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A biologist is a scientist who conducts research in biology.^[1]^[2] Biologists are interested in studying life on Earth, whether it is an individual cell, a multicellular organism, or a community of interacting populations.^[1] They usually specialize in a particular branch (e.g., molecular biology, zoology, and evolutionary biology) of biology^[3] and have a specific research focus (e.g., studying malaria or cancer).^[4]

Biologists who are involved in basic research have the aim of advancing knowledge about the natural world.^[1] They conduct their research using the scientific method, which is an empirical method for testing hypotheses.^[1]^[5] Their discoveries may have applications for some specific purpose such as in biotechnology, which has the goal of developing medically useful products for humans.^[1]^[6]

In modern times, most biologists have one or more academic degrees such as a bachelor's degree, as well as an advanced degree such as a master's degree or a doctorate.^[3]^[7]^[8] Like other scientists, biologists can be found working in different sectors of the economy such as in academia, nonprofits, private industry, or government.^[9]

History

Francesco Redi, the founder of biology, is recognized to be one of the greatest biologists of all time.^[10] Robert Hooke, an English natural philosopher, coined the term cell, suggesting plant structure's resemblance to honeycomb cells.^[11]

Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace independently formulated the theory of evolution by natural selection, which was described in detail in Darwin's book On the Origin of Species, which was published in 1859. In it, Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes of descent with accumulated modification leading to divergence over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology.^[12] Separately, Gregor Mendel formulated the principles of inheritance in 1866, which became the basis of modern genetics.

In 1953, James D. Watson and Francis Crick described the basic structure of DNA, the genetic material for expressing life in all its forms,^[13] building on the work of Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin, suggested that the structure of DNA was a double helix.

Ian Wilmut led a research group that in 1996 first cloned a mammal from an adult somatic cell, a Finnish Dorset lamb named Dolly.^[14]^[15]^[16]^[17]

Education

An undergraduate degree in biology typically requires coursework in molecular and cellular biology, development, ecology, genetics, microbiology, anatomy, physiology, botany, and zoology.^[8]^[18] Additional requirements may include physics, chemistry (general, organic, and biochemistry), calculus, and statistics.

Students who aspire to a research-oriented career usually pursue a graduate degree such as a master's or a doctorate (e.g., PhD) whereby they would receive training from a research head based on an apprenticeship model that has been in existence since the 1800s.^[7] Students in these graduate programs often receive specialized training in a particular subdiscipline of biology.^[3]

Research

Biologists who work in basic research formulate theories and devise experiments to advance human knowledge on life including topics such as evolution, biochemistry, molecular biology, neuroscience and cell biology.

Biologists typically conduct laboratory experiments involving animals, plants, microorganisms or biomolecules. However, a small part of biological research also occurs outside the laboratory and may involve natural observation rather than experimentation. For example, a botanist may investigate the plant species present in a particular environment, while an ecologist might study how a forest area recovers after a fire.

Biologists who work in applied research use instead the accomplishments gained by basic research to further knowledge in particular fields or applications. For example, this applied research may be used to develop new pharmaceutical drugs, treatments and medical diagnostic tests. Biological scientists conducting applied research and product development in private industry may be required to describe their research plans or results to non-scientists who are in a position to veto or approve their ideas. These scientists must consider the business effects of their work.

Swift advances in knowledge of genetics and organic molecules spurred growth in the field of biotechnology, transforming the industries in which biological scientists work. Biological scientists can now manipulate the genetic material of animals and plants, attempting to make organisms (including humans) more productive or resistant to disease. Basic and applied research on biotechnological processes, such as recombining DNA, has led to the production of important substances, including human insulin and growth hormone. Many other substances not previously available in large quantities are now produced by biotechnological means. Some of these substances are useful in treating diseases.

Those working on various genome (chromosomes with their associated genes) projects isolate genes and determine their function. This work continues to lead to the discovery of genes associated with specific diseases and inherited health risks, such as sickle cell anemia. Advances in biotechnology have created research opportunities in almost all areas of biology, with commercial applications in areas such as medicine, agriculture, and environmental remediation.

Specializations

Most biological scientists specialize in the study of a certain type of organism or in a specific activity, although recent advances have blurred some traditional classifications.^[why?]

Geneticists study genetics, the science of genes, heredity, and variation of organisms.
Neuroscientists study the nervous system.
Developmental biologists study the process of development and growth of organisms
Biochemists study the chemical composition of living things. They analyze the complex chemical combinations and reactions involved in metabolism, reproduction, and growth.
Molecular biologists study the biological activity between biomolecules.
Microbiologists investigate the growth and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, or fungi.
Physiologists study life functions of plants and animals, in the whole organism and at the cellular or molecular level, under normal and abnormal conditions. Physiologists often specialize in functions such as growth, reproduction, photosynthesis, respiration, or movement, or in the physiology of a certain area or system of the organism.
Biophysicists use experimental methods traditionally employed in physics to answer biological questions .
Computational biologists apply the techniques of computer science, applied mathematics and statistics to address biological problems. The main focus lies on developing mathematical modeling and computational simulation techniques. By these means it addresses scientific research topics with their theoretical and experimental questions without a laboratory.
Zoologists and wildlife biologists study animals and wildlife—their origin, behavior, diseases, and life processes. Some experiment with live animals in controlled or natural surroundings, while others dissect dead animals to study their structure. Zoologists and wildlife biologists also may collect and analyze biological data to determine the environmental effects of current and potential uses of land and water areas. Zoologists usually are identified by the animal group they study. For example, ornithologists study birds, mammalogists study mammals, herpetologists study reptiles and amphibians, ichthyologists study fish, cnidariologists study jellyfishes and entomologists study insects.
Botanists study plants and their environments. Some study all aspects of plant life, including algae, lichens, mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants; others specialize in areas such as identification and classification of plants, the structure and function of plant parts, the biochemistry of plant processes, the causes and cures of plant diseases, the interaction of plants with other organisms and the environment, the geological record of plants and their evolution. Mycologists study fungi, such as yeasts, mold and mushrooms, which are a separate kingdom from plants.
Aquatic biologists study micro-organisms, plants, and animals living in water. Marine biologists study salt water organisms, and limnologists study fresh water organisms. Much of the work of marine biology centers on molecular biology, the study of the biochemical processes that take place inside living cells. Marine biology is a branch of oceanography, which is the study of the biological, chemical, geological, and physical characteristics of oceans and the ocean floor. (See the Handbook statements on environmental scientists and hydrologists and on geoscientists.)
Ecologists investigate the relationships among organisms and between organisms and their environments, examining the effects of population size, pollutants, rainfall, temperature, and altitude. Using knowledge of various scientific disciplines, ecologists may collect, study, and report data on the quality of air, food, soil, and water.
Evolutionary biologists investigate the evolutionary processes that produced the diversity of life on Earth, starting from a single common ancestor. These processes include natural selection, common descent, and speciation.

Employment

Biologists typically work regular hours but longer hours are not uncommon. Researchers may be required to work odd hours in laboratories or other locations (especially while in the field), depending on the nature of their research.

Many biologists depend on grant money to fund their research. They may be under pressure to meet deadlines and to conform to rigid grant-writing specifications when preparing proposals to seek new or extended funding.

Marine biologists encounter a variety of working conditions. Some work in laboratories; others work on research ships, and those who work underwater must practice safe diving while working around sharp coral reefs and hazardous marine life. Although some marine biologists obtain their specimens from the sea, many still spend a good deal of their time in laboratories and offices, conducting tests, running experiments, recording results, and compiling data.

Biologists are not usually exposed to unsafe or unhealthy conditions. Those who work with dangerous organisms or toxic substances in the laboratory must follow strict safety procedures to avoid contamination. Many biological scientists, such as botanists, ecologists, and zoologists, conduct field studies that involve strenuous physical activity and primitive living conditions. Biological scientists in the field may work in warm or cold climates, in all kinds of weather.

Honors and awards

The highest honor awarded to biologists is the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, awarded since 1901, by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Another significant award is the Crafoord Prize in Biosciences; established in 1980.^[19]

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Evolution, the themes of biology, and scientific inquiry". Campbell Biology (11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 2–26. ISBN 978-0134093413.
^ Janovy, John Jr. (2004). "Naturalists". On becoming a biologist (2nd ed.). University of Nebraska Press. pp. 1–33. ISBN 9780803276208.
^ ^a ^b ^c Nurse, Paul (2015). "STEM education: To build a scientist". Nature. 523 (7560): 371–373. doi:10.1038/nj7560-371a.
^ Tachibana, Chris (5 October 2017). "The scientific swerve: Changing your research focus". Science. Archived from the original on 5 July 2022. Retrieved 22 June 2021.
^ Hofmann, Bjorn; Holm, Soren Breien (2015). "Philosophy of science". In Laake, Petter; Benestad, Haakon Breien; Olsen, Bjorn R. (eds.). Research Methodology in the Medical and Biological Sciences: From Planning and Preparation to Grant Application and Publication. New York: Elsevier Science. pp. 1–42. ISBN 9780128001547.
^ Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Biotechnology". Principles of Life (2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 253–272. ISBN 978-1464175121.
^ ^a ^b Gould, Julie (2015). "How to build a better PhD". Nature. 528 (7580): 22–25. Bibcode:2015Natur.528...22G. doi:10.1038/528022a. PMID 26632571. S2CID 4464045.
^ ^a ^b Heppner, Frank; Hammen, Carl; Kass-Simon, G.; Krueger, William (1990). "A "de facto" Standardized Curriculum for US College Biology and Zoology". BioScience. 40 (2): 130–134. doi:10.2307/1311346. JSTOR 1311346. Archived from the original on 2021-06-25. Retrieved 2021-06-20.
^ Woolston, Chris (2018). "Satisfaction in science". Nature. 562 (7728): 611–614. Bibcode:2018Natur.562..611W. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-07111-8. PMID 30356203.
^ Mehmet and Turgut (2014). Hydatidosis of the Central Nervous System: Diagnosis and Treatment. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. p. 334. ISBN 978-3-642-54359-3.
^ Hooke, Robert (1665). Micrographia: Or Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses, with Observations and Inquiries Thereupon. Courier Dover Publications. p. 113. ISBN 978-0486495644. Archived from the original on 2 February 2024. Retrieved 22 July 2014.
^ Dobzhansky, Theodosius (1964). "Biology, Molecular and Organismic" (PDF). American Zoologist. 4 (4): 443–452. doi:10.1093/icb/4.4.443. PMID 14223586. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
^ James D. Watson and Francis H. Crick. "Letters to Nature: Molecular structure of Nucleic Acid." Nature 171, 737–738 (1953).
^ Campbell, K. H. S.; McWhir, J.; Ritchie, W. A.; Wilmut, I. (1996). "Sheep cloned by nuclear transfer from a cultured cell line". Nature. 380 (6569): 64–66. Bibcode:1996Natur.380...64C. doi:10.1038/380064a0. PMID 8598906. S2CID 3529638.
^ Schnieke, A. E.; Kind, A. J.; Ritchie, W. A.; Mycock, K.; Scott, A. R.; Ritchie, M.; Wilmut, I.; Colman, A.; Campbell, K. H. (1997). "Human Factor IX Transgenic Sheep Produced by Transfer of Nuclei from Transfected Fetal Fibroblasts". Science. 278 (5346): 2130–2133. Bibcode:1997Sci...278.2130S. doi:10.1126/science.278.5346.2130. PMID 9405350. S2CID 36257561.
^ "The Third Culture: Ian Wilmut". Edge.org. Archived from the original on 13 January 2009. Retrieved 16 April 2009.
^ Giles, J.; Knight, J. (2003). "Dolly's death leaves researchers woolly on clone ageing issue". Nature. 421 (6925): 776. Bibcode:2003Natur.421..776G. doi:10.1038/421776a. PMID 12594470.
^ Cheesman, Kerry; French, Donald; Cheesman, Ian; Swails, Nancy; Thomas, Jerry (2007). "Is There Any Common Curriculum for Undergraduate Biology Majors in the 21st Century?". BioScience. 57 (6): 516–522. doi:10.1641/B570609.
^ "About the Crafoord Prize - The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences". www.kva.se. Archived from the original on 18 January 2018. Retrieved 4 July 2017.

U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook

[urry2017a-1] Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Evolution, the themes of biology, and scientific inquiry". Campbell Biology (11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 2–26. ISBN 978-0134093413.

[janovyjr2004-2] Janovy, John Jr. (2004). "Naturalists". On becoming a biologist (2nd ed.). University of Nebraska Press. pp. 1–33. ISBN 9780803276208.

[nurse2015-3] Nurse, Paul (2015). "STEM education: To build a scientist". Nature. 523 (7560): 371–373. doi:10.1038/nj7560-371a.

[tachibana2017-4] Tachibana, Chris (5 October 2017). "The scientific swerve: Changing your research focus". Science. Archived from the original on 5 July 2022. Retrieved 22 June 2021.

[laakeetal2015-5] Hofmann, Bjorn; Holm, Soren Breien (2015). "Philosophy of science". In Laake, Petter; Benestad, Haakon Breien; Olsen, Bjorn R. (eds.). Research Methodology in the Medical and Biological Sciences: From Planning and Preparation to Grant Application and Publication. New York: Elsevier Science. pp. 1–42. ISBN 9780128001547.

[hillisetal2014m-6] Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Biotechnology". Principles of Life (2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 253–272. ISBN 978-1464175121.

[gould2015-7] Gould, Julie (2015). "How to build a better PhD". Nature. 528 (7580): 22–25. Bibcode:2015Natur.528...22G. doi:10.1038/528022a. PMID 26632571. S2CID 4464045.

[hammenetal1990-8] Heppner, Frank; Hammen, Carl; Kass-Simon, G.; Krueger, William (1990). "A "de facto" Standardized Curriculum for US College Biology and Zoology". BioScience. 40 (2): 130–134. doi:10.2307/1311346. JSTOR 1311346. Archived from the original on 2021-06-25. Retrieved 2021-06-20.

[woolston2018-9] Woolston, Chris (2018). "Satisfaction in science". Nature. 562 (7728): 611–614. Bibcode:2018Natur.562..611W. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-07111-8. PMID 30356203.

[10] Mehmet and Turgut (2014). Hydatidosis of the Central Nervous System: Diagnosis and Treatment. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. p. 334. ISBN 978-3-642-54359-3.

[11] Hooke, Robert (1665). Micrographia: Or Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses, with Observations and Inquiries Thereupon. Courier Dover Publications. p. 113. ISBN 978-0486495644. Archived from the original on 2 February 2024. Retrieved 22 July 2014.

[12] Dobzhansky, Theodosius (1964). "Biology, Molecular and Organismic" (PDF). American Zoologist. 4 (4): 443–452. doi:10.1093/icb/4.4.443. PMID 14223586. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 5 February 2016.

[13] James D. Watson and Francis H. Crick. "Letters to Nature: Molecular structure of Nucleic Acid." Nature 171, 737–738 (1953).

[14] Campbell, K. H. S.; McWhir, J.; Ritchie, W. A.; Wilmut, I. (1996). "Sheep cloned by nuclear transfer from a cultured cell line". Nature. 380 (6569): 64–66. Bibcode:1996Natur.380...64C. doi:10.1038/380064a0. PMID 8598906. S2CID 3529638.

[15] Schnieke, A. E.; Kind, A. J.; Ritchie, W. A.; Mycock, K.; Scott, A. R.; Ritchie, M.; Wilmut, I.; Colman, A.; Campbell, K. H. (1997). "Human Factor IX Transgenic Sheep Produced by Transfer of Nuclei from Transfected Fetal Fibroblasts". Science. 278 (5346): 2130–2133. Bibcode:1997Sci...278.2130S. doi:10.1126/science.278.5346.2130. PMID 9405350. S2CID 36257561.

[Edge-16] "The Third Culture: Ian Wilmut". Edge.org. Archived from the original on 13 January 2009. Retrieved 16 April 2009.

[naturenews-17] Giles, J.; Knight, J. (2003). "Dolly's death leaves researchers woolly on clone ageing issue". Nature. 421 (6925): 776. Bibcode:2003Natur.421..776G. doi:10.1038/421776a. PMID 12594470.

[cheesman2007-18] Cheesman, Kerry; French, Donald; Cheesman, Ian; Swails, Nancy; Thomas, Jerry (2007). "Is There Any Common Curriculum for Undergraduate Biology Majors in the 21st Century?". BioScience. 57 (6): 516–522. doi:10.1641/B570609.

[19] "About the Crafoord Prize - The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences". www.kva.se. Archived from the original on 18 January 2018. Retrieved 4 July 2017.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{short description|Scientist studying living organisms}}
+{{Short description|Scientist studying living organisms}}
+[[File:Francesco Redi.jpg|right|thumb|[[Francesco Redi]], founder of [[biology]]]]
-[[File:EPA GULF BREEZE LABORATORY, FISHERY BIOLOGIST CONDUCTS STUDIES OF SHRIMP AND CRAB LARVAE.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Biologist conducting research]]
 {{TopicTOC-Biology}}
-A '''biologist''' is a [[scientist]] who conducts research in [[biology]].<ref name = "urry2017a">{{cite book | last1 = Urry | first1 = Lisa | last2 = Cain | first2 = Michael | last3 = Wasserman | first3 =  Steven | last4 = Minorsky | first4 = Peter |  last5 = Reece | first5 = Jane | chapter = Evolution, the themes of biology, and scientific inquiry | title = Campbell Biology | publisher = Pearson | edition = 11th | date = 2017 | location = New York | pages = 2–26 | isbn = 978-0134093413}}</ref><ref name = "janovyjr2004">{{cite book | last1 = Janovy Jr | first1 = John | chapter = Naturalists | title = On becoming a biologist | publisher = University of Nebraska Press | edition = 2nd | date = 2004 | pages = 1–33 | isbn = 9780803276208}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dictionary.com/browse/biology|title=the definition of biology|website=Dictionary.com|access-date=2017-01-27}}</ref> Biologists are interested in studying [[life]] on Earth, whether it is an individual [[Cell (biology)|cell]], a [[multicellular organism]], or a [[Community (ecology)|community]] of [[Biological interaction|interacting]] [[population]]s.<ref name = "urry2017a"/> They usually specialize in a particular [[Outline of biology#Subdisciplines|branch]] (e.g., [[molecular biology]], [[zoology]], and [[evolutionary biology]]) of biology<ref name = "nurse2015">{{cite journal | last1 = Nurse | first1 = Paul | title = STEM education: To build a scientist | journal = Nature | volume = 523 | pages = 371–373 | date = 2015 | url = https://www.nature.com/articles/nj7560-371a | doi = 10.1038/nj7560-371a| doi-access = free }}</ref> and have a specific research focus (e.g., studying malaria or cancer).<ref name = "tachibana2017">{{cite web | last1 = Tachibana | first1 = Chris | title = The scientific swerve: Changing your research focus | website = Science | date = 5 October 2017 | access-date = 22 June 2021 | url = https://www.sciencemag.org/features/2017/10/scientific-swerve-changing-your-research-focus}}</ref>
+A '''biologist''' is a [[scientist]] who conducts research in [[biology]].<ref name = "urry2017a">{{cite book | last1 = Urry | first1 = Lisa | last2 = Cain | first2 = Michael | last3 = Wasserman | first3 =  Steven | last4 = Minorsky | first4 = Peter |  last5 = Reece | first5 = Jane | chapter = Evolution, the themes of biology, and scientific inquiry | title = Campbell Biology | publisher = Pearson | edition = 11th | date = 2017 | location = New York | pages = 2–26 | isbn = 978-0134093413}}</ref><ref name = "janovyjr2004">{{cite book | last1 = Janovy | first1 = John Jr. | chapter = Naturalists | title = On becoming a biologist | publisher = University of Nebraska Press | edition = 2nd | date = 2004 | pages = 1–33 | isbn = 9780803276208}}</ref> Biologists are interested in studying [[life]] on Earth, whether it is an individual [[Cell (biology)|cell]], a [[multicellular organism]], or a [[Community (ecology)|community]] of [[Biological interaction|interacting]] [[population]]s.<ref name = "urry2017a"/> They usually specialize in a particular [[Outline of biology#Subdisciplines|branch]] (e.g., [[molecular biology]], [[zoology]], and [[evolutionary biology]]) of biology<ref name = "nurse2015">{{cite journal | last1 = Nurse | first1 = Paul | title = STEM education: To build a scientist | journal = Nature | volume = 523 | pages = 371–373 | date = 2015 | issue = 7560 | doi = 10.1038/nj7560-371a| doi-access = free }}</ref> and have a specific research focus (e.g., studying malaria or cancer).<ref name = "tachibana2017">{{cite web | last1 = Tachibana | first1 = Chris | title = The scientific swerve: Changing your research focus | website = Science | date = 5 October 2017 | access-date = 22 June 2021 | url = https://www.science.org/content/article/scientific-swerve-changing-your-research-focus | archive-date = 5 July 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220705190848/https://www.science.org/content/article/scientific-swerve-changing-your-research-focus | url-status = live }}</ref>
-Biologists who are involved in [[basic research]] have the aim of advancing knowledge about the natural world.<ref name = "urry2017a"/> They conduct their research using the [[scientific method]], which is an empirical method for testing [[hypothesis|hypotheses]].<ref name = "urry2017a"/><ref name = "laakeetal2015">{{cite book | last1 = Hofmann | first1 = Bjorn | last2 = Holm | first2 = Soren Breien | editor-last1 = Laake | editor-first1 = Petter | editor-last2 = Benestad | editor-first2 = Haakon Breien | editor-last3 = Olsen | editor-first3 = Bjorn R. | chapter = Philosophy of science | title = Research Methodology in the Medical and Biological Sciences: From Planning and Preparation to Grant Application and Publication | publisher = Elsevier Science | date = 2015 | location = New York | pages = 1–42 | isbn = 9780128001547}}</ref> Their discoveries may have [[Applied science#Applied research|applications]] for some specific purpose such as in [[biotechnology]], which has the goal of developing medically useful products for humans.<ref name = "urry2017a"/><ref name = hillisetal2014m">{{cite book | last1 = Hillis | first1 = David M. | last2 = Sadava | first2 = David | last3 = Hill | first3 = Richard W. | last4= Price | first4 = Mary V. | chapter = Biotechnology | title = Principles of Life | publisher = Sinauer Associates | edition = 2nd | date = 2014 | location = Sunderland, Mass. | pages = 253–272 | isbn = 978-1464175121}}</ref>
+Biologists who are involved in [[basic research]] have the aim of advancing knowledge about the natural world.<ref name = "urry2017a"/> They conduct their research using the [[scientific method]], which is an empirical method for testing [[hypothesis|hypotheses]].<ref name = "urry2017a"/><ref name = "laakeetal2015">{{cite book | last1 = Hofmann | first1 = Bjorn | last2 = Holm | first2 = Soren Breien | editor-last1 = Laake | editor-first1 = Petter | editor-last2 = Benestad | editor-first2 = Haakon Breien | editor-last3 = Olsen | editor-first3 = Bjorn R. | chapter = Philosophy of science | title = Research Methodology in the Medical and Biological Sciences: From Planning and Preparation to Grant Application and Publication | publisher = Elsevier Science | date = 2015 | location = New York | pages = 1–42 | isbn = 9780128001547}}</ref> Their discoveries may have [[Applied science#Applied research|applications]] for some specific purpose such as in [[biotechnology]], which has the goal of developing medically useful products for humans.<ref name = "urry2017a"/><ref name = "hillisetal2014m">{{cite book | last1 = Hillis | first1 = David M. | last2 = Sadava | first2 = David | last3 = Hill | first3 = Richard W. | last4= Price | first4 = Mary V. | chapter = Biotechnology | title = Principles of Life | publisher = Sinauer Associates | edition = 2nd | date = 2014 | location = Sunderland, Mass. | pages = 253–272 | isbn = 978-1464175121}}</ref>
+In modern times, most biologists have one or more [[academic degree]]s such as a [[bachelor's degree]], as well as an advanced degree such as a [[master's degree]] or a [[doctorate]].<ref name = "nurse2015"/><ref name = "gould2015">{{cite journal | last1 = Gould | first1 = Julie | title = How to build a better PhD | journal = Nature | volume = 528 | issue = 7580 | pages = 22–25 | date = 2015 | doi = 10.1038/528022a| pmid = 26632571 | bibcode = 2015Natur.528...22G | s2cid = 4464045 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name = "hammenetal1990">{{cite journal | last1 = Heppner | first1 = Frank | last2 = Hammen | first2 = Carl | last3 = Kass-Simon | first3 = G. | last4 = Krueger | first4 = William | title = A "de facto" Standardized Curriculum for US College Biology and Zoology | journal = BioScience | volume = 40 | issue = 2 | pages = 130–134 | date = 1990 | url = https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article-abstract/40/2/130/302164?redirectedFrom=fulltext | doi = 10.2307/1311346 | jstor = 1311346 | access-date = 2021-06-20 | archive-date = 2021-06-25 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210625065359/https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article-abstract/40/2/130/302164?redirectedFrom=fulltext | url-status = live }}</ref> Like other scientists, biologists can be found working in different sectors of the economy such as in [[academy|academia]], [[Nonprofit organization|nonprofit]]s, private [[Industry (economics)|industry]], or [[government]].<ref name = "woolston2018">{{cite journal | last1 = Woolston | first1 = Chris | title = Satisfaction in science | journal = Nature | volume = 562 | pages = 611–614 | date = 2018 | issue = 7728 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-018-07111-8| pmid = 30356203 | bibcode = 2018Natur.562..611W | doi-access = free }}</ref>
-In modern times, most biologists have one or more [[academic degree]]s such as a [[bachelor's degree]] plus an advanced degree like a [[master's degree]] or a [[doctorate]].<ref name = "gould2015">{{cite journal | last1 = Gould | first1 = Julie | title = How to build a better PhD | journal = Nature | volume = 528 | issue = 7580 | pages = 22-25 | date = 2015 | url = https://www.nature.com/articles/528022a | doi = 10.1038/528022a}}</ref><ref name = "hammenetal1990">{{cite journal | last1 = Heppner | first1 = Frank | last2 = Hammen | first2 = Carl | last3 = Kass-Simon | first3 = G. | last4 = Krueger | first4 = William | title = A "de facto" Standardized Curriculum for US College Biology and Zoology | journal = BioScience | volume = 40 | issue = 2 | pages = 130-134 | date = 1990 | url = https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article-abstract/40/2/130/302164?redirectedFrom=fulltext | doi = 10.2307/1311346}}</ref><ref name = "nurse2015"/> Like other scientists, biologists can be found working in different sectors of the economy such as in [[academy|academia]], [[Nonprofit organization|nonprofit]]s, private [[Industry (economics)|industry]], or [[government]].<ref name = "woolston2018">{{cite journal | last1 = Woolston | first1 = Chris | title = Satisfaction in science | journal = Nature | volume = 562 | pages = 611-614 | date = 2018 | url = https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-07111-8 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-018-07111-8| doi-access = free }}</ref>
 ==History==
-[[File:Francesco Redi.jpg|right|thumb|[[Francesco Redi]], founder of [[biology]].]]
+[[File:Barbara McClintock (1902-1992) shown in her laboratory in 1947.jpg|thumb|right|260px|[[Nobel Prize]]-winning biologist [[Barbara McClintock]]]]
-[[Francesco Redi]], the founder of [[biology]], is recognized to be one of the greatest biologists of all time.<ref>{{cite book|title=Hydatidosis of the Central Nervous System: Diagnosis and Treatment|author=Mehmet and Turgut |year=2014 |publisher=Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg|isbn=978-3-642-54359-3|page=334}}</ref> Robert Hooke, an English [[natural philosopher]], coined the term ''[[cell (biology)|cell]]'', suggesting plant structure's resemblance to [[honeycomb]] cells.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hooke|first1=Robert|title=Micrographia: Or Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses, with Observations and Inquiries Thereupon|date=1665|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=978-0486495644|page=113|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0DYXk_9XX38C&q=Micrographia+honeycomb&pg=PA113|access-date=22 July 2014}}</ref>
+[[Francesco Redi]], the founder of [[biology]], is recognized to be one of the greatest biologists of all time.<ref>{{cite book|title=Hydatidosis of the Central Nervous System: Diagnosis and Treatment|author=Mehmet and Turgut |year=2014 |publisher=Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg|isbn=978-3-642-54359-3|page=334}}</ref> Robert Hooke, an English [[natural philosopher]], coined the term ''[[cell (biology)|cell]]'', suggesting plant structure's resemblance to [[honeycomb]] cells.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hooke|first1=Robert|title=Micrographia: Or Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses, with Observations and Inquiries Thereupon|date=1665|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=978-0486495644|page=113|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0DYXk_9XX38C&q=Micrographia+honeycomb&pg=PA113|access-date=22 July 2014|archive-date=2 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202174057/https://books.google.com/books?id=0DYXk_9XX38C&q=Micrographia+honeycomb&pg=PA113#v=onepage&q=Micrographia%20honeycomb&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>
-[[Charles Darwin]] and [[Alfred Russel Wallace|Alfred Wallace]] independently formulated the theory of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]], which was described in detail in Darwin's book ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'', which was published in 1859. In it, Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes of descent with accumulated modification leading to divergence over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Dobzhansky | first1=Theodosius | year=1964 | title=Biology, Molecular and Organismic | url=http://people.ibest.uidaho.edu/~bree/courses/1_Dobzhansky_1964.pdf | journal=American Zoologist | volume=4 | issue=4 | pages=443–452 | doi=10.1093/icb/4.4.443 | pmid=14223586 | access-date=5 February 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303220935/http://people.ibest.uidaho.edu/~bree/courses/1_Dobzhansky_1964.pdf | archive-date=3 March 2016 | url-status=dead | df=dmy-all | doi-access=free }}</ref> Separately, [[Gregor Mendel]] formulated in the principles of inheritance in 1866, which became the basis of modern [[genetics]].
+[[Charles Darwin]] and [[Alfred Russel Wallace|Alfred Wallace]] independently formulated the theory of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]], which was described in detail in Darwin's book ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'', which was published in 1859. In it, Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes of descent with accumulated modification leading to divergence over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Dobzhansky | first1=Theodosius | year=1964 | title=Biology, Molecular and Organismic | url=http://people.ibest.uidaho.edu/~bree/courses/1_Dobzhansky_1964.pdf | journal=American Zoologist | volume=4 | issue=4 | pages=443–452 | doi=10.1093/icb/4.4.443 | pmid=14223586 | access-date=5 February 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303220935/http://people.ibest.uidaho.edu/~bree/courses/1_Dobzhansky_1964.pdf | archive-date=3 March 2016 | url-status=dead | df=dmy-all | doi-access=free }}</ref> Separately, [[Gregor Mendel]] formulated the principles of inheritance in 1866, which became the basis of modern [[genetics]].
 In 1953, [[James D. Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]] described the basic structure of DNA, the [[genetic material]] for expressing life in all its forms,<ref>James D. Watson and Francis H. Crick. "Letters to ''Nature'': Molecular structure of Nucleic Acid." ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' '''171''', 737–738 (1953).</ref> building on the work of [[Maurice Wilkins]] and [[Rosalind Franklin]], suggested that the structure of DNA was a double helix.
-[[Ian Wilmut]] led a research group that in 1996 first cloned a mammal from an adult somatic cell, a Finnish Dorset lamb named Dolly.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Campbell | first1 = K. H. S. | author-link1 = Keith Campbell (biologist)| last2 = McWhir | first2 = J. | last3 = Ritchie | first3 = W. A. | last4 = Wilmut | first4 = I. | author-link4 = Ian Wilmut| title = Sheep cloned by nuclear transfer from a cultured cell line | doi = 10.1038/380064a0 | journal = Nature | volume = 380 | issue = 6569 | pages = 64–66 | year = 1996 | pmid =  8598906| bibcode = 1996Natur.380...64C | s2cid = 3529638 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Schnieke | first1 = A. E. | last2 = Kind | first2 = A. J. | last3 = Ritchie | first3 = W. A. | last4 = Mycock | first4 = K. | last5 = Scott | first5 = A. R. | last6 = Ritchie | first6 = M. | last7 = Wilmut | first7 = I. | author-link7 = Ian Wilmut| last8 = Colman | first8 = A. | last9 = Campbell | first9 = K. H. | author-link9 = Keith Campbell (biologist)| title = Human Factor IX Transgenic Sheep Produced by Transfer of Nuclei from Transfected Fetal Fibroblasts | doi = 10.1126/science.278.5346.2130 | journal = Science | volume = 278 | issue = 5346 | pages = 2130–2133 | year = 1997 | pmid =  9405350| bibcode = 1997Sci...278.2130S | s2cid = 36257561 | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/5d0b0890e14a3c2136a0d4227f5725fa01a7173a }}</ref><ref name="Edge">{{cite news |title=The Third Culture: Ian Wilmut |url=http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/bios/wilmut.html |work=Edge.org |access-date=16 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090113060444/http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/bios/wilmut.html |archive-date=13 January 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="naturenews">{{Cite journal | last1 = Giles | first1 = J. | last2 = Knight | first2 = J. | doi = 10.1038/421776a | title = Dolly's death leaves researchers woolly on clone ageing issue | journal = Nature | volume = 421 | issue = 6925 | pages = 776 | year = 2003 | pmid =  12594470| bibcode = 2003Natur.421..776G | doi-access = free }}</ref>
+[[Ian Wilmut]] led a research group that in 1996 first cloned a mammal from an adult somatic cell, a Finnish Dorset lamb named Dolly.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Campbell | first1 = K. H. S. | author-link1 = Keith Campbell (biologist)| last2 = McWhir | first2 = J. | last3 = Ritchie | first3 = W. A. | last4 = Wilmut | first4 = I. | author-link4 = Ian Wilmut| title = Sheep cloned by nuclear transfer from a cultured cell line | doi = 10.1038/380064a0 | journal = Nature | volume = 380 | issue = 6569 | pages = 64–66 | year = 1996 | pmid =  8598906| bibcode = 1996Natur.380...64C | s2cid = 3529638 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Schnieke | first1 = A. E. | last2 = Kind | first2 = A. J. | last3 = Ritchie | first3 = W. A. | last4 = Mycock | first4 = K. | last5 = Scott | first5 = A. R. | last6 = Ritchie | first6 = M. | last7 = Wilmut | first7 = I. | author-link7 = Ian Wilmut| last8 = Colman | first8 = A. | last9 = Campbell | first9 = K. H. | author-link9 = Keith Campbell (biologist)| title = Human Factor IX Transgenic Sheep Produced by Transfer of Nuclei from Transfected Fetal Fibroblasts | doi = 10.1126/science.278.5346.2130 | journal = Science | volume = 278 | issue = 5346 | pages = 2130–2133 | year = 1997 | pmid =  9405350| bibcode = 1997Sci...278.2130S | s2cid = 36257561 }}</ref><ref name="Edge">{{cite news |title=The Third Culture: Ian Wilmut |url=http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/bios/wilmut.html |work=Edge.org |access-date=16 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090113060444/http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/bios/wilmut.html |archive-date=13 January 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="naturenews">{{Cite journal | last1 = Giles | first1 = J. | last2 = Knight | first2 = J. | doi = 10.1038/421776a | title = Dolly's death leaves researchers woolly on clone ageing issue | journal = Nature | volume = 421 | issue = 6925 | pages = 776 | year = 2003 | pmid =  12594470| bibcode = 2003Natur.421..776G | doi-access = free }}</ref>
 ==Education==
-An [[Undergraduate education|undergraduate]] degree in biology typically requires coursework in [[molecular biology|molecular]] and [[Cell biology|cellular biology]], [[Developmental biology|development]], [[ecology]], [[genetics]], [[microbiology]], [[anatomy]], [[physiology]], [[botany]], and [[zoology]].<ref name = "hammenetal1990">{{cite journal | last1 = Heppner | first1 = Frank | last2 = Hammen | first2 = Carl | last3 = Kass-Simon | first3 = G. | last4 = Krueger | first4 = William | title = A "de facto" Standardized Curriculum for US College Biology and Zoology | journal = BioScience | volume = 40 | issue = 2 | pages = 130-134 | date = 1990 | url = https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article-abstract/40/2/130/302164?redirectedFrom=fulltext | doi = 10.2307/1311346}}</ref><ref name = "cheesman2007">{{cite journal | last1 = Cheesman | first1 = Kerry | last2 = French | first2 = Donald | last3 = Cheesman | first3 = Ian | last4 = Swails | first4 = Nancy | last5 = Thomas | first5 = Jerry | title = Is There Any Common Curriculum for Undergraduate Biology Majors in the 21st Century? | journal = BioScience | volume = 57 | issue = 6 | pages = 516-522 | date = 2007 | url = https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/57/6/516/236216?login=true | doi = 10.1641/B570609| doi-access = free }}</ref> Additional requirements may include [[physics]], [[chemistry]] ([[General chemistry|general]], [[Organic chemistry | organic]], and [[biochemistry]]), [[calculus]], and [[statistics]].
+An [[Undergraduate education|undergraduate]] degree in biology typically requires coursework in [[molecular biology|molecular]] and [[Cell biology|cellular biology]], [[Developmental biology|development]], [[ecology]], [[genetics]], [[microbiology]], [[anatomy]], [[physiology]], [[botany]], and [[zoology]].<ref name="hammenetal1990"/><ref name = "cheesman2007">{{cite journal | last1 = Cheesman | first1 = Kerry | last2 = French | first2 = Donald | last3 = Cheesman | first3 = Ian | last4 = Swails | first4 = Nancy | last5 = Thomas | first5 = Jerry | title = Is There Any Common Curriculum for Undergraduate Biology Majors in the 21st Century? | journal = BioScience | volume = 57 | issue = 6 | pages = 516–522 | date = 2007 | doi = 10.1641/B570609| doi-access = free }}</ref> Additional requirements may include [[physics]], [[chemistry]] ([[General chemistry|general]], [[Organic chemistry|organic]], and [[biochemistry]]), [[calculus]], and [[statistics]].
-Students who aspire to a research-oriented career usually pursue a graduate degree such as a master’s or a doctorate (e.g., PhD) whereby they would receive training from a research head based on an apprenticeship model that has been in existence since the 1800s.<ref name = "gould2015">{{cite journal | last1 = Gould | first1 = Julie | title = How to build a better PhD | journal = Nature | volume = 528 | issue = 7580 | pages = 22-25 | date = 2015 | url = https://www.nature.com/articles/528022a | doi = 10.1038/528022a}}</ref> Students in these graduate programs often receive specialized training in a particular subdiscipline of biology.<ref name = "nurse2015">{{cite journal | last1 = Nurse | first1 = Paul | title = STEM education: To build a scientist | journal = Nature | volume = 523 | pages = 371–373 | date = 2015 | url = https://www.nature.com/articles/nj7560-371a | doi = 10.1038/nj7560-371a| doi-access = free }}</ref>
+Students who aspire to a research-oriented career usually pursue a graduate degree such as a master's or a doctorate (e.g., PhD) whereby they would receive training from a research head based on an apprenticeship model that has been in existence since the 1800s.<ref name="gould2015"/> Students in these graduate programs often receive specialized training in a particular subdiscipline of biology.<ref name="nurse2015"/>
 ==Research==
@@ Line 28: / Line 28: @@
 Biologists who work in basic research formulate theories and devise experiments to advance human knowledge on life including topics such as [[evolution]], [[biochemistry]], [[molecular biology]], [[neuroscience]] and [[cell biology]].
-Biologists typically conduct laboratory experiments involving [[animal]]s, [[plant]]s, [[Microorganism|microorganisms]] or [[Biomolecule|biomolecules]]. However, a small part of biological research also occurs outside the laboratory and may involve natural observation rather than experimentation. For example, a botanist may investigate the plant species present in a particular environment, while an ecologist might study how a forest area recovers after a fire.
+Biologists typically conduct laboratory experiments involving [[animal]]s, [[plant]]s, [[microorganism]]s or [[biomolecule]]s. However, a small part of biological research also occurs outside the laboratory and may involve natural observation rather than experimentation. For example, a botanist may investigate the plant species present in a particular environment, while an ecologist might study how a forest area recovers after a fire.
 Biologists who work in applied research use instead the accomplishments gained by basic research to further knowledge in particular fields or applications. For example, this applied research may be used to develop new [[pharmaceutical drug]]s, treatments and medical [[diagnostic test]]s. Biological scientists conducting applied research and product development in private industry may be required to describe their research plans or results to non-scientists who are in a position to veto or approve their ideas. These scientists must consider the business effects of their work.
@@ Line 36: / Line 36: @@
 Those working on various genome (chromosomes with their associated genes) projects isolate genes and determine their function. This work continues to lead to the discovery of genes associated with specific diseases and inherited health risks, such as sickle cell anemia. Advances in biotechnology have created research opportunities in almost all areas of biology, with commercial applications in areas such as medicine, agriculture, and [[environmental remediation]].
-===Specialists===
+===Specializations===
 Most biological scientists specialize in the study of a certain type of organism or in a specific activity, although recent advances have blurred some traditional classifications.{{why|provide explanation of this and sources|date=October 2013}}
 * [[Geneticist]]s study [[genetics]], the science of [[genes]], [[heredity]], and [[Genetic variation|variation]] of [[organism]]s.
 * [[Neuroscientist]]s study the [[nervous system]].
 * [[Developmental biology|Developmental biologists]] study the process of development and growth of [[organism]]s
-* [[Biochemistry|Biochemists]] study the chemical composition of living things. They analyze the complex chemical combinations and reactions involved in [[metabolism]], [[reproduction]], and growth.
+* [[Biochemist]]s study the chemical composition of living things. They analyze the complex chemical combinations and reactions involved in [[metabolism]], [[reproduction]], and growth.
 * [[Molecular biology|Molecular biologists]] study the [[biological activity]] between [[biomolecule]]s.
 * [[Microbiologist]]s investigate the growth and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as [[bacteria]], [[algae]], or [[Fungus|fungi]].
@@ Line 47: / Line 47: @@
 * [[Biophysics|Biophysicists]] use experimental methods traditionally employed in [[physics]] to answer biological questions .
 * [[Computational biology|Computational biologists]] apply the techniques of [[computer science]], [[applied mathematics]] and [[statistics]] to address biological problems. The main focus lies on developing [[mathematical modeling]] and computational simulation techniques. By these means it addresses scientific research topics with their theoretical and experimental questions without a laboratory.
-* [[Zoology|Zoologists]] and wildlife biologists study animals and wildlife—their origin, behavior, diseases, and life processes. Some experiment with live animals in controlled or natural surroundings, while others dissect dead animals to study their structure. Zoologists and wildlife biologists also may collect and analyze biological data to determine the environmental effects of current and potential uses of land and water areas. Zoologists usually are identified by the animal group they study. For example, [[ornithology|ornithologists]] study [[bird]]s, [[mammalogy|mammalogists]] study [[mammal]]s, [[herpetology|herpetologists]] study [[reptile]]s and [[amphibian]]s, [[ichthyology|ichthyologists]] study [[fish]], [[cnidariologist]]s study [[jellyfish]]es and [[entomologist]]s study insects.
+* [[Zoology|Zoologists]] and [[wildlife biologist]]s study animals and wildlife—their origin, behavior, diseases, and life processes. Some experiment with live animals in controlled or natural surroundings, while others dissect dead animals to study their structure. Zoologists and wildlife biologists also may collect and analyze biological data to determine the environmental effects of current and potential uses of land and water areas. Zoologists usually are identified by the animal group they study. For example, [[ornithology|ornithologists]] study [[bird]]s, [[mammalogy|mammalogists]] study [[mammal]]s, [[herpetology|herpetologists]] study [[reptile]]s and [[amphibian]]s, [[ichthyology|ichthyologists]] study [[fish]], [[cnidariologist]]s study [[jellyfish]]es and [[entomologist]]s study insects.
 * [[Botany|Botanists]] study plants and their environments. Some study all aspects of plant life, including [[algae]], [[lichen]]s, [[moss]]es, [[fern]]s, [[Pinophyta|conifers]], and [[flowering plant]]s; others specialize in areas such as identification and classification of plants, the structure and function of plant parts, the biochemistry of plant processes, the causes and cures of plant diseases, the interaction of plants with other organisms and the environment, the geological record of plants and their evolution.  [[Mycology|Mycologists]] study [[fungi]], such as [[yeasts]], [[Mold (fungus)|mold]] and [[mushrooms]], which are a separate kingdom from plants.
 * Aquatic biologists study micro-organisms, plants, and animals living in water. [[Marine Biology|Marine biologists]] study salt water organisms, and limnologists study [[Limnology|fresh water organisms]]. Much of the work of marine biology centers on [[molecular biology]], the study of the biochemical processes that take place inside living cells. Marine biology is a branch of [[oceanography]], which is the study of the biological, chemical, geological, and physical characteristics of oceans and the ocean floor. (See the Handbook statements on environmental scientists and hydrologists and on geoscientists.)
@@ Line 63: / Line 63: @@
 ==Honors and awards==
-The highest honor awarded to biologists is the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]], awarded since 1901, by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Another significant award is the [[Crafoord Prize]] in Biosciences; established in 1980.{{cn|date=October 2021}}
+The highest honor awarded to biologists is the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]], awarded since 1901, by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Another significant award is the [[Crafoord Prize]] in Biosciences; established in 1980.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kva.se/en/priser/crafoordpriset/crafoord-om-priset|title=About the Crafoord Prize - The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences|website=www.kva.se|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180118204251/http://www.kva.se/en/priser/crafoordpriset/crafoord-om-priset|archive-date=18 January 2018|url-status=live|access-date=2017-07-04|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
 ==See also==
@@ Line 81: / Line 81: @@
 {{Authority control}}
-{{commons|Biologist}}
+{{commons}}
 [[Category:Biology|*]]

Authority control databases
National	Germany 2 United States France BnF data Czech Republic 2 Latvia Israel
Other	NARA