGL />
Reproduction of milkfish in nature is far less understood than populations of milkfish bred and propagated in captivity (see "Aquaculture" below). In the wild, milkfish take 3–5 years to mature. Females can produce 0.5-6 million eggs and have the ability to spawn more than once a year. Spawning takes place at night, may be lunar periodic, and is strongly seasonal. Milkfish eggs are [[pelagic]] and range between 1.1–1.25 mm in diameter. Spawning sites are clear, warm, shallow waters above sand or coral reefs. It is believed milkfish prefer these locations to minimize predation from benthic [[planktivores]].<ref name=SDGL />


Milkfish larvae have a pelagic planktonic stage. Younger larvae occur mostly at the surface, or sometimes deeper (20–30m). Older larvae are only found at the surface and in near-shore environments.<ref name=SDGL /> Larvae metamorphose into fry and become benthic-feeding juveniles that are opportunistically [[herbivorous]], [[detritivorous]], or [[omnivorous]], depending on the predominant food types in the habitat.<ref>Kumagai, S., & Bagarinao, T. (1981). [http://hdl.handle.net/10862/1115 Studies on the habitat and food of juvenile milkfish in the wild.] ''Fisheries Research Journal of the Philippines'', 6(1), 1-10.</ref>
Milkfish larvae have a pelagic planktonic stage. Younger larvae occur mostly at the surface, or sometimes deeper (20–30m). Older larvae are only found at the surface and in near-shore environments.<ref name=SDGL /> Larvae metamorphose into fry and become benthic-feeding juveniles that are opportunistically [[herbivorous]], [[detritivorous]], or [[omnivorous]], depending on the predominant food types in the habitat.<ref>Kumagai, S., & Bagarinao, T. (1981). [http://hdl.handle.net/10862/1115 Studies on the habitat and food of juvenile milkfish in the wild.] ''Fisheries Research Journal of the Philippines'', 6(1), 1–10.</ref>


Juvenile milkfish larger than 20mm typically bear the characteristics of adults. They have complete fin rays, a forked caudal fin, scales, and silvery coloration. Juveniles have been found to inhabit a diverse range of shallow-water ecosystems such as [[coral lagoons]], [[estuaries]], [[marsh flats]], [[tidal creeks]], and [[tide pools]].<ref name=SDGL />
Juvenile milkfish larger than 20mm typically bear the characteristics of adults. They have complete fin rays, a forked caudal fin, scales, and silvery coloration. Juveniles have been found to inhabit a diverse range of shallow-water ecosystems such as [[coral lagoons]], [[estuaries]], [[marsh flats]], [[tidal creeks]], and [[tide pools]].<ref name=SDGL />
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===Habitat===
===Habitat===
Adults tend to [[Shoaling and schooling|school]] around [[coast]]s and [[island]]s with [[coral reef]]s. The young [[Spawn (biology)#Fry|fry]] live at sea for two to three weeks and then migrate during the juvenile stage to [[mangrove]] swamps, [[estuary|estuaries]], and sometimes [[lake]]s, and return to sea to mature sexually and reproduce. Juveniles prefer to settle in undisturbed coastal ecosystems that are semi-enclosed, calm, shallow, free from predators, and rich in aquatic vegetation. In their natural habitats, milkfish are very adaptable to both changes in environmental conditions and diet.<ref>Kumagai, S., Bagarinao, T., & Unggui, A. (1985). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250213986_Growth_of_juvenile_milkfish_Chanos_chanos_in_a_natural_habitat Growth of juvenile milkfish Chanos chanos in a natural habitat.] ''Marine ecology progress series''. Oldendorf, 22(1), 1-6.</ref> Milkfish are good [[osmoregulation|osmoregulators]] and extremely [[euryhaline]].<ref>Swanson, C. (1998). [https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/201/24/3355/13539/Interactive-Effects-of-Salinity-On-Metabolic-Rate Interactive effects of salinity on metabolic rate, activity, growth and osmoregulation in the euryhaline milkfish (Chanos chanos)]. ''Journal of Experimental Biology'', 201(24), 3355-3366.</ref>
Adults tend to [[Shoaling and schooling|school]] around [[coast]]s and [[island]]s with [[coral reef]]s. The young [[Spawn (biology)#Fry|fry]] live at sea for two to three weeks and then migrate during the juvenile stage to [[mangrove]] swamps, [[estuary|estuaries]], and sometimes [[lake]]s, and return to sea to mature sexually and reproduce. Juveniles prefer to settle in undisturbed coastal ecosystems that are semi-enclosed, calm, shallow, free from predators, and rich in aquatic vegetation. In their natural habitats, milkfish are very adaptable to both changes in environmental conditions and diet.<ref>Kumagai, S., Bagarinao, T., & Unggui, A. (1985). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250213986_Growth_of_juvenile_milkfish_Chanos_chanos_in_a_natural_habitat Growth of juvenile milkfish Chanos chanos in a natural habitat.] ''Marine ecology progress series''. Oldendorf, 22(1), 1–6.</ref> Milkfish are good [[osmoregulation|osmoregulators]] and extremely [[euryhaline]].<ref>Swanson, C. (1998). [https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/201/24/3355/13539/Interactive-Effects-of-Salinity-On-Metabolic-Rate Interactive effects of salinity on metabolic rate, activity, growth and osmoregulation in the euryhaline milkfish (Chanos chanos)]. ''Journal of Experimental Biology'', 201(24), 3355–3366.</ref>


The wide geographic distribution of milkfish has led to genetic variation in the species across the Indo-Pacific. Milkfish populations differ between the Hawaiian islands, the central Pacific islands, Tonga, Tahiti, Philippines-Taiwan-Indonesia, Thailand-Malaysia, India, and Africa. However, all populations are thought to be inter-breeding, thus they are all considered one species, and their genetic diversity is low. However, populations may still differ in their reproductive, migratory, and survival methods.<ref name=SDGL />
The wide geographic distribution of milkfish has led to genetic variation in the species across the Indo-Pacific. Milkfish populations differ between the Hawaiian islands, the central Pacific islands, Tonga, Tahiti, Philippines-Taiwan-Indonesia, Thailand-Malaysia, India, and Africa. However, all populations are thought to be inter-breeding, thus they are all considered one species, and their genetic diversity is low. However, populations may still differ in their reproductive, migratory, and survival methods.<ref name=SDGL />
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Milkfish are not currently a threatened species.
Milkfish are not currently a threatened species.


Although milkfish populations are not threatened with extinction, they are at risk of ingesting or absorbing pollutants. Milkfish frequent environments that have been affected by [[industrial pollution|industrial pollutants]], [[land runoff]], and plastics. Asia is one of the largest contributors of plastic litter into both the ocean and freshwater systems. A population of milkfish from San Jose, [[North Samar]], Philippines was found to have concentrations of lead in the meaty part of their bodies.<ref>Dagalea, F. M. S., Somoray, M. J. M., Alvarez, M. L. C., & Lim, K. M. C. (2022). [https://journalcsij.com/index.php/CSIJ/article/view/808 Qualitative Test of Heavy Metals in Chanos chanos (Bangus) Found in the First District of Northern Samar.] ''Chemical Science International Journal'', 31(2), 15-20.</ref> Pollutants have also impacted the aquaculture industry. In an aquaculture system in [[Butuan]], Philippines, 97% of the fish sampled had [[microplastics]] in their gastrointestinal tracts. A similar study in Indonesia showed similar results. The presence of pollutants in milkfish poses a threat to the species’ health, aquaculture, and humans.<ref>Similatan, K. M., Arcadio, C. G. L. A., Navarro, C. K. P., Capangpangan, R. Y., & Bacosa, H. P. (2023). [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115409 Microplastic ingestion by adult milkfish Chanos chanos (Forsskål, 1775) in aquaculture system: The case of Butuan Bay, Philippines.] ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', 194, 115409.</ref>
Although milkfish populations are not threatened with extinction, they are at risk of ingesting or absorbing pollutants. Milkfish frequent environments that have been affected by [[industrial pollution|industrial pollutants]], [[land runoff]], and plastics. Asia is one of the largest contributors of plastic litter into both the ocean and freshwater systems. A population of milkfish from San Jose, [[North Samar]], Philippines was found to have concentrations of lead in the meaty part of their bodies.<ref>Dagalea, F. M. S., Somoray, M. J. M., Alvarez, M. L. C., & Lim, K. M. C. (2022). [https://journalcsij.com/index.php/CSIJ/article/view/808 Qualitative Test of Heavy Metals in Chanos chanos (Bangus) Found in the First District of Northern Samar.] ''Chemical Science International Journal'', 31(2), 15–20.</ref> Pollutants have also impacted the aquaculture industry. In an aquaculture system in [[Butuan]], Philippines, 97% of the fish sampled had [[microplastics]] in their gastrointestinal tracts. A similar study in Indonesia showed similar results. The presence of pollutants in milkfish poses a threat to the species’ health, aquaculture, and humans.<ref>Similatan, K. M., Arcadio, C. G. L. A., Navarro, C. K. P., Capangpangan, R. Y., & Bacosa, H. P. (2023). [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115409 Microplastic ingestion by adult milkfish Chanos chanos (Forsskål, 1775) in aquaculture system: The case of Butuan Bay, Philippines.] ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', 194, 115409.</ref>


==Fishing==
==Fishing==
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===Challenges===
===Challenges===
Modern milkfish aquaculture faces some challenges: acquiring viable milkfish fry, overcoming their status as a low-value species, attempting to expand outside of an ethnic market and struggling to find a sustainable cost-production balance. In 1987, Taiwan developed the outdoor hatchery technique, which resulted in lower-cost technology, and their fry production surpassed that of the wild. Since then, Taiwan has been one of the biggest hatchery fry producers in the Indo-Pacific. To stimulate market demand, sellers have been taking a fast-food approach, to make the product more accessible and desirable to common consumers.<ref>Su, M. S., Lee, C. S., & Liao, I. C. (2002). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248945500_Technical_Responses_to_Challenges_in_Milkfish_Aquaculture Technical responses to challenges in milkfish aquaculture.] ''Reviews in Fisheries Science'', 10(3-4), 451-464.</ref>
Modern milkfish aquaculture faces some challenges: acquiring viable milkfish fry, overcoming their status as a low-value species, attempting to expand outside of an ethnic market and struggling to find a sustainable cost-production balance. In 1987, Taiwan developed the outdoor hatchery technique, which resulted in lower-cost technology, and their fry production surpassed that of the wild. Since then, Taiwan has been one of the biggest hatchery fry producers in the Indo-Pacific. To stimulate market demand, sellers have been taking a fast-food approach, to make the product more accessible and desirable to common consumers.<ref>Su, M. S., Lee, C. S., & Liao, I. C. (2002). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248945500_Technical_Responses_to_Challenges_in_Milkfish_Aquaculture Technical responses to challenges in milkfish aquaculture.] ''Reviews in Fisheries Science'', 10(3-4), 451–464.</ref>


=== Processing and marketing ===
=== Processing and marketing ===
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*{{Commons category-inline|Chanos chanos}}
*{{Commons category-inline|Chanos chanos}}
* {{Wikispecies-inline|Chanos chanos}}
* {{Wikispecies-inline|Chanos chanos}}
* [http://www.bonelessbangus.com Boneless Bangus]
* [http://www.bonelessbangus.com Boneless Bangus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200717065802/https://bonelessbangus.com/ |date=2020-07-17 }}
* [http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.cfm?id=80 FishBase entry for milkfish]
* [http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.cfm?id=80 FishBase entry for milkfish]
* [http://www.seafdec.org.ph/commodities/milkfish_hatchery.html SEAFDEC milkfish hatchery info]
* [http://www.seafdec.org.ph/commodities/milkfish_hatchery.html SEAFDEC milkfish hatchery info]

Latest revision as of 23:57, 20 November 2024

Milkfish
Temporal range: 56–0 Ma Early Eocene–present
French Polynesia
Milkfish (locally bangús) in a Philippine fish market
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Gonorynchiformes
Family: Chanidae
Subfamily: Chaninae
Genus: Chanos
Lacépède, 1803
Species:
C. chanos
Binomial name
Chanos chanos
(Forsskål, 1775)
Synonyms
  • Butirinus argenteus Jerdon, 1849
  • Butirinus maderaspatensis Jerdon, 1849
  • Chanos arabicus Lacepède, 1803
  • Chanos chloropterus Valenciennes, 1847
  • Chanos cyprinella Valenciennes, 1847
  • Chanos gardineri Regan, 1902
  • Chanos indicus (van Hasselt, 1823)
  • Chanos lubina Valenciennes, 1847
  • Chanos mento Valenciennes, 1847
  • Chanos mossambicus (Peters, 1852)
  • Chanos nuchalis Valenciennes, 1847
  • Chanos orientalis Valenciennes, 1847
  • Chanos salmoneus (Forster, 1801)
  • Chanos salmonoides Günther, 1879
  • Cyprinus pala Cuvier, 1829
  • Cyprinus palah (Cuvier, 1829)
  • Cyprinus tolo Cuvier, 1829
  • Leuciscus palah Cuvier, 1829
  • Leuciscus salmoneus (Forster, 1801)
  • Leuciscus zeylonicus Bennett, 1833
  • Lutodeira chanos (Forsskål, 1775)
  • Lutodeira chloropterus (Valenciennes, 1847)
  • Lutodeira indica van Hasselt, 1823
  • Lutodeira mossambica Peters, 1852
  • Lutodeira mossambicus Peters, 1852
  • Lutodeira salmonea (Forster, 1801)
  • Mugil chanos Forsskål, 1775
  • Mugil salmoneus Forster, 1801

The milkfish (Chanos chanos) is a widespread species of ray-finned fish found throughout the Indo-Pacific. It is the sole living species in the family Chanidae, and the only living member of the genus Chanos.[2][3][4] The repeating scientific name (tautonym) is from Greek khanos (χάνος ‘mouth’).[5][6] They are grouped in the order Gonorhynchiformes and are most closely related to the Ostariophysi—freshwater fishes such as carps, catfish, and loaches. [7]

The species has many common names. The Hawaiian name for the fish is awa, and in Tahitian it is ava. It is called bangús (Tagalog: [bɐˈŋus]) in the Philippines, where it is popularly known as the national fish, although the National Commission for Culture and the Arts has stated that this is not the case as it has no basis in Philippine law.[8] In the Nauruan language, it is referred to as ibiya. Milkfish is also called bandeng or bolu in Indonesia.[9]

The following are common names for milkfish by country:[7]

  • Philippines: bangus, bangrus, banglus, banglot, banglis, sabalo, awa
  • Indonesia: ikan bandeng, baulo, bolu, balanak sembawa
  • Burma: ga-tin
  • Malaysia: bandang, jangos, pisong-pisong
  • Sri Lanka: plai-meen, vaikka
  • Thailand: pla nua chan
  • S. India: pal-meen
  • S. Vietnam: ca mang
  • Iraq binni: al-bahr
  • Taiwan: sabahee
  • Hawaii: awa-awa
  • Japan: sabahee
  • Mexico: sabalo

Geographic Distribution

[edit]
Estimated geographical range of Chanos in the Indo-Pacific

Chanos chanos occurs in the Indian Ocean and across the Pacific Ocean, from South Africa to Hawaii and the Marquesas, from California to the Galapagos, north to Japan, south to Australia. A single specimen was reported in 2012 in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.[10] In 1877, the California Fish and Game Commission introduced one hundred milkfish from Hawaii to the inland waters of Solano County, California. The introduced population could not establish itself permanently and it’s currently unknown how their presence affected the native ecosystem.[11]

Milkfishes commonly live in tropical offshore marine waters around islands and along continental shelves, at depths of 1 to 30 m. They also frequently enter estuaries and rivers.[9]

Taxonomy

[edit]

Chanos is the only surviving genus of the ancient family Chanidae, which has existed since the Early Cretaceous. The only surviving species is the widespread C. chanos. Several fossil species of Chanos are known from the Paleogene of the Tethys and North Seas, dating as far back as the earliest Eocene.[12] The earliest fossil Chanos were found in freshwater Eocene deposits in Europe and North America—hinting that the species first appeared in freshwater environments 40–50 million years ago. It’s possible that their invasion into the ocean happened during high sea-level or flooding events after the Eocene. Global cooling during the Mid-Eocene likely wiped out the population of milkfish in the Atlantic, but the species persisted in the Indo-Pacific. [13]

The following fossil species of Chanos are known:[12]

The extinct Caeus leopoldi from the Early Cretaceous (Albian) of Italy is also sometimes placed in Chanos as Chanos leopoldi, which would be the earliest record of the genus and extend its occurrence even further back. However, more recent studies have affirmed it being a distinct genus.[14]

Anatomy

[edit]
Chanos chanos

The milkfish can grow to 1.80 m (5 ft 11 in), but are most often no more than 1 m (39 in) in length. They can reach a weight of about 14 kg (31 lb). and an age of 15 years. They have an elongated and almost compressed body, with a generally symmetrical and streamlined appearance, one dorsal fin, falcate pectoral fins and a sizable forked caudal fin. The head is small relative to the body. The mouth is small and toothless. The body is olive green, with silvery flanks and dark bordered fins. They have 13–17 dorsal soft rays, 8–10 anal soft rays and 31 caudal fin rays. There are numerous fine intramuscular bones, which may complicate human consumption of the fish (see "Consumption" below).[9]

Their silvery complexion is similar to many other fish species of the Indo-Pacific. They are often mistaken for species of Clupeidae, Megalops cyprinoides, Gonorhynchus gonorhynchus, and Elops machnata. Chanos can be distinguished from these species by their size, absence of scutes, tubercle on the lower jaw, fin placement, no gular plate between arms of the lower jaw, and having only four branchiostegal rays.[15]

Variant milkfish body types have occasionally been found. The ‘goldfish-type’ milkfish was discovered in the Philippines and is characterized by distinctly elongated dorsal, pelvic, and anal fins, and a caudal fin as long as the body. In Hawaii, Indonesia, and Australia, dwarf or hunchback ‘shad-type’ specimens have been recorded. They have a standard length-to-depth ratio of 2.0-2.5 instead of the usual 3.5-4.0. In Northern Australia, a milkfish with a red head, red fins, and blue dorsal coloration was reported.[13]

Life History

[edit]

Reproduction of milkfish in nature is far less understood than populations of milkfish bred and propagated in captivity (see "Aquaculture" below). In the wild, milkfish take 3–5 years to mature. Females can produce 0.5-6 million eggs and have the ability to spawn more than once a year. Spawning takes place at night, may be lunar periodic, and is strongly seasonal. Milkfish eggs are pelagic and range between 1.1–1.25 mm in diameter. Spawning sites are clear, warm, shallow waters above sand or coral reefs. It is believed milkfish prefer these locations to minimize predation from benthic planktivores.[13]

Milkfish larvae have a pelagic planktonic stage. Younger larvae occur mostly at the surface, or sometimes deeper (20–30m). Older larvae are only found at the surface and in near-shore environments.[13] Larvae metamorphose into fry and become benthic-feeding juveniles that are opportunistically herbivorous, detritivorous, or omnivorous, depending on the predominant food types in the habitat.[16]

Juvenile milkfish larger than 20mm typically bear the characteristics of adults. They have complete fin rays, a forked caudal fin, scales, and silvery coloration. Juveniles have been found to inhabit a diverse range of shallow-water ecosystems such as coral lagoons, estuaries, marsh flats, tidal creeks, and tide pools.[13]

Diet

[edit]

Milkfish are omnivorous opportunistic feeders. Juvenile milkfish eat a variety of foods including phytoplankton, zooplankton, filamentous green algae, and small invertebrates. Similarly to juveniles, adults also eat benthic invertebrates and additionally planktonic and nektonic items such as clupeid juveniles.[13]

Habitat

[edit]

Adults tend to school around coasts and islands with coral reefs. The young fry live at sea for two to three weeks and then migrate during the juvenile stage to mangrove swamps, estuaries, and sometimes lakes, and return to sea to mature sexually and reproduce. Juveniles prefer to settle in undisturbed coastal ecosystems that are semi-enclosed, calm, shallow, free from predators, and rich in aquatic vegetation. In their natural habitats, milkfish are very adaptable to both changes in environmental conditions and diet.[17] Milkfish are good osmoregulators and extremely euryhaline.[18]

The wide geographic distribution of milkfish has led to genetic variation in the species across the Indo-Pacific. Milkfish populations differ between the Hawaiian islands, the central Pacific islands, Tonga, Tahiti, Philippines-Taiwan-Indonesia, Thailand-Malaysia, India, and Africa. However, all populations are thought to be inter-breeding, thus they are all considered one species, and their genetic diversity is low. However, populations may still differ in their reproductive, migratory, and survival methods.[13]

Conservation Status

[edit]

Milkfish are not currently a threatened species.

Although milkfish populations are not threatened with extinction, they are at risk of ingesting or absorbing pollutants. Milkfish frequent environments that have been affected by industrial pollutants, land runoff, and plastics. Asia is one of the largest contributors of plastic litter into both the ocean and freshwater systems. A population of milkfish from San Jose, North Samar, Philippines was found to have concentrations of lead in the meaty part of their bodies.[19] Pollutants have also impacted the aquaculture industry. In an aquaculture system in Butuan, Philippines, 97% of the fish sampled had microplastics in their gastrointestinal tracts. A similar study in Indonesia showed similar results. The presence of pollutants in milkfish poses a threat to the species’ health, aquaculture, and humans.[20]

Fishing

[edit]

In the Philippines, it is prohibited to fish for adult milkfish, also known as sabalo, over 60cm. The government enacted this law in 1975 in an effort to protect spawning stocks of fish. However, sabalo are incidentally caught in fish corrals and are products of bycatch from fisheries. The ban was reinforced by the Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998 and violations are punishable by imprisonment for 6 months to 8 yr, and/or a fine of P80,000, forfeiture of the catch and fishing equipment used, and revocation of the fishing license.[13]

Consumption

[edit]
Smoked milkfish, sold in Juanda International Airport, Surabaya.

The milkfish is an important seafood in Southeast Asia and some Pacific Islands. Because it is notorious for being much bonier than other food fish, deboned milkfish, called "boneless bangús" in the Philippines, has become popular in stores and markets. Despite the notoriety however, many people in the Philippines continue to enjoy the fish cooked regularly or even raw using kalamansi juice or vinegar to make kinilaw na bangus.[21]

Popular presentations of milkfish in Indonesia include bandeng duri lunak (soft-boned milkfish, ikan bandeng is Indonesian for milkfish) from Central and East Java or bandeng presto, which is pressure cooked milkfish until the thorns are rendered tender, and bandeng asap or smoked milkfish. Either fresh or processed, milkfish is the popular seafood product of Indonesian fishing towns, such as Juwana near Semarang in Central Java, and Sidoarjo near Surabaya in East Java.[citation needed]

Fried milkfish belly fillet served at restaurant in Taipei, Taiwan.

Milkfish is the most popular fish in Taiwanese cuisine; it is valued for its versatility as well as its tender meat and economical price. Popular presentations include as a topping for congee, pan fried, braised, and as fish balls. There is a milkfish museum in Anping District and city of Kaohsiung holds an annual milkfish festival.[22]

Milkfish is an oily fish, and is rich in omega-3 fatty acids.

Aquaculture

[edit]

History

[edit]
A grilled bangus (milkfish) in the Philippines.

Milkfish aquaculture first occurred around 1800 years ago in the Philippines and spread to Indonesia, Taiwan, and into the Pacific.[23] Traditional milkfish aquaculture relied upon restocking ponds by collecting wild fry. This led to a wide range of variability in quality and quantity between seasons and regions.[23]

In the late 1970s, farmers first successfully spawned breeding fish. However, they were hard to obtain and produced unreliable egg viability.[24] In 1980, the first spontaneous spawning happened in sea cages. These eggs were found to be sufficient to generate a constant supply for farms.[25]

Milkfish aquaculture accounts for 14% of all aquaculture production worldwide. Indonesia and the Philippines were the leading producers of the species in 2017. The fish is especially desirable for aquaculture because of their rapid growth rate, disease resistance, acclimation to captivity, low mortality, high market value, and high-quality flesh.[26]

Farming methods

[edit]
Milkfish aquaculture in fish ponds in Cardona, Rizal, the Philippines.

Fry are raised in either sea cages, large saline ponds (Philippines), or concrete tanks (Indonesia, Taiwan).[23] Milkfish reach sexual maturity at 1.5 kg (3.3 lb), which takes five years in floating sea cages, but eight to 10 years in ponds and tanks. Once they reach 6 kg (13 lb), (eight years), 3–4 million eggs are produced each breeding cycle.[23] This is mainly done using natural environmental cues. However, attempts have been made using gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogue (GnRH-A) to induce spawning.[27] Some still use the traditional wild stock method — capturing wild fry using nets.[23] Milkfish hatcheries, like most hatcheries, contain a variety of cultures, for example, rotifers, green algae, and brine shrimp, as well as the target species.[23][28] They can either be intensive or semi-intensive.[23] Semi-intensive methods are more profitable at US$6.67 per thousand fry in 1998, compared with $27.40 for intensive methods.[28] However, the experience required by labour for semi-intensive hatcheries is higher than intensive.[28] Milkfish nurseries in Taiwan are highly commercial and have densities of about 2000/L.[23] Indonesia achieves similar densities, but has more backyard-type nurseries.[23] The Philippines has integrated nurseries with grow-out facilities and densities of about 1000/L.[23] The three methods of outgrowing are pond culture, pen culture, and cage culture.

  • Shallow ponds are found mainly in Indonesia and the Philippines. These are shallow (30–40 centimetres (12–16 in)), brackish ponds with benthic algae, usually used as feed.[23] They are usually excavated from nipa or mangrove areas and produce about 800 kg/ha/yr. Deep ponds (2–3 m) have more stable environments and their use began in 1970. They so far have shown less susceptibility to disease than shallow ponds.[23]
  • In 1979, pen culture was introduced in Laguna de Bay, which had high primary production.[23] This provided an excellent food source. Once this ran out, fertilizer was applied.[23] They are susceptible to disease.
  • Cage culture occurs in coastal bays.[23] These consist of large cages suspended in open water. They rely largely on natural sources of food.[23]

Most food is natural (known as lab-lab) or a combination of phytoplankton and macroalgae.[23][29] Traditionally, this was made on site; food is now made commercially to order.[23] Harvest occurs when the individuals are 20–40 cm long (250–500 g in weight). Partial harvests remove uniformly sized individuals with seine nets or gill nets. Total harvest removes all individuals and leads to a variety of sizes. Forced harvest happens when an environmental problem occurs, such as depleted oxygen due to algal blooms, and all stock is removed. Possible parasites include nematodes, copepods, protozoa, and helminths. Many of these are treatable with chemicals and antibiotics.[23]

Challenges

[edit]

Modern milkfish aquaculture faces some challenges: acquiring viable milkfish fry, overcoming their status as a low-value species, attempting to expand outside of an ethnic market and struggling to find a sustainable cost-production balance. In 1987, Taiwan developed the outdoor hatchery technique, which resulted in lower-cost technology, and their fry production surpassed that of the wild. Since then, Taiwan has been one of the biggest hatchery fry producers in the Indo-Pacific. To stimulate market demand, sellers have been taking a fast-food approach, to make the product more accessible and desirable to common consumers.[30]

Processing and marketing

[edit]

Traditional post-harvest processing include smoking, drying, and fermenting. Bottling, canning, and freezing are of recent origin.[23] Demand has been steadily increasing since 1950.[23] In 2005, 595,000 tonnes were harvested worth US$616 million.[23]

A trend toward value-added products is occurring.[23] In recent years, the possibility of using milkfish juveniles as bait for tuna long-lining has started to be investigated, opening up new markets for fry hatcheries.[31]

Golden bangus

[edit]

On April 21, 2012, a Filipino fisherman donated a milkfish with yellowish coloring to the Philippine Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, which was later on called the "golden bangus".[32] However, the fish soon died, allegedly because of a lower level of oxygen in the pond to which it was transferred.[33]

Cultural Significance

[edit]

Milkfish have appeared in the traditions and mythology of the native Pohnpeians, Hawaiians, Tongans, and Nauruans in the Pacific.[13]

Bangus Festival

[edit]

In the city of Dagupan, Philippines they host an annual Bangus Festival. The festival was initially a bangus harvest or ‘Gilon’ conceptualized in the 1990s by Mayor Al Fernandez. Now, the festival has become an extravagant event including street dance competitions. The street dance competition named Gilon-gilon ed Dalan was established to celebrate the bangus harvest. The festival also honors the city’s patron Saint John, who was originally a fisherman and figured prominently in biblical stories of bountiful fish harvests.[34] The Dagupan province is considered the country’s top producer of milkfish cultured in marine cages and pens. Two ‘species’ of milkfish are cultured in the city—the more popular of the two is the Bonuan Bangus.[35]

Street dancers depicting the bountiful harvest of bangus


See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Freyhof, J.; Sparks, J.S.; Kaymaram, F.; Feary, D.; Bishop, J.; Al-Husaini, M.; Almukhtar, M.; Hartmann, S.; Alam, S.; Al-Khalaf, K. (2019). "Chanos chanos". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T60324A151598011. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T60324A151598011.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ Eschmeyer, W. N.; R. Fricke, eds. (4 January 2016). "Catalog of Fishes". California Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 25 January 2016.
  3. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Family Chanidae". FishBase. October 2015 version.
  4. ^ Nelson, J. S. (2006). Fishes of the World (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 135–136. ISBN 978-0-471-25031-9.
  5. ^ "Chanidae". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. "from Greek chanos mouth"
  6. ^ David Starr Jordan; et al. (1896). The Fishes of North and Middle America, pt. 1. Government Printing Office. p. 414. OCLC 1052833. from χάνος, the open mouth
  7. ^ a b Bagarinao, T. (1999). Ecology and farming of milkfish. Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center.
  8. ^ Pangilinan, Leon Jr. (3 October 2014). "In Focus: 9 Facts You May Not Know About Philippine National Symbols". National Commission for Culture and the Arts. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2019.
  9. ^ a b c Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Chanos chanos". FishBase. October 2015 version.
  10. ^ Atlas of Exotic Fishes in the Mediterranean Sea (Chanos chanos). 2nd Edition. 2021. 366p. CIESM Publishers, Paris, Monaco.https://ciesm.org/atlas/fishes_2nd_edition/Chanos_chanos.pdf
  11. ^ Duffy, J. M., & Bernard, H. J. (1985). MILKFISH, CHANOS-CHANOS (FORSSKAL, 1775), TAKEN IN SOUTHERN-CALIFORNIA ADDS NEW FAMILY (CHANIDAE) TO THE CALIFORNIA MARINE FAUNA. California Fish and Game, 71(2), 122–125.
  12. ^ a b Taverne, Emmanuel Fara, Mireille Gayet, Louis (2010), "The Fossil Record of Gonorynchiformes" (PDF), Gonorynchiformes and Ostariophysan Relationships, CRC Press, doi:10.1201/b10194-6/fossil-record-gonorynchiformes-emmanuel-fara-mireille-gayet-louis-taverne (inactive 1 November 2024), ISBN 978-0-429-06156-1, retrieved 2024-04-03{{citation}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i Bagarinao, T. (1994). Systematics, distribution, genetics and life history of milkfish, Chanos chanos. Environmental biology of fishes, 39, 23–41.
  14. ^ Taverne, Louis; Capasso, Luigi (2017). "Osteology and relationships of Caeus ( " Chanos " ) leopoldi ( Teleostei , Gonorynchiformes , Chanidae ) from the marine Albian ( Early Cretaceous ) of Pietraroja ( Campania , southern Italy )" (PDF). Bollettino del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Verona. 41: 03–20.
  15. ^ Fischer, W. and G. Bianchi (eds), FAO species 1984 identification sheets for fishery purposes. Western Indian Ocean; (Fishing Area 51). Prepared and printed with the support of the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA). Rome, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, vols 1–6:pag. var.
  16. ^ Kumagai, S., & Bagarinao, T. (1981). Studies on the habitat and food of juvenile milkfish in the wild. Fisheries Research Journal of the Philippines, 6(1), 1–10.
  17. ^ Kumagai, S., Bagarinao, T., & Unggui, A. (1985). Growth of juvenile milkfish Chanos chanos in a natural habitat. Marine ecology progress series. Oldendorf, 22(1), 1–6.
  18. ^ Swanson, C. (1998). Interactive effects of salinity on metabolic rate, activity, growth and osmoregulation in the euryhaline milkfish (Chanos chanos). Journal of Experimental Biology, 201(24), 3355–3366.
  19. ^ Dagalea, F. M. S., Somoray, M. J. M., Alvarez, M. L. C., & Lim, K. M. C. (2022). Qualitative Test of Heavy Metals in Chanos chanos (Bangus) Found in the First District of Northern Samar. Chemical Science International Journal, 31(2), 15–20.
  20. ^ Similatan, K. M., Arcadio, C. G. L. A., Navarro, C. K. P., Capangpangan, R. Y., & Bacosa, H. P. (2023). Microplastic ingestion by adult milkfish Chanos chanos (Forsskål, 1775) in aquaculture system: The case of Butuan Bay, Philippines. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 194, 115409.
  21. ^ Atbp (2017-01-20). "Kilawin na Bangus (Milkfish Ceviche)". ATBP. Retrieved 2020-03-24.
  22. ^ Hiufu Wong, Maggie (24 July 2015). "40 of the best Taiwanese foods and drinks". www.cnn.com. CNN. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
  23. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w "Chanos chanos (Forsskal, 1775)". Cultured Aquatic Species Information Programme. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department.
  24. ^ "Milkfish (Bangus) Breeding and Fry Hatchery Technology". Archived from the original on 2013-12-13. Retrieved 2010-09-12.
  25. ^ Milkfish (Bangus) Breeding and Fry Hatchery Technology
  26. ^ Jose, D. M., & Divya, P. R. (2022). A REVIEW ON AQUACULTURE IMPORTANT FISH Chanos chanos, FORSSKÅL 1775, THE MILKFISH. Journal of Aquaculture in the Tropics, 37(1-4), 1-26.
  27. ^ "Aquaculture". fishbase.mnhn.fr.
  28. ^ a b c Lee, C.-S.; Leung, P.-S.; Su, M.-S. (1997). "Bioeconomic evaluation of different fry production systems for milkfish (Chanos chanos)". Aquaculture. 155 (1–4): 367–376. Bibcode:1997Aquac.155..367L. doi:10.1016/S0044-8486(97)00104-X.
  29. ^ Gapasin, R.S.J; Bombeo, R; Lavens, P; Sorgeloos, P; Nelis, H (1998). "Enrichment of live food with essential fatty acids and vitamin C: effects on milkfish (Chanos chanos) larval performance". Aquaculture. 162 (3–4): 269–286. Bibcode:1998Aquac.162..269G. doi:10.1016/S0044-8486(98)00205-1.
  30. ^ Su, M. S., Lee, C. S., & Liao, I. C. (2002). Technical responses to challenges in milkfish aquaculture. Reviews in Fisheries Science, 10(3-4), 451–464.
  31. ^ FitzGerald, William J. (2004). Milkfish aquaculture in the Pacific: potential for the tuna longline fishery bait market (PDF). Noumea, New Caledonia: Secretariat of the Pacific Community.
  32. ^ "Fisheries bureau releases golden milkfish". SunStar.
  33. ^ "Plan to breed 'golden' bangus dies with lone specimen". 28 July 2012.
  34. ^ Bangus Festival Archives. The Official Website of the City Government of Dagupan. (2023). https://www.dagupan.gov.ph/category/bangus-festival/
  35. ^ Mendoza, C. (2015). Historical, Socio-Political and Economic Implications of Festival Celebrations in Pangasinan.
  • Francisco José Poyato-Ariza, A revision of the ostariophysan fish family Chanidae, with special reference to the Mesozoic forms (Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil, 1996)
[edit]
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