Spectacled caiman: Difference between revisions

Spectacled caiman; Temporal range: Pleistocene - Present, ; 2.58–0 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N ↓
	In Llanos, Venezuela
Conservation status
	; Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)
	CITES Appendix II (CITES)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Reptilia
Clade:	Archosauromorpha
Clade:	Archosauriformes
Order:	Crocodilia
Family:	Alligatoridae
Subfamily:	Caimaninae
Clade:	Jacarea
Genus:	Caiman
Species:	C. crocodilus
Binomial name
	Caiman crocodilus; Linnaeus, 1758
	Native range (black)
Synonyms
	Jacaretinga crocodilus Linnaeus, 1758; Lacerta crocodilus Linnaeus, 1758; Caiman sclerops Schneider, 1801; Crocodilus sclerops Schneider, 1801; Caiman yacare Daudin, 1802; Crocodilus caiman Daudin, 1802; Jacare hirticollis Gray, 1867; ?Caiman venezuelensis Fortier & Rincón, 2013;

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The spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus), also known as the white caiman,^[6] common caiman,^[7] and speckled caiman,^[8] is a crocodilian in the family Alligatoridae. It is brownish-, greenish-, or yellowish-gray colored and has a spectacle-like ridge between its eyes, which is where its common name come from. It grows to a length of 1.4–2.5 m (4 ft 7 in – 8 ft 2 in) and a weight of 7–40 kg (15–88 lb), with males being both longer and heavier than females. Its diet varies seasonally, commonly consisting of crabs, fish, small mammals, amphibians and snails. Breeding occurs from May to August and 14–40 eggs are laid in July and August. This crocodilian has a large range and population; it is native to much of Latin America, and has been introduced to the United States, Cuba, and Puerto Rico.

Taxonomy

The spectacled caiman was described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, originally as Lacerta crocodilus.^[2] It has since been redescribed several times, including as Caiman sclerops by Schneider in 1801.^[5] Although Caiman crocodilus is now the scientific name of the species, some scientists still prefer using sclerops, as having crocodilus as the scientific name for a caiman may cause confusion.^[9]

Classification

The spectacled caiman is one of three extant (living) species of the genus Caiman, the other two being the Yacare caiman (Caiman yacare) and the Broad-snouted caiman (Caiman latirostris). There are also several extinct fossil species in the genus Caiman, possibly up to eight species. The spectacled caiman is a member of the caiman subfamily Caimaninae, and is one of six living species of caiman. It is most closely related to the yacare caiman, as shown in the cladogram below, based on molecular DNA-based phylogenetic studies:^[10]

Alligatoridae

Caimaninae

	Paleosuchus palpebrosus Cuvier's dwarf caiman

	Paleosuchus trigonatus Schneider's dwarf caiman

Jacarea

	Caiman crocodilus Spectacled caiman

	Caiman yacare Yacare caiman

Caiman latirostris Broad-snouted caiman

Melanosuchus niger Black caiman

Alligatorinae

	Alligator sinensis Chinese alligator

	Alligator mississippiensis American alligator

Subspecies

The spectacled caiman has four recognized subspecies:^[7]^[11]

C. c. apaporiensis (Medem, 1955), commonly known as the Rio Apaporis caiman was once thought to be extinct but was rediscovered; is endemic to Colombia and possibly the Venezuelan Llanos.
C. c. chiapasius (Bocourt, 1876); distributed in Mexico, Central America, and northern South America.
C. c. crocodilus (Linnaeus, 1758), the nominate subspecies, commonly known as the spectacled caiman; found in various parts of South America, such as Venezuela, Trinidad, Tobago, Brazil, etc.
C. c. fuscus (Cope, 1868), commonly known as the brown caiman; lives from Nicaragua to Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela.

The yacare caiman (Caiman yacare), while previously thought to be a subspecies of C. crocodilus, is now usually considered a separate species.^[2]

The Rio Apaporis caiman was believed to have become extinct by 1981, when the last known specimen died in a zoo. However, a specimen was captured in an expedition by Colombian conservation biologist Sergio Balaguera-Reina in 2018.^[12] Later, the subspecies was discovered again by wildlife biologist Forrest Galante for the television show Extinct or Alive in 2019 and identified by DNA sampling.^[13]^[14]^[15] Galante has advocated for the Rio Apaporis caiman to be considered a distinct species, while Balaguera-Reina maintains its official status as a subspecies.

Characteristics

The spectacled caiman is a small to medium-sized crocodilian. Females generally grow to no more than 1.08 to 1.4 m (3 ft 7 in to 4 ft 7 in) (the lower size typical upon the onset of sexual maturity), but can rarely grow to nearly 2 m (6 ft 7 in). Adult males can regularly reach 1.5 to 1.8 m (4 ft 11 in to 5 ft 11 in) while large mature ones grow to 2.0 to 2.5 m (6 ft 7 in to 8 ft 2 in), although relatively few get to the upper size.^[16] The maximum reported size for the species is 2.64 m (8 ft 8 in).^[17] The body mass of most adults is between 7 and 40 kg (15 and 88 lb), with males typically being considerably heavier than females. Some males in the Llanos have been reported to grow to up to 58 kg (128 lb).^[18]

The upperside of the species is mostly brownish-, greenish-, or yellowish-gray colored and has dark brown crossbands,^[17] with a lighter underside. It has a greenish iris.^[19] and wrinkled eyelids.^[8] It changes color seasonally – during colder weather, the black pigment within its skin cells expands, making it appear darker.^[20] The species has an enlarged 4th tooth, and the teeth in its lower jaw penetrate into a socket in its upper jaw. It has a long snout that tapers moderately, with an unexpanded tip.^[21] Several ridges begin in front of its eyes and travel to the tip of its snout.^[19] Its common name comes from a bony ridge between its eyes, which gives the appearance of a pair of spectacles.^[22] The spectacled caiman is the most widely distributed New World crocodilian, and is the most geographically variable species in the Americas, making it a highly adaptable species.^[23]

Biology and behavior

The spectacled caiman can move rapidly when threatened, but is usually immobile, resting on shores or partly in water. In the rainy season, males become aggressive and territorial.^[18] Spectacled caiman have Müller glial cells in their eyes that contribute to excellent night vision. ^[24]

Hunting and diet

Usually hunting at night, the diet of the spectacled caiman varies seasonally.^[18] During the wet season, it primarily eats snails and freshwater crabs, while it mostly eats fish in the dry season. Smaller specimens tend to eat more insects and freshwater shrimp, while larger ones more frequently consume mammals and fish.^[25] Overall, the most common animals in this species' diet are crabs, other crustaceans, fish, mammals, snails and other molluscs.^[26]^[27] Other animals that have been known to be a part of its diet include amphibians, arachnids, birds, myriapods, reptiles (lizards, snakes, and turtles), and small mammals.^[25] Older animals are capable of taking larger, mammalian prey (e.g. wild pigs).^[28] Cannibalism has been reported under such conditions.^[28] It has also been known to eat plant matter; in a study of this species in Puerto Rico, about 55% of adult specimens had plants in their diet, primarily grass and seeds. About 8% of adults and 6% of juveniles in the study had gastroliths in their stomach as well.^[29] Although the species has been suggested to control piranha populations, piranhas have not been found to be a normal diet component, unlike the yacare caiman. According to the Crocodilian Species List, it is probably a generalist species, being able to adapt to a variety of prey.^[16]^[30]

Communication

The spectacled caiman uses nine different vocalizations and 13 visual displays to communicate with individuals of its species.^[18] Both adults and young produce calls for group cohesion. Males are known to communicate by moving their tail to a certain position, such as making it vertical or arched. Juveniles vocalize when in distress and adult females emit calls to warn young of threats.^[2]

Reproduction

The spectacled caiman reaches sexual maturity from four to seven years old, at a length of 1.2 metres (3.9 ft) for females and 1.4 metres (4.6 ft) for males. Usually, the more dominant individuals mature more quickly. There is no strict reproductive hierarchy in spectacled caiman, but studies show larger males have more success breeding. ^[31] Specimens choose mates and engage in copulation from May to August, the wet season.^[16] The females build nests as a mound of dense vegetation, in areas that are close to water but not at risk of being flooded. The nests are over 1 metre (3.3 ft) in diameter and can be 40 centimetres (16 in) high, but the exact size depends on the resources available. Eggs are laid in July and August; the species very rarely nests in the winter, as the temperature is too low for the eggs.^[18]^[32] Clutch size is 22 on average, but can range from 14 to 40.^[16] Larger females have been known to lay larger eggs compared to smaller females.^[33] Females stay close to their nests during the incubation period, as several species, such as lizards in the genus Tupinambis, have been known to destroy nests and prey on the eggs.^[16] White-nosed coatis and foxes also raid nests.^[25] Flooding and human egg collecting can also be a threat to the nests.^[18] In a study in the Central Amazonia assessing reproductive similarities between C. crocodilus and Melanochus niger, research found that they indiscriminately separate their nests at larger distances than other species in this family, most likely to avoid predation.^[34]

Temperature is important to the developing eggs, so females build their nests in a way that insulates them from extreme temperature changes. As the vegetation in the nests decays, the nests produce heat which can keep the eggs about 5 °C (9 °F) warmer than if they were insulated by mud alone.^[32] Heat not only incubates the eggs, but also determines the sex of the developing caimans (temperature-dependent sex determination). When the temperature inside the nest is about 32 °C (90 °F) or higher, the caimans become female, and otherwise become male.^[35] Young hatch after 90 days,^[22] with 20–25 percent of eggs hatching successfully.^[18] They are yellow with black spots, a coloration which fades away as they grow older,^[16] with a length of 20–23 centimetres (7.9–9.1 in).^[18] Parents raise their young in crèches, with one female taking care of her own, as well as several others' offspring.^[36] They take care of their young for 12–18 months.^[11] Young are threatened by various predators, such as raptors (like hawks)^[37] and wader birds (like herons),^[25] causing most to die in their first year.^[18] These juveniles are also preyed upon by large fish, large snakes (such as anacondas), and other crocodilians.^[25]

Distribution and habitat

The spectacled caiman has the largest range of any caiman,^[9] and of any New World crocodilian.^[11] It is found in various countries throughout the Americas. It lives in Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela, and may also be extant in Belize and Bolivia. It has been introduced to Isla de la Juventud in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Florida in the United States;^[2] in the latter, it is sometimes mislabeled as the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis).^[16] Invasive populations have become established in South Florida, with isolated records further north in the state.^[36] Genetic study indicates two separate introduction events into Florida.^[38] It is intolerant to cold climates, so its range is unlikely to expand to further north than Florida.^[39] It usually lives in forests, inland bodies of fresh water (such as wetlands and rivers), grasslands, shrublands, and savannas, but is very adaptable.^[2] It prefers habitats with calm water containing floating vegetation, usually flooding and drying seasonally. It is most common in low-lying areas, but has been found at elevations of up to 800 m (2,600 ft).^[18] In Brazil, the species lives in the rivers Amazon, Araguaia, Araguari, Itapicuru, Rio Negro, Paranaíba, Solimões, Tapajós, Tocantins, and Xingu.^[8] It is able to live in human-inhabited areas.^[19]

The adult population of this crocodilian is estimated to be in the millions and stable.^[2] About four million spectacled caimans are found in Venezuela and surveys have shown that it is expected to increase.^[20] This is an example of how well the species is able to adapt.^[16] However, populations are not doing well in other countries, such as Peru.^[20] The population in a single area can be determined the easiest by counting individuals in the dry season at night.^[18]

Threats and conservation

The skin of the spectacled caiman is covered with osteoderms, which previously caused it to not be a major commercial target for its skin. However, harvesting of the skins of this caiman and others became very common in the 1950s, due to the declining stocks of crocodiles.^[11] Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the species was frequently traded, causing its population to decrease in some areas. Its skin was often exported from South America and utilized primarily for leather; at least 6 million skins were exported from Colombia from 1996 to 2015. However, conservation efforts since have caused a significant reduction in the number of skins exported.^[2] In most countries, hunting this species is legal. Venezuela permits hunting every fall, provided the total number of kills in the season does not exceed 150,000.^[20] Because of its adaptability and wide distribution, habitat loss does not affect the species significantly globally.^[2] It is reasonably resilient to hunting as well, as hunters usually focus on large males and the species reproduces at a small size.^[11] However, it is severely threatened in Colombia,^[16] primarily the subspecies C. c. fuscus and sometimes C. c. crocodilus.^[40]

The spectacled caiman benefits from overhunting of competitive species which occupy the same home range, as this allows it to access resources normally lost to these other species. Specimens that have been introduced to Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the United States negatively impact the native animals there. They are believed to have been the main reason for the likely extirpation of the Cuban crocodile (Crocodylus rhombifer) from the Isla de la Juventud, Cuba.^[16] The species has a similar diet to the black caiman (Melanosuchus niger) – both species eat mostly insects as juveniles and fish as adults. This causes interspecific competition, making it more difficult for the black caiman's population to recover.^[41] The spectacled caiman lives in parts of the Amazon rainforest that the black caiman was extirpated from.^[11]

Conservation programs for this species are used in many countries. The most common form of conservation is the use of cropping, which consists of manually reducing the numbers of several wild and abundant species. Long-term effects of cropping have yet to be discovered; more surveys have been recommended. Farming or ranching programs have also been used as conservation efforts for the species, but seem to be more expensive and possibly less effective.^[16] A conservation program in Colombia, which existed from 2004 to 2006, bred spectacled caimans in captivity and released the young into the wild at one year old. A similar program released over 15,000 juveniles into wetlands from 2005 to 2009.^[2] Previously, Colombia restricted the exportation of spectacled caiman skins to ones shorter than 1.2 metres (3.9 ft), but as of 2011 there are now only size limits for some individual pieces of the skin, rather than the overall size of the skin. These limits are less effective, as large skins could accord with the size limits if cut and trimmed.^[40] According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), further surveys of the species would help with future conservation plans.^[2]

The spectacled caiman is listed as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List, due to its large range and population globally, following two assessments as threatened in 1986 and 1988.^[2] The subspecies C. c. crocodilus is on Appendix II of CITES,^[5] C. c. apaporiensis Appendix I,^[42] and C. c. fuscus Appendix II.^[43]

References

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^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Balaguera-Reina, S.A.; Velasco, A. (2019). "Caiman crocodilus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T46584A3009688. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T46584A3009688.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
^ "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
^ Giovanne M. Cidade; Daniel Fortier; Ascanio Daniel Rincón; Annie Schmaltz Hsiou (2019). "Taxonomic review of two fossil crocodylians from the Cenozoic of South America and its implications for the crocodylian fauna of the continent". Zootaxa. 4656 (3): 475–486. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4656.3.5. PMID 31716812. S2CID 202012442.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Caiman crocodilus crocodilus". CITES. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
^ Franzen, Margaret Anne (2005). Huaorani resource use in the Ecuadorian Amazon. University of California, Davis. p. 181. Retrieved 3 April 2019.
^ ^a ^b "ITIS Standard Report Page: Caiman crocodilus". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 28 March 2019.
^ ^a ^b ^c Del Claro, Kleber; Oliveira, Paulo S.; Rico-Gray, Victor (11 May 2009). Tropical Biology and Conservation Management. EOLSS Publications. pp. 273–274. ISBN 978-1848262812. Retrieved 5 April 2019.
^ ^a ^b Triche, Nina (28 May 2003). "Caiman crocodilus (spectacled caiman)". Digimorph. Retrieved 3 April 2019.
^ Bittencourt, Pedro Senna; Campos, Zilca; Muniz, Fabio de Lima; Marioni, Boris; Souza, Bruno Campos; Da Silveira, Ronis; de Thoisy, Benoit; Hrbek, Tomas; Farias, Izeni Pires (22 March 2019). "Evidence of cryptic lineages within a small South American crocodilian: the Schneider's dwarf caiman Paleosuchus trigonatus (Alligatoridae: Caimaninae)". PeerJ. 7: e6580. doi:10.7717/peerj.6580. PMC 6433001. PMID 30931177.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Velasco, A.; Ayarzagüena, J. (2010). "Spectacled Caiman crocodilus" (PDF). In Manolis, S. C.; Stevenson, C. (eds.). Crocodiles. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan (3 ed.). Crocodile Specialist Group. pp. 10–15. Retrieved 5 April 2019.
^ www.rewild.org https://www.rewild.org/news/rediscovery-of-lost-caiman-leads-to-new-crocodylian-mystery. Retrieved 14 March 2024. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
^ "In the bombast of the American TV host, colonial science lives on". TheWire. 5 March 2020. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
^ Fusco, Thom (19 December 2019). "Nature Believe - extinct Rio Apaporis caiman rediscovered". Discovery Channel. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
^ Lindsay renick, Mayer (12 December 2019). "Rediscovery of lost caiman lead to new crocodilian mystery". rewild. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Britton, Adam. "Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus)". Crocodilian Species List. Retrieved 27 March 2019.
^ ^a ^b Conant, Roger; Collins, Joseph T. (1998). A Field Guide to Reptiles & Amphibians: Eastern and Central North America (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 144. ISBN 978-0395904527. Retrieved 27 March 2019.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Ojasti, Juhani (1996). Wildlife Utilization in Latin America: Current Situation and Prospects for Sustainable Management (illustrated ed.). Food and Agriculture Organization. pp. 58–62. ISBN 978-9251033166. Retrieved 27 March 2019.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Spectacled Caiman - Caiman crocodilus". World Association of Zoos and Aquariums. Archived from the original on 31 October 2013.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Alderton, David (1991). "Common Caiman Caiman crocodilus.". Crocodiles & Alligators of the World (illustrated ed.). Facts on File. pp. 131–135. ISBN 978-0816022977. Retrieved 29 March 2019.
^ Smith, Hobart M.; Brodie, Edmund D. (25 February 2014). Reptiles of North America: A Guide to Field Identification (illustrated ed.). St. Martin's Press. p. 208. ISBN 978-1466864818. Retrieved 7 April 2019.
^ ^a ^b "Spectacled Caiman". Lincoln Park Zoo. Archived from the original on 9 October 2020. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
^ Velasco, Alvaro; Ayarzaguena, Jose (2010). Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus). Venezuela: Fundación La Salle de Ciencias NaturalesApartado. p. 10.
^ Agte, Silke; Savvinov, Alexey; Karl, Anett; Zayas-Santiago, Astrid; Ulbricht, Elke; Makarov, Vladimir I.; Reichenbach, Andreas; Bringmann, Andreas; Skatchkov, Serguei N. (August 2018). "Müller glial cells contribute to dim light vision in the spectacled caiman ( Caiman crocodilus fuscus ): Analysis of retinal light transmission". Experimental Eye Research. 173: 91–108. doi:10.1016/j.exer.2018.05.009. ISSN 0014-4835. PMC 9930533.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Terry, Kayla. "Caiman crocodilus (Common caiman, Spectacled caiman)". Animaldiversity.org. Retrieved 13 March 2022.
^ Thorbjarnarson, John B. (March 1993). "Diet of the spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) in the central Venezuelan Llanos". Herpetologica. 49 (1). Allen Press: 108–117. JSTOR 3892691.
^ "Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus)".
^ ^a ^b "Crocodilian Species - Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus)". Archived from the original on 9 January 2024. Retrieved 3 September 2022.
^ Bontemps, Damien R.; Cuevas, Elvira; Ortiz, Eileen; Wunderle, Joseph M.; Joglar, Rafael L. (18 March 2016). "Diet of the non-native spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) in Puerto Rico" (PDF). Management of Biological Invasions. 7 (3): 287–296. doi:10.3391/mbi.2016.7.3.08. Retrieved 2 April 2019.
^ Ross, Charles A.; Garnett, Stephen (1989). Crocodiles and Alligators (illustrated ed.). New York: Facts on File. pp. 58–73. ISBN 978-0816021741. Retrieved 29 March 2019.
^ Barragán-Contreras, L.A.; Antelo, R.; Amézquita, A. (July 2021). "Not only big bulls — Correlation between morphometry, reproductive success, and testosterone level in a flooded savannah population of the Spectacled Caiman ( Caiman crocodilus )". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 99 (7): 580–587. doi:10.1139/cjz-2020-0099. ISSN 0008-4301.
^ ^a ^b Magnusson, W.E. Vliet, K.A. Pooley, A.C. and Whitaker, R. "Reproduction." Crocodiles and Alligators (illustrated ed.). Ross, Charles A. Garnett, Stephen (1989). New York: Facts on File. pp. 118–124. ISBN 0816021740.
^ Campos, Zilca; Magnusson, William E.; Sanaiotti, Tânia; Coutinho, Marcos E. (April 2008). "Reproductive trade-offs in Caiman crocodilus crocodilus and Caiman crocodilus yacare: Implications for size-related management quotas". Herpetological Journal. 18 (2): 91–96. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
^ Silveira, Ronis Da; Magnusson, William Ernest; Campos, Zilca (December 1997). "Monitoring the Distribution, Abundance and Breeding Areas of Caiman crocodilus crocodilus and Melanosuchus niger in the Anavilhanas Archipelago, Central Amazonia, Brazil". Journal of Herpetology. 31 (4): 514. doi:10.2307/1565603. JSTOR 1565603.
^ Lang, J.W. "Sex Determination." Crocodiles and Alligators (illustrated ed.). Ross, Charles A. Garnett, Stephen (1989). New York: Facts on File. pp. 118–124. ISBN 0816021740.
^ ^a ^b Somma, Louis A.; Fuller, Pam. "Common Caiman (Caiman crocodilus)". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 27 March 2019.
^ "Caiman crocodilus (Spectacled Caiman)" (PDF). Sta.uwi.edu. Retrieved 13 March 2022.
^ Parks, Andrew J.; Godfrey, Sidney T.; Gross, Brandon A.; Balaguera-Reina, Sergio A.; Smith, Nicholas G.; Mazzotti, Frank J.; Densmore, Llewellyn D. (1 March 2024). "Not one but two: examining the genetic origin and characterization of the non-native spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) in Florida". Biological Invasions. 26 (3): 779–795. doi:10.1007/s10530-023-03207-z. ISSN 1573-1464.
^ "Caiman". Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. Retrieved 7 April 2019.
^ ^a ^b Webb, Grahame; Brien, Matthew; Manolis, Charlie; Medrano-Bitar, Sergio (6 May 2012). "Predicting total lengths of spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) from skin measurements: A tool for managing the skin trade" (PDF). Herpetological Conservation and Biology. 7 (1): 16–26. Retrieved 14 April 2019.
^ Laverty, Theresa M.; Dobson, Andrew P. (March 2013). "Dietary overlap between black caimans and spectacled caimans in the Peruvian Amazon". Herpetologica. 69 (1): 91–101. doi:10.1655/HERPETOLOGICA-D-12-00031. S2CID 86391999.
^ "Caiman crocodilus fuscus". CITES. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
^ "Caiman crocodilus apaporiensis". CITES. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2019.

External links

Media related to Caiman crocodilus at Wikimedia Commons
Data related to Caiman at Wikispecies

[Rio2021-1] Rio, Jonathan P.; Mannion, Philip D. (6 September 2021). "Phylogenetic analysis of a new morphological dataset elucidates the evolutionary history of Crocodylia and resolves the long-standing gharial problem". PeerJ. 9: e12094. doi:10.7717/peerj.12094. PMC 8428266. PMID 34567843.

[iucn_status_19_November_2021-2] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Balaguera-Reina, S.A.; Velasco, A. (2019). "Caiman crocodilus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T46584A3009688. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T46584A3009688.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.

[3] "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 14 January 2022.

[4] Giovanne M. Cidade; Daniel Fortier; Ascanio Daniel Rincón; Annie Schmaltz Hsiou (2019). "Taxonomic review of two fossil crocodylians from the Cenozoic of South America and its implications for the crocodylian fauna of the continent". Zootaxa. 4656 (3): 475–486. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4656.3.5. PMID 31716812. S2CID 202012442.

[cites1-5] "Caiman crocodilus crocodilus". CITES. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2019.

[resource-6] Franzen, Margaret Anne (2005). Huaorani resource use in the Ecuadorian Amazon. University of California, Davis. p. 181. Retrieved 3 April 2019.

[itis-7] "ITIS Standard Report Page: Caiman crocodilus". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 28 March 2019.

[tropical-8] Del Claro, Kleber; Oliveira, Paulo S.; Rico-Gray, Victor (11 May 2009). Tropical Biology and Conservation Management. EOLSS Publications. pp. 273–274. ISBN 978-1848262812. Retrieved 5 April 2019.

[digimorph-9] Triche, Nina (28 May 2003). "Caiman crocodilus (spectacled caiman)". Digimorph. Retrieved 3 April 2019.

[10] Bittencourt, Pedro Senna; Campos, Zilca; Muniz, Fabio de Lima; Marioni, Boris; Souza, Bruno Campos; Da Silveira, Ronis; de Thoisy, Benoit; Hrbek, Tomas; Farias, Izeni Pires (22 March 2019). "Evidence of cryptic lineages within a small South American crocodilian: the Schneider's dwarf caiman Paleosuchus trigonatus (Alligatoridae: Caimaninae)". PeerJ. 7: e6580. doi:10.7717/peerj.6580. PMC 6433001. PMID 30931177.

[specialist-11] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Velasco, A.; Ayarzagüena, J. (2010). "Spectacled Caiman crocodilus" (PDF). In Manolis, S. C.; Stevenson, C. (eds.). Crocodiles. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan (3 ed.). Crocodile Specialist Group. pp. 10–15. Retrieved 5 April 2019.

[12] www.rewild.org https://www.rewild.org/news/rediscovery-of-lost-caiman-leads-to-new-crocodylian-mystery. Retrieved 14 March 2024. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

[13] "In the bombast of the American TV host, colonial science lives on". TheWire. 5 March 2020. Retrieved 5 March 2020.

[14] Fusco, Thom (19 December 2019). "Nature Believe - extinct Rio Apaporis caiman rediscovered". Discovery Channel. Retrieved 19 December 2019.

[15] Lindsay renick, Mayer (12 December 2019). "Rediscovery of lost caiman lead to new crocodilian mystery". rewild. Retrieved 12 December 2019.

[brit-16] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Britton, Adam. "Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus)". Crocodilian Species List. Retrieved 27 March 2019.

[field-17] Conant, Roger; Collins, Joseph T. (1998). A Field Guide to Reptiles & Amphibians: Eastern and Central North America (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 144. ISBN 978-0395904527. Retrieved 27 March 2019.

[latin-18] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Ojasti, Juhani (1996). Wildlife Utilization in Latin America: Current Situation and Prospects for Sustainable Management (illustrated ed.). Food and Agriculture Organization. pp. 58–62. ISBN 978-9251033166. Retrieved 27 March 2019.

[aza-19] "Spectacled Caiman - Caiman crocodilus". World Association of Zoos and Aquariums. Archived from the original on 31 October 2013.

[ald-20] Alderton, David (1991). "Common Caiman Caiman crocodilus.". Crocodiles & Alligators of the World (illustrated ed.). Facts on File. pp. 131–135. ISBN 978-0816022977. Retrieved 29 March 2019.

[northam-21] Smith, Hobart M.; Brodie, Edmund D. (25 February 2014). Reptiles of North America: A Guide to Field Identification (illustrated ed.). St. Martin's Press. p. 208. ISBN 978-1466864818. Retrieved 7 April 2019.

[lpzoo-22] "Spectacled Caiman". Lincoln Park Zoo. Archived from the original on 9 October 2020. Retrieved 1 April 2019.

[23] Velasco, Alvaro; Ayarzaguena, Jose (2010). Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus). Venezuela: Fundación La Salle de Ciencias NaturalesApartado. p. 10.

[24] Agte, Silke; Savvinov, Alexey; Karl, Anett; Zayas-Santiago, Astrid; Ulbricht, Elke; Makarov, Vladimir I.; Reichenbach, Andreas; Bringmann, Andreas; Skatchkov, Serguei N. (August 2018). "Müller glial cells contribute to dim light vision in the spectacled caiman ( Caiman crocodilus fuscus ): Analysis of retinal light transmission". Experimental Eye Research. 173: 91–108. doi:10.1016/j.exer.2018.05.009. ISSN 0014-4835. PMC 9930533.

[animaldiversity.org-25] Terry, Kayla. "Caiman crocodilus (Common caiman, Spectacled caiman)". Animaldiversity.org. Retrieved 13 March 2022.

[diet-26] Thorbjarnarson, John B. (March 1993). "Diet of the spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) in the central Venezuelan Llanos". Herpetologica. 49 (1). Allen Press: 108–117. JSTOR 3892691.

[27] "Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus)".

[crocodilian-28] "Crocodilian Species - Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus)". Archived from the original on 9 January 2024. Retrieved 3 September 2022.

[diet2-29] Bontemps, Damien R.; Cuevas, Elvira; Ortiz, Eileen; Wunderle, Joseph M.; Joglar, Rafael L. (18 March 2016). "Diet of the non-native spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) in Puerto Rico" (PDF). Management of Biological Invasions. 7 (3): 287–296. doi:10.3391/mbi.2016.7.3.08. Retrieved 2 April 2019.

[ross-30] Ross, Charles A.; Garnett, Stephen (1989). Crocodiles and Alligators (illustrated ed.). New York: Facts on File. pp. 58–73. ISBN 978-0816021741. Retrieved 29 March 2019.

[31] Barragán-Contreras, L.A.; Antelo, R.; Amézquita, A. (July 2021). "Not only big bulls — Correlation between morphometry, reproductive success, and testosterone level in a flooded savannah population of the Spectacled Caiman ( Caiman crocodilus )". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 99 (7): 580–587. doi:10.1139/cjz-2020-0099. ISSN 0008-4301.

[mag-32] Magnusson, W.E. Vliet, K.A. Pooley, A.C. and Whitaker, R. "Reproduction." Crocodiles and Alligators (illustrated ed.). Ross, Charles A. Garnett, Stephen (1989). New York: Facts on File. pp. 118–124. ISBN 0816021740.

[reproductive-33] Campos, Zilca; Magnusson, William E.; Sanaiotti, Tânia; Coutinho, Marcos E. (April 2008). "Reproductive trade-offs in Caiman crocodilus crocodilus and Caiman crocodilus yacare: Implications for size-related management quotas". Herpetological Journal. 18 (2): 91–96. Retrieved 30 March 2019.

[34] Silveira, Ronis Da; Magnusson, William Ernest; Campos, Zilca (December 1997). "Monitoring the Distribution, Abundance and Breeding Areas of Caiman crocodilus crocodilus and Melanosuchus niger in the Anavilhanas Archipelago, Central Amazonia, Brazil". Journal of Herpetology. 31 (4): 514. doi:10.2307/1565603. JSTOR 1565603.

[35] Lang, J.W. "Sex Determination." Crocodiles and Alligators (illustrated ed.). Ross, Charles A. Garnett, Stephen (1989). New York: Facts on File. pp. 118–124. ISBN 0816021740.

[usgs-36] Somma, Louis A.; Fuller, Pam. "Common Caiman (Caiman crocodilus)". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 27 March 2019.

[37] "Caiman crocodilus (Spectacled Caiman)" (PDF). Sta.uwi.edu. Retrieved 13 March 2022.

[38] Parks, Andrew J.; Godfrey, Sidney T.; Gross, Brandon A.; Balaguera-Reina, Sergio A.; Smith, Nicholas G.; Mazzotti, Frank J.; Densmore, Llewellyn D. (1 March 2024). "Not one but two: examining the genetic origin and characterization of the non-native spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) in Florida". Biological Invasions. 26 (3): 779–795. doi:10.1007/s10530-023-03207-z. ISSN 1573-1464.

[florida-39] "Caiman". Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. Retrieved 7 April 2019.

[skin-40] Webb, Grahame; Brien, Matthew; Manolis, Charlie; Medrano-Bitar, Sergio (6 May 2012). "Predicting total lengths of spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) from skin measurements: A tool for managing the skin trade" (PDF). Herpetological Conservation and Biology. 7 (1): 16–26. Retrieved 14 April 2019.

[overlap-41] Laverty, Theresa M.; Dobson, Andrew P. (March 2013). "Dietary overlap between black caimans and spectacled caimans in the Peruvian Amazon". Herpetologica. 69 (1): 91–101. doi:10.1655/HERPETOLOGICA-D-12-00031. S2CID 86391999.

[cites2-42] "Caiman crocodilus fuscus". CITES. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2019.

[cites3-43] "Caiman crocodilus apaporiensis". CITES. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2019.

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@@ Line 15: / Line 15: @@
 | taxon = Caiman crocodilus
 | authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]
-| range_map = Caiman crocodylus Distribution.png
+| range_map = The_range_of_the_spectacled_caiman.png
-| range_map_caption = Native range (green)
+| range_map_caption = Native range (black)
 | synonyms =
 * ''Jacaretinga crocodilus'' <small>Linnaeus, 1758</small>
@@ Line 26: / Line 26: @@
 * ''Jacare hirticollis'' <small>Gray, 1867</small>
 * ''?[[Caiman venezuelensis]]'' <small>Fortier & Rincón, 2013</small><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Giovanne M. Cidade |author2=Daniel Fortier |author3=Ascanio Daniel Rincón |author4=Annie Schmaltz Hsiou |year=2019 |title=Taxonomic review of two fossil crocodylians from the Cenozoic of South America and its implications for the crocodylian fauna of the continent |journal=Zootaxa |volume=4656 |issue=3 |pages=475–486 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.4656.3.5 |pmid=31716812 |s2cid=202012442 }}</ref>
-| synonyms_ref = <ref name="cites1">{{cite web |title=Caiman crocodilus crocodilus |url=https://cites.org/eng/node/20217 |website=[[CITES]] |access-date=30 March 2019}}</ref>
+| synonyms_ref = <ref name="cites1">{{cite web |title=Caiman crocodilus crocodilus |url=https://cites.org/eng/node/20217 |website=[[CITES]] |access-date=30 March 2019 |archive-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330204450/https://cites.org/eng/node/20217 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
 }}
-The '''spectacled caiman''' ('''''Caiman crocodilus'''''), also known as the '''white caiman''',<ref name="resource">{{cite book |last1=Franzen |first1=Margaret Anne |title=Huaorani resource use in the Ecuadorian Amazon |publisher=[[University of California, Davis]] |page=181 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DBA3R4U31YMC |access-date=3 April 2019|year=2005 }}</ref> '''common caiman''',<ref name="itis">{{cite web |title=ITIS Standard Report Page: Caiman crocodilus |url=https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=174370#null |website=[[Integrated Taxonomic Information System]] |access-date=28 March 2019}}</ref> and '''speckled caiman''',<ref name="tropical">{{cite book |last1=Del Claro |first1=Kleber |last2=Oliveira |first2=Paulo S. |last3=Rico-Gray |first3=Victor |title=Tropical Biology and Conservation Management |date=May 11, 2009 |publisher=[[EOLSS]] Publications |isbn=978-1848262812 |pages=273–274 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5h7bCwAAQBAJ |access-date=5 April 2019}}</ref> is a [[crocodilian]] in the family [[Alligatoridae]]. It is brownish-, greenish-, or yellowish-gray colored and has a spectacle-like ridge between its eyes, which is where its common name come from. It grows to a length of {{convert|1.4|–|2.5|m|abbr=on|ft}} and a weight of {{convert|7|–|40|kg|abbr=on|lb}}, with males being both longer and heavier than females. Its diet varies seasonally, commonly consisting of crabs, fish, small mammals, amphibians and snails. Breeding occurs from May to August and 14–40 eggs are laid in July and August. This crocodilian has a large range and population; it is native to much of [[Latin America]], and has been introduced to the [[United States]], [[Cuba]], and [[Puerto Rico]].
+The '''spectacled caiman''' ('''''Caiman crocodilus'''''), also known as the '''white caiman''',<ref name="resource">{{cite book |last1=Franzen |first1=Margaret Anne |title=Huaorani resource use in the Ecuadorian Amazon |publisher=[[University of California, Davis]] |page=181 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DBA3R4U31YMC |access-date=3 April 2019|year=2005 }}</ref> '''common caiman''',<ref name="itis">{{cite web |title=ITIS Standard Report Page: Caiman crocodilus |url=https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=174370#null |website=[[Integrated Taxonomic Information System]] |access-date=28 March 2019}}</ref> and '''speckled caiman''',<ref name="tropical">{{cite book |last1=Del Claro |first1=Kleber |last2=Oliveira |first2=Paulo S. |last3=Rico-Gray |first3=Victor |title=Tropical Biology and Conservation Management |date=May 11, 2009 |publisher=[[EOLSS]] Publications |isbn=978-1848262812 |pages=273–274 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5h7bCwAAQBAJ |access-date=5 April 2019}}</ref> is a [[crocodilian]] in the family [[Alligatoridae]]. It is brownish-, greenish-, or yellowish-gray colored and has a spectacle-like ridge between its eyes, which is where its common name come from. It grows to a length of {{cvt|1.4|–|2.5|m}} and a weight of {{cvt|7|–|40|kg}}, with males being both longer and heavier than females. Its diet varies seasonally, commonly consisting of crabs, fish, small mammals, amphibians and snails. Breeding occurs from May to August and 14–40 eggs are laid in July and August. This crocodilian has a large range and population; it is native to much of [[Latin America]], and has been introduced to the [[United States]], [[Cuba]], and [[Puerto Rico]].
 ==Taxonomy==
 The spectacled caiman was described by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in 1758, originally as ''Lacerta crocodilus''.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> It has since been redescribed several times, including as ''Caiman sclerops'' by Schneider in 1801.<ref name="cites1"/> Although ''Caiman crocodilus'' is now the scientific name of the species, some scientists still prefer using ''sclerops'', as having ''crocodilus'' as the scientific name for a caiman may cause confusion.<ref name="digimorph">{{cite web |last1=Triche |first1=Nina |title=Caiman crocodilus (spectacled caiman) |url=http://digimorph.org/specimens/Caiman_crocodilus/ |website=Digimorph |access-date=3 April 2019 |date=28 May 2003}}</ref>
+===Classification===
+The spectacled caiman is one of three [[extant taxon|extant]] (living) species of the [[genus]] ''[[Caiman (genus)|Caiman]]'', the other two being the [[Yacare caiman]] (''Caiman yacare'') and the [[Broad-snouted caiman]] (''Caiman latirostris''). There are also several [[extinct]] fossil species in the genus ''[[Caiman (genus)|Caiman]]'', possibly up to eight species. The spectacled caiman is a member of the caiman [[subfamily]] [[Caimaninae]], and is one of six living species of caiman. It is most closely related to the yacare caiman, as shown in the [[cladogram]] below, based on molecular DNA-based [[phylogenetic]] studies:<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bittencourt |first1=Pedro Senna |last2=Campos |first2=Zilca |last3=Muniz |first3=Fabio de Lima |last4=Marioni |first4=Boris |last5=Souza |first5=Bruno Campos |last6=Da Silveira |first6=Ronis |last7=de Thoisy |first7=Benoit |last8=Hrbek |first8=Tomas |last9=Farias |first9=Izeni Pires |date=22 March 2019 |title=Evidence of cryptic lineages within a small South American crocodilian: the Schneider’s dwarf caiman ''Paleosuchus trigonatus'' (Alligatoridae: Caimaninae) |journal=[[PeerJ]] |volume=7 |page=e6580 |doi=10.7717/peerj.6580 |pmid=30931177 |pmc=6433001 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
+{{clade
+ |label1=[[Alligatoridae]]
+ |1={{clade
+  |label1=[[Caimaninae]]
+  |1={{clade
+   |1={{clade
+    |1=''Paleosuchus palpebrosus'' [[Cuvier's dwarf caiman]]
+    |2=''Paleosuchus trigonatus'' [[Schneider's dwarf caiman]] }}
+   |label2=[[Jacarea]]
+   |2={{clade
+    |1={{clade
+     |1={{clade
+      |1=''Caiman crocodilus'' '''Spectacled caiman'''
+      |2=''Caiman yacare'' [[Yacare caiman]] }}
+     |2=''Caiman latirostris'' [[Broad-snouted caiman]] }}
+    |2=''Melanosuchus niger'' [[Black caiman]] }} }}
+  |label2=[[Alligatorinae]]
+  |2={{clade
+   |1=''Alligator sinensis'' [[Chinese alligator]]
+   |2=''Alligator mississippiensis'' [[American alligator]] }} }} }}
+===Subspecies===
 The spectacled caiman has four recognized subspecies:<ref name="itis"/><ref name="specialist">{{cite book |last1=Velasco |first1=A. |last2=Ayarzagüena |first2=J. |editor1-last=Manolis |editor1-first=S. C. |editor2-last=Stevenson |editor2-first=C. |title=Crocodiles. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan |date=2010 |publisher=Crocodile Specialist Group |pages=10–15 |edition=3 |chapter-url=https://www.iucncsg.org/365_docs/attachments/protarea/03_C-3f25540b.pdf |access-date=5 April 2019 |chapter=Spectacled ''Caiman crocodilus''}}</ref>
-* ''C. c. apaporiensis'' (Medem, 1955), commonly known as the Rio Apaporis caiman; endemic to Colombia and possibly the Venezuelan Llanos.
+* ''C. c. apaporiensis'' (Medem, 1955), commonly known as the Rio Apaporis caiman was once thought to be extinct but was rediscovered; is endemic to Colombia and possibly the Venezuelan Llanos.
 * ''C. c. chiapasius'' ([[Marie Firmin Bocourt|Bocourt]], 1876); distributed in Mexico, Central America, and northern South America.
 * ''C. c. crocodilus'' (Linnaeus, 1758), the [[nominate subspecies]], commonly known as the spectacled caiman; found in various parts of South America, such as Venezuela, Trinidad, Tobago, Brazil, etc.
@@ Line 43: / Line 67: @@
 The [[yacare caiman]] (''Caiman yacare''), while previously thought to be a subspecies of ''C. crocodilus'', is now usually considered a separate species.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" />
-The Rio Apaporis caiman was believed to have become extinct by 1981, when the last known specimen died in a zoo. However, a specimen was captured for the television show ''[[Extinct or Alive]]'' in 2019 and identified by DNA sampling.<ref>{{Cite news|date=5 March 2020|title=In the bombast of the American TV host, colonial science lives on|work=|url=https://science.thewire.in/environment/colombia-colonial-science-forrest-galante/|access-date=5 March 2020|website=TheWire}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Fusco|first=Thom|date=19 December 2019|title=Nature Believe - extinct Rio Apaporis caiman rediscovered |publisher=[[Discovery Channel]]|url=https://www.discovery.com/nature/believed-extinct-rio-apaporis-caiman-rediscovered|access-date=19 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Lindsay renick|first=Mayer|date=12 December 2019|title=Rediscovery of lost caiman lead to new crocodilian mystery|work=[[rewild]]|url=https://www.rewild.org/news/rediscovery-of-lost-caiman-leads-to-new-crocodylian-mystery|access-date=12 December 2019}}</ref>
+The Rio Apaporis caiman was believed to have become extinct by 1981, when the last known specimen died in a zoo. However, a specimen was captured in an expedition by Colombian conservation biologist Sergio Balaguera-Reina in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rewild.org/news/rediscovery-of-lost-caiman-leads-to-new-crocodylian-mystery |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=www.rewild.org}}</ref> Later, the subspecies was discovered again by wildlife biologist [[Forrest Galante]] for the television show ''[[Extinct or Alive]]'' in 2019 and identified by DNA sampling.<ref>{{Cite news|date=5 March 2020|title=In the bombast of the American TV host, colonial science lives on|work=|url=https://science.thewire.in/environment/colombia-colonial-science-forrest-galante/|access-date=5 March 2020|website=TheWire}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Fusco|first=Thom|date=19 December 2019|title=Nature Believe - extinct Rio Apaporis caiman rediscovered |publisher=[[Discovery Channel]]|url=https://www.discovery.com/nature/believed-extinct-rio-apaporis-caiman-rediscovered|access-date=19 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Lindsay renick|first=Mayer|date=12 December 2019|title=Rediscovery of lost caiman lead to new crocodilian mystery|work=[[rewild]]|url=https://www.rewild.org/news/rediscovery-of-lost-caiman-leads-to-new-crocodylian-mystery|access-date=12 December 2019}}</ref> Galante has advocated for the Rio Apaporis caiman to be considered a distinct species, while Balaguera-Reina maintains its official status as a subspecies.
 ==Characteristics==
 [[File:Spectacled caiman by Keven Law.jpg|thumb|left|Spectacled caiman head, with the ridge between the eyes visible]]
 [[File:071228 crocodiles.JPG|thumb|Spectacled caimans in [[Monterrico, Guatemala]]]]
-The spectacled caiman is a small to medium-sized crocodilian. Females generally grow to no more than {{convert|1.08|to|1.4|m|ft|abbr=on}} (the lower size typical upon the onset of sexual maturity), but can rarely grow to nearly {{convert|2|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Adult males can regularly reach {{convert|1.5|to|1.8|m|ft|abbr=on}} while large mature ones grow to {{convert|2.0|to|2.5|m|ft|abbr=on}}, although relatively few get to the upper size.<ref name="brit">{{cite web |last1=Britton |first1=Adam |title=Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus) |url=http://crocodilian.com/cnhc/csp_ccro.htm |website=Crocodilian Species List |access-date=27 March 2019}}</ref> The maximum reported size for the species is {{convert|2.64|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name="field">{{cite book |last1=Conant |first1=Roger |author-link1=Roger Conant (herpetologist) |last2=Collins |first2=Joseph T. |author-link2=Joseph T. Collins |title=A Field Guide to Reptiles & Amphibians: Eastern and Central North America |date=1998 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |isbn=978-0395904527 |page=[https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetorept00cona_0/page/144 144] |edition=illustrated, reprint, revised |url=https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetorept00cona_0 |url-access=registration |access-date=27 March 2019}}</ref> The body mass of most adults is between {{convert|7|and|40|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, with males typically being considerably heavier than females. Some males in the [[Llanos]] have been reported to grow to up to {{convert|58|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="latin">{{cite book |last1=Ojasti |first1=Juhani |title=Wildlife Utilization in Latin America: Current Situation and Prospects for Sustainable Management |date=1996 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |isbn=978-9251033166 |pages=58–62 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1g2lKP9kd8YC |access-date=27 March 2019}}</ref>
+The spectacled caiman is a small to medium-sized crocodilian. Females generally grow to no more than {{cvt|1.08|to|1.4|m}} (the lower size typical upon the onset of sexual maturity), but can rarely grow to nearly {{cvt|2|m}}. Adult males can regularly reach {{cvt|1.5|to|1.8|m}} while large mature ones grow to {{cvt|2.0|to|2.5|m}}, although relatively few get to the upper size.<ref name="brit">{{cite web |last1=Britton |first1=Adam |title=Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus) |url=http://crocodilian.com/cnhc/csp_ccro.htm |website=Crocodilian Species List |access-date=27 March 2019}}</ref> The maximum reported size for the species is {{cvt|2.64|m}}.<ref name="field">{{cite book |last1=Conant |first1=Roger |author-link1=Roger Conant (herpetologist) |last2=Collins |first2=Joseph T. |author-link2=Joseph T. Collins |title=A Field Guide to Reptiles & Amphibians: Eastern and Central North America |date=1998 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |isbn=978-0395904527 |page=[https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetorept00cona_0/page/144 144] |edition=illustrated, reprint, revised |url=https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetorept00cona_0 |url-access=registration |access-date=27 March 2019}}</ref> The body mass of most adults is between {{cvt|7|and|40|kg}}, with males typically being considerably heavier than females. Some males in the [[Llanos]] have been reported to grow to up to {{cvt|58|kg}}.<ref name="latin">{{cite book |last1=Ojasti |first1=Juhani |title=Wildlife Utilization in Latin America: Current Situation and Prospects for Sustainable Management |date=1996 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |isbn=978-9251033166 |pages=58–62 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1g2lKP9kd8YC |access-date=27 March 2019}}</ref>
-The upperside of the species is mostly brownish-, greenish-, or yellowish-gray colored and has dark brown crossbands,<ref name="field"/> with a lighter underside. It has a greenish [[Iris (anatomy)|iris]].<ref name="aza">{{cite web |title=Spectacled Caiman - Caiman crocodilus |url=https://www.waza.org/en/zoo/pick-a-picture/caiman-crocodilus |website=[[World Association of Zoos and Aquariums]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031060714/https://www.waza.org/en/zoo/pick-a-picture/caiman-crocodilus |archive-date=31 October 2013}}</ref> and wrinkled eyelids.<ref name="tropical"/> It changes color seasonally – during colder weather, the black pigment within its skin cells expands, making it appear darker.<ref name="ald">{{cite book |last1=Alderton |first1=David |title=Crocodiles & Alligators of the World |section=Common Caiman ''Caiman crocodilus.'' |date=1991 |publisher=[[Facts on File]] |isbn=978-0816022977 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/crocodilesalliga00alde/page/131 131]–135 |edition=illustrated |url=https://archive.org/details/crocodilesalliga00alde |url-access=registration |access-date=29 March 2019}}</ref> The species has an enlarged 4th tooth, and the teeth in its lower jaw penetrate into a socket in its upper jaw. It has a long snout that tapers moderately, with an unexpanded tip.<ref name="northam">{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Hobart M. |last2=Brodie |first2=Edmund D. |author-link1=Hobart Muir Smith |title=Reptiles of North America: A Guide to Field Identification |date=25 February 2014 |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |isbn=978-1466864818 |page=208 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vwNlAgAAQBAJ |access-date=7 April 2019}}</ref> Several ridges begin in front of its eyes and travel to the tip of its snout.<ref name="aza"/> Its common name comes from a bony ridge between its eyes, which gives the appearance of a pair of spectacles.<ref name="lpzoo">{{cite web |title=Spectacled Caiman |url=https://www.lpzoo.org/animal/spectacled-caiman |website=[[Lincoln Park Zoo]] |access-date=1 April 2019}}</ref>
+The upperside of the species is mostly brownish-, greenish-, or yellowish-gray colored and has dark brown crossbands,<ref name="field"/> with a lighter underside. It has a greenish [[Iris (anatomy)|iris]].<ref name="aza">{{cite web |title=Spectacled Caiman - Caiman crocodilus |url=https://www.waza.org/en/zoo/pick-a-picture/caiman-crocodilus |website=[[World Association of Zoos and Aquariums]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031060714/https://www.waza.org/en/zoo/pick-a-picture/caiman-crocodilus |archive-date=31 October 2013}}</ref> and wrinkled eyelids.<ref name="tropical"/> It changes color seasonally – during colder weather, the black pigment within its skin cells expands, making it appear darker.<ref name="ald">{{cite book |last1=Alderton |first1=David |title=Crocodiles & Alligators of the World |section=Common Caiman ''Caiman crocodilus.'' |date=1991 |publisher=[[Facts on File]] |isbn=978-0816022977 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/crocodilesalliga00alde/page/131 131]–135 |edition=illustrated |url=https://archive.org/details/crocodilesalliga00alde |url-access=registration |access-date=29 March 2019}}</ref> The species has an enlarged 4th tooth, and the teeth in its lower jaw penetrate into a socket in its upper jaw. It has a long snout that tapers moderately, with an unexpanded tip.<ref name="northam">{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Hobart M. |last2=Brodie |first2=Edmund D. |author-link1=Hobart Muir Smith |title=Reptiles of North America: A Guide to Field Identification |date=25 February 2014 |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |isbn=978-1466864818 |page=208 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vwNlAgAAQBAJ |access-date=7 April 2019}}</ref> Several ridges begin in front of its eyes and travel to the tip of its snout.<ref name="aza"/> Its common name comes from a bony ridge between its eyes, which gives the appearance of a pair of spectacles.<ref name="lpzoo">{{cite web |title=Spectacled Caiman |url=https://www.lpzoo.org/animal/spectacled-caiman |website=[[Lincoln Park Zoo]] |access-date=1 April 2019 |archive-date=9 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009194116/https://www.lpzoo.org/animal/spectacled-caiman/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
 The spectacled caiman is the most widely distributed New World crocodilian, and is the most geographically variable species in the Americas, making it a highly adaptable species.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Velasco |first1=Alvaro |last2=Ayarzaguena |first2=Jose |title=Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus) |date=2010 |publisher=Fundación La Salle de Ciencias NaturalesApartado |location=Venezuela |page=10}}</ref>
 ==Biology and behavior==
-The spectacled caiman can move rapidly when threatened, but is usually immobile, resting on shores or partly in water. In the rainy season, males become aggressive and territorial.<ref name="latin"/>
+The spectacled caiman can move rapidly when threatened, but is usually immobile, resting on shores or partly in water. In the rainy season, males become aggressive and territorial.<ref name="latin"/> Spectacled caiman have Müller glial cells in their eyes that contribute to excellent night vision. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Agte |first1=Silke |last2=Savvinov |first2=Alexey |last3=Karl |first3=Anett |last4=Zayas-Santiago |first4=Astrid |last5=Ulbricht |first5=Elke |last6=Makarov |first6=Vladimir I. |last7=Reichenbach |first7=Andreas |last8=Bringmann |first8=Andreas |last9=Skatchkov |first9=Serguei N. |title=Müller glial cells contribute to dim light vision in the spectacled caiman ( Caiman crocodilus fuscus ): Analysis of retinal light transmission |journal=Experimental Eye Research |date=August 2018 |volume=173 |pages=91–108 |doi=10.1016/j.exer.2018.05.009 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exer.2018.05.009 |issn=0014-4835|pmc=9930533 }}</ref>
 ===Hunting and diet===
+[[File:Spectacled_Caiman_-_Baba_(Caiman_crocodilus)_(8698136554).jpg|220x124px|thumb|right|Spectacled Caiman eating a fish]]
-Usually hunting at night,<ref name="latin"/> the diet of the spectacled caiman varies seasonally. During the wet season, it primarily eats snails and freshwater crabs, while it mostly eats fish in the dry season. Smaller specimens tend to eat more insects and freshwater shrimp,<ref name="animaldiversity.org">{{Cite web|url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Caiman_crocodilus/|title=Caiman crocodilus (Common caiman, Spectacled caiman)|first=Kayla|last=Terry|website=Animaldiversity.org|access-date=13 March 2022}}</ref> while larger ones more frequently consume mammals and fish. Overall, the most common animals in this species' diet are crabs, fish, mammals, and snails.<ref name="diet">{{cite journal |last1=Thorbjarnarson |first1=John B. |author-link1=John Thorbjarnarson |title=Diet of the spectacled caiman (''Caiman crocodilus'') in the central Venezuelan Llanos |journal=[[Herpetologica]] |date=March 1993 |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=108–117 |publisher=[[Allen Press]] |jstor=3892691}}</ref> Other animals that have been known to be a part of its diet include amphibians, [[arachnids]], birds, [[myriapods]], and reptiles (lizards, snakes, and turtles).<ref name="animaldiversity.org"/> Older animals are capable of taking larger, mammalian prey (e.g. wild pigs).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://crocodilian.com/cnhc/csp_ccro.htm | title=Crocodilian Species - Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus) }}</ref> Cannibalism has been reported under such conditions.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://crocodilian.com/cnhc/csp_ccro.htm | title=Crocodilian Species - Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus) }}</ref> It has also been known to eat plant matter; in a study of this species in Puerto Rico, about 55% of adult specimens had plants in their diet, primarily grass and seeds. About 8% of adults and 6% of juveniles in the study had [[gastrolith]]s in their stomach as well.<ref name="diet2">{{cite journal |last1=Bontemps |first1=Damien R. |last2=Cuevas |first2=Elvira |last3=Ortiz |first3=Eileen |last4=Wunderle |first4=Joseph M. |last5=Joglar |first5=Rafael L. |title=Diet of the non-native spectacled caiman (''Caiman crocodilus'') in Puerto Rico |journal=Management of Biological Invasions |date=18 March 2016 |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=287–296 |doi=10.3391/mbi.2016.7.3.08 |url=http://www.reabic.net/journals/mbi/2016/3/MBI_2016_Bontemps_etal.pdf |access-date=2 April 2019|doi-access=free }}</ref> Although the species has been suggested to control [[piranha]] populations, piranhas have not been found to be a normal diet component, unlike the [[yacare caiman]]. According to the Crocodilian Species List, it is probably a [[generalist species]], being able to adapt to a variety of prey.<ref name="brit"/><ref name="ross">{{cite book |last1=Ross |first1=Charles A. |last2=Garnett |first2=Stephen |title=Crocodiles and Alligators |date=1989 |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York |isbn=978-0816021741 |pages=58–73 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GaBnQgAACAAJ |access-date=29 March 2019}}</ref>
+Usually hunting at night, the diet of the spectacled caiman varies seasonally.<ref name="latin"/> During the wet season, it primarily eats snails and freshwater crabs, while it mostly eats fish in the dry season. Smaller specimens tend to eat more insects and freshwater shrimp, while larger ones more frequently consume mammals and fish.<ref name="animaldiversity.org">{{Cite web|url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Caiman_crocodilus/|title=Caiman crocodilus (Common caiman, Spectacled caiman)|first=Kayla|last=Terry|website=Animaldiversity.org|access-date=13 March 2022}}</ref> Overall, the most common animals in this species' diet are crabs, other crustaceans, fish, mammals, snails and other molluscs.<ref name="diet">{{cite journal |last1=Thorbjarnarson |first1=John B. |author-link1=John Thorbjarnarson |title=Diet of the spectacled caiman (''Caiman crocodilus'') in the central Venezuelan Llanos |journal=[[Herpetologica]] |date=March 1993 |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=108–117 |publisher=[[Allen Press]] |jstor=3892691}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.reptilesofecuador.com/caiman_crocodilus.html | title=Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus) }}</ref> Other animals that have been known to be a part of its diet include amphibians, [[arachnids]], birds, [[myriapods]], reptiles (lizards, snakes, and turtles), and small [[mammal]]s.<ref name="animaldiversity.org"/> Older animals are capable of taking larger, mammalian prey (e.g. wild pigs).<ref name=crocodilian>{{cite web | url=https://crocodilian.com/cnhc/csp_ccro.htm | title=Crocodilian Species - Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus) | access-date=3 September 2022 | archive-date=9 January 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240109035959/https://crocodilian.com/cnhc/csp_ccro.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref> Cannibalism has been reported under such conditions.<ref name=crocodilian /> It has also been known to eat plant matter; in a study of this species in Puerto Rico, about 55% of adult specimens had plants in their diet, primarily grass and seeds. About 8% of adults and 6% of juveniles in the study had [[gastrolith]]s in their stomach as well.<ref name="diet2">{{cite journal |last1=Bontemps |first1=Damien R. |last2=Cuevas |first2=Elvira |last3=Ortiz |first3=Eileen |last4=Wunderle |first4=Joseph M. |last5=Joglar |first5=Rafael L. |title=Diet of the non-native spectacled caiman (''Caiman crocodilus'') in Puerto Rico |journal=Management of Biological Invasions |date=18 March 2016 |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=287–296 |doi=10.3391/mbi.2016.7.3.08 |url=http://www.reabic.net/journals/mbi/2016/3/MBI_2016_Bontemps_etal.pdf |access-date=2 April 2019|doi-access=free }}</ref> Although the species has been suggested to control [[piranha]] populations, piranhas have not been found to be a normal diet component, unlike the [[yacare caiman]]. According to the Crocodilian Species List, it is probably a [[generalist species]], being able to adapt to a variety of prey.<ref name="brit"/><ref name="ross">{{cite book |last1=Ross |first1=Charles A. |last2=Garnett |first2=Stephen |title=Crocodiles and Alligators |date=1989 |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York |isbn=978-0816021741 |pages=58–73 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GaBnQgAACAAJ |access-date=29 March 2019}}</ref>
 ===Communication===
@@ Line 63: / Line 88: @@
 ===Reproduction===
+[[File:Spectacled_Caiman_babies_(5596784570).jpg|220x124px|thumb|right|Spectacled caiman babies]]
-The spectacled caiman reaches sexual maturity from four to seven years old, at a length of {{convert|1.2|m|ft}} for females and {{convert|1.4|m|ft}} for males. Usually, the more dominant individuals mature more quickly. Specimens choose mates and engage in copulation from May to August, the wet season.<ref name="brit" /> The females build nests as a mound of dense vegetation, in areas that are close to water but not at risk of being flooded. The nests are over {{convert|1|m|ft}} in diameter and can be {{convert|40|cm|in}} high, but the exact size depends on the resources available. Eggs are laid in July and August; the species very rarely nests in the winter, as the temperature is too low for the eggs.<ref name="latin"/><ref name="mag">Magnusson, W.E. Vliet, K.A. Pooley, A.C. and Whitaker, R. "Reproduction." ''Crocodiles and Alligators'' (illustrated ed.).  Ross, Charles A. Garnett, Stephen (1989). New York: Facts on File. pp. 118–124. {{ISBN|0816021740}}.</ref> Clutch size is 22 on average, but can range from 14 to 40.<ref name="brit"/> Larger females have been known to lay larger eggs compared to smaller females.<ref name="reproductive">{{cite journal |last1=Campos |first1=Zilca |last2=Magnusson |first2=William E. |last3=Sanaiotti |first3=Tânia |last4=Coutinho |first4=Marcos E. |title=Reproductive trade-offs in ''Caiman crocodilus crocodilus'' and ''Caiman crocodilus yacare'': Implications for size-related management quotas |journal=Herpetological Journal |date=April 2008 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=91–96 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233485395 |access-date=30 March 2019}}</ref> Females stay close to their nests during the incubation period, as several species, such as lizards in the genus ''[[Tupinambis]]'', have been known to destroy nests and prey on the eggs.<ref name="brit"/> [[White-nosed coati]]s and [[fox]]es also raid nests.<ref name="animaldiversity.org"/> Flooding and human egg collecting can also be a threat to the nests.<ref name="latin"/> In a study in the Central Amazonia assessing reproductive similarities between C. crocodilus and Melanochus niger, research found that they indiscriminately separate their nests at larger distances than other species in this family, most likely to avoid predation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Silveira |first1=Ronis Da |last2=Magnusson |first2=William Ernest |last3=Campos |first3=Zilca |title=Monitoring the Distribution, Abundance and Breeding Areas of Caiman ''crocodilus crocodilus'' and ''Melanosuchus niger'' in the Anavilhanas Archipelago, Central Amazonia, Brazil |journal=Journal of Herpetology |date=December 1997 |volume=31 |issue=4 |page=514 |doi=10.2307/1565603|jstor=1565603 }}</ref>
+The spectacled caiman reaches sexual maturity from four to seven years old, at a length of {{convert|1.2|m|ft}} for females and {{convert|1.4|m|ft}} for males. Usually, the more dominant individuals mature more quickly. There is no strict reproductive hierarchy in spectacled caiman, but studies show larger males have more success breeding. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barragán-Contreras |first1=L.A. |last2=Antelo |first2=R. |last3=Amézquita |first3=A. |title=Not only big bulls — Correlation between morphometry, reproductive success, and testosterone level in a flooded savannah population of the Spectacled Caiman ( Caiman crocodilus ) |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |date=July 2021 |volume=99 |issue=7 |pages=580–587 |doi=10.1139/cjz-2020-0099 |url=https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/cjz-2020-0099 |language=en |issn=0008-4301}}</ref> Specimens choose mates and engage in copulation from May to August, the wet season.<ref name="brit" />  The females build nests as a mound of dense vegetation, in areas that are close to water but not at risk of being flooded. The nests are over {{convert|1|m|ft}} in diameter and can be {{convert|40|cm|in}} high, but the exact size depends on the resources available. Eggs are laid in July and August; the species very rarely nests in the winter, as the temperature is too low for the eggs.<ref name="latin"/><ref name="mag">Magnusson, W.E. Vliet, K.A. Pooley, A.C. and Whitaker, R. "Reproduction." ''Crocodiles and Alligators'' (illustrated ed.).  Ross, Charles A. Garnett, Stephen (1989). New York: Facts on File. pp. 118–124. {{ISBN|0816021740}}.</ref> Clutch size is 22 on average, but can range from 14 to 40.<ref name="brit"/> Larger females have been known to lay larger eggs compared to smaller females.<ref name="reproductive">{{cite journal |last1=Campos |first1=Zilca |last2=Magnusson |first2=William E. |last3=Sanaiotti |first3=Tânia |last4=Coutinho |first4=Marcos E. |title=Reproductive trade-offs in ''Caiman crocodilus crocodilus'' and ''Caiman crocodilus yacare'': Implications for size-related management quotas |journal=Herpetological Journal |date=April 2008 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=91–96 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233485395 |access-date=30 March 2019}}</ref> Females stay close to their nests during the incubation period, as several species, such as lizards in the genus ''[[Tupinambis]]'', have been known to destroy nests and prey on the eggs.<ref name="brit"/> [[White-nosed coati]]s and [[fox]]es also raid nests.<ref name="animaldiversity.org"/> Flooding and human egg collecting can also be a threat to the nests.<ref name="latin"/> In a study in the Central Amazonia assessing reproductive similarities between C. crocodilus and Melanochus niger, research found that they indiscriminately separate their nests at larger distances than other species in this family, most likely to avoid predation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Silveira |first1=Ronis Da |last2=Magnusson |first2=William Ernest |last3=Campos |first3=Zilca |title=Monitoring the Distribution, Abundance and Breeding Areas of Caiman ''crocodilus crocodilus'' and ''Melanosuchus niger'' in the Anavilhanas Archipelago, Central Amazonia, Brazil |journal=Journal of Herpetology |date=December 1997 |volume=31 |issue=4 |page=514 |doi=10.2307/1565603|jstor=1565603 }}</ref>
+Temperature is important to the developing eggs, so females build their nests in a way that insulates them from extreme temperature changes. As the vegetation in the nests decays, the nests produce heat which can keep the eggs about 5&nbsp;°C (9&nbsp;°F) warmer than if they were insulated by mud alone.<ref name="mag" /> Heat not only incubates the eggs, but also determines the sex of the developing caimans ([[temperature-dependent sex determination]]). When the temperature inside the nest is about {{convert|32|C|F}} or higher, the caimans become female, and otherwise become male.<ref>Lang, J.W. "Sex Determination." ''Crocodiles and Alligators'' (illustrated ed.).  Ross, Charles A. Garnett, Stephen (1989). New York: Facts on File. pp. 118–124. {{ISBN|0816021740}}.</ref> Young hatch after 90 days,<ref name="lpzoo"/> with 20–25 percent of eggs hatching successfully.<ref name="latin"/> They are yellow with black spots, a coloration which fades away as they grow older,<ref name="brit" /> with a length of {{convert|20|–|23|cm|in}}.<ref name="latin"/> Parents raise their young in [[Crèche (zoology)|crèches]], with one female taking care of her own, as well as several others' offspring.<ref name="usgs">{{cite web |last1=Somma |first1=Louis A. |last2=Fuller |first2=Pam |title=Common Caiman (Caiman crocodilus) |url=https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=222 |website=U.S. Geological Survey |access-date=27 March 2019}}</ref> They take care of their young for 12–18 months.<ref name="specialist"/> Young are threatened by various predators, such as raptors (like [[hawk]]s)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/images/Caiman_crocodilus%20-%20Spectacled%20Caiman.pdf |title=Caiman crocodilus (Spectacled Caiman)|website=Sta.uwi.edu|access-date=13 March 2022}}</ref> and wader birds (like [[heron]]s),<ref name="animaldiversity.org"/> causing most to die in their first year.<ref name="latin"/> These juveniles are also preyed upon by large fish, large snakes (such as [[anaconda]]s), and other crocodilians.<ref name="animaldiversity.org"/>
-[[File:Baby-Caiman, Llanos-Ebene, Venezuela.JPG|thumb|left|[[Venezuelan Llanos|Los Llanos]], [[Venezuela]]]]
-Temperature is important to the developing eggs, so females build their nests in a way that insulates them from extreme temperature changes. As the vegetation in the nests decays, the nests produce heat which can keep the eggs about 5&nbsp;°C (9&nbsp;°F) warmer than if they were insulated by mud alone.<ref name="mag" /> Heat not only incubates the eggs, but also determines the sex of the developing caimans ([[temperature-dependent sex determination]]). When the temperature inside the nest is about {{convert|32|C|F}} or higher, the caimans become female, and otherwise become male.<ref>Lang, J.W. "Sex Determination." ''Crocodiles and Alligators'' (illustrated ed.).  Ross, Charles A. Garnett, Stephen (1989). New York: Facts on File. pp. 118–124. {{ISBN|0816021740}}.</ref> Young hatch after 90 days,<ref name="lpzoo"/> with 20–25 percent of eggs hatching successfully.<ref name="latin"/> They are yellow with black spots, a coloration which fades away as they grow older,<ref name="brit" /> with a length of {{convert|20|–|23|cm|in}}.<ref name="latin"/> Parents raise their young in [[Crèche (zoology)|crèches]], with one female taking care of her own, as well as several others' offspring.<ref name="usgs">{{cite web |last1=Somma |first1=Louis A. |last2=Fuller |first2=Pam |title=Common Caiman (Caiman crocodilus) |url=https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=222 |website=U.S. Geological Survey |access-date=27 March 2019}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=December 2020}} They take care of their young for 12–18 months.<ref name="specialist"/> Young are threatened by various predators, such as raptors (like [[hawk]]s)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/images/Caiman_crocodilus%20-%20Spectacled%20Caiman.pdf |title=Caiman crocodilus (Spectacled Caiman)|website=Sta.uwi.edu|access-date=13 March 2022}}</ref> and wader birds (like [[heron]]s),<ref name="animaldiversity.org"/> causing most to die in their first year.<ref name="latin"/> These juveniles are also preyed upon by large fish, large snakes (such as [[anaconda]]s), and other crocodilians.<ref name="animaldiversity.org"/>
-==Distribution and habitat ==
+==Distribution and habitat==
-The spectacled caiman has the largest range of any caiman,<ref name="digimorph"/> and of any New World crocodilian.<ref name="specialist"/> It is found in various countries throughout the Americas. It lives in Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela, and may also be extant in Belize and Bolivia. It has been [[Introduced species|introduced]] to [[Isla de la Juventud]] in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Florida in the United States;<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> in the latter, it is sometimes mislabeled as the [[American alligator]] (''Alligator mississippiensis'').<ref name="brit" /> Invasive populations have become established in [[South Florida]], with isolated records further north in the state.<ref name="usgs"/> It is intolerant to cold climates, so its range is unlikely to expand to further north than Florida.<ref name="florida">{{cite web |title=Caiman |url=https://myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/wildlife/american-crocodile/caiman/ |website=[[Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission]] |access-date=7 April 2019}}</ref> It usually lives in forests, inland bodies of fresh water (such as wetlands and rivers), grasslands, [[shrubland]]s, and savannas, but is very adaptable.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> It prefers habitats with calm water containing floating vegetation, usually flooding and drying seasonally. It is most common in low-lying areas, but has been found at elevations of up to {{convert|800|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name="latin"/> In Brazil, the species lives in the rivers [[Amazon River|Amazon]], [[Araguaia River|Araguaia]], [[Araguari River (Amapá)|Araguari]], [[Itapicuru River|Itapicuru]], [[Rio Negro (Amazon)|Rio Negro]], [[Paranaíba River|Paranaíba]], [[Solimões River|Solimões]], [[Tapajós]], [[Tocantins River|Tocantins]], and [[Xingu River|Xingu]].<ref name="tropical"/> It is able to live in human-inhabited areas.<ref name="aza"/>
+The spectacled caiman has the largest range of any caiman,<ref name="digimorph"/> and of any New World crocodilian.<ref name="specialist"/> It is found in various countries throughout the Americas. It lives in Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela, and may also be extant in Belize and Bolivia. It has been [[Introduced species|introduced]] to [[Isla de la Juventud]] in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Florida in the United States;<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021"/> in the latter, it is sometimes mislabeled as the [[American alligator]] (''Alligator mississippiensis'').<ref name="brit"/> Invasive populations have become established in [[South Florida]], with isolated records further north in the state.<ref name="usgs"/> Genetic study indicates two separate introduction events into Florida.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Parks |first1=Andrew J. |last2=Godfrey |first2=Sidney T. |last3=Gross |first3=Brandon A. |last4=Balaguera-Reina |first4=Sergio A. |last5=Smith |first5=Nicholas G. |last6=Mazzotti |first6=Frank J. |last7=Densmore |first7=Llewellyn D. |title=Not one but two: examining the genetic origin and characterization of the non-native spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) in Florida |journal=Biological Invasions |date=1 March 2024 |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=779–795 |doi=10.1007/s10530-023-03207-z |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10530-023-03207-z |language=en |issn=1573-1464|doi-access=free }}</ref> It is intolerant to cold climates, so its range is unlikely to expand to further north than Florida.<ref name="florida">{{cite web |title=Caiman |url=https://myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/wildlife/american-crocodile/caiman/ |website=[[Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission]] |access-date=7 April 2019}}</ref> It usually lives in forests, inland bodies of fresh water (such as wetlands and rivers), grasslands, [[shrubland]]s, and savannas, but is very adaptable.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021"/> It prefers habitats with calm water containing floating vegetation, usually flooding and drying seasonally. It is most common in low-lying areas, but has been found at elevations of up to {{cvt|800|m}}.<ref name="latin"/> In Brazil, the species lives in the rivers [[Amazon River|Amazon]], [[Araguaia River|Araguaia]], [[Araguari River (Amapá)|Araguari]], [[Itapicuru River|Itapicuru]], [[Rio Negro (Amazon)|Rio Negro]], [[Paranaíba River|Paranaíba]], [[Solimões River|Solimões]], [[Tapajós]], [[Tocantins River|Tocantins]], and [[Xingu River|Xingu]].<ref name="tropical"/> It is able to live in human-inhabited areas.<ref name="aza"/>
-The adult population of this crocodilian is estimated to be in the millions and stable.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> About four million spectacled caimans are found in Venezuela and surveys have shown that it is expected to increase.<ref name="ald" /> This is an example of how well the species is able to adapt.<ref name="brit" /> However, populations are not doing well in other countries, such as [[Peru]].<ref name="ald" /> The population in a single area can be determined the easiest by counting individuals in the dry season at night.<ref name="latin"/>
+The adult population of this crocodilian is estimated to be in the millions and stable.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021"/> About four million spectacled caimans are found in Venezuela and surveys have shown that it is expected to increase.<ref name="ald"/> This is an example of how well the species is able to adapt.<ref name="brit"/> However, populations are not doing well in other countries, such as [[Peru]].<ref name="ald"/> The population in a single area can be determined the easiest by counting individuals in the dry season at night.<ref name="latin"/>
 ==Threats and conservation==
+[[File:Caimán del Magadalena - Mark, Edward Walhouse.jpg|thumb|An 1800s [[watercolor painting]] depicting a [[hunter]] aiming at a caiman on the [[Magdalena river]]]]
-[[File:Caiman crocodilus in Monterrico Guatemala.jpg|thumb|''C. crocodilus'' in [[Monterrico, Guatemala|Monterrico]], Guatemala]]
 The skin of the spectacled caiman is covered with [[osteoderms]], which previously caused it to not be a major commercial target for its skin. However, harvesting of the skins of this caiman and others became very common in the 1950s, due to the declining stocks of crocodiles.<ref name="specialist"/> Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the species was frequently traded, causing its population to decrease in some areas. Its skin was often exported from South America and utilized primarily for leather; at least 6 million skins were exported from Colombia from 1996 to 2015. However, conservation efforts since have caused a significant reduction in the number of skins exported.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> In most countries, hunting this species is legal. Venezuela permits hunting every fall, provided the total number of kills in the season does not exceed 150,000.<ref name="ald" /> Because of its adaptability and wide distribution, habitat loss does not affect the species significantly globally.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> It is reasonably resilient to hunting as well, as hunters usually focus on large males and the species reproduces at a small size.<ref name="specialist"/> However, it is severely threatened in Colombia,<ref name="brit"/> primarily the subspecies ''C. c. fuscus'' and sometimes ''C. c. crocodilus''.<ref name="skin">{{cite journal |last1=Webb |first1=Grahame |last2=Brien |first2=Matthew |last3=Manolis |first3=Charlie |last4=Medrano-Bitar |first4=Sergio |title=Predicting total lengths of spectacled caiman (''Caiman crocodilus'') from skin measurements: A tool for managing the skin trade |journal=[[Herpetological Conservation and Biology]] |date=6 May 2012 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=16–26 |url=http://herpconbio.org/Volume_7/Issue_1/Webb_etal_2012.pdf |access-date=14 April 2019}}</ref>
@@ Line 82: / Line 107: @@
 Conservation programs for this species are used in many countries. The most common form of conservation is the use of cropping, which consists of manually reducing the numbers of several wild and abundant species. Long-term effects of cropping have yet to be discovered; more surveys have been recommended. Farming or ranching programs have also been used as conservation efforts for the species, but seem to be more expensive and possibly less effective.<ref name="brit" /> A conservation program in Colombia, which existed from 2004 to 2006, bred spectacled caimans in captivity and released the young into the wild at one year old. A similar program released over 15,000 juveniles into wetlands from 2005 to 2009.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> Previously, Colombia restricted the exportation of spectacled caiman skins to ones shorter than {{convert|1.2|m|ft}}, but as of 2011 there are now only size limits for some individual pieces of the skin, rather than the overall size of the skin. These limits are less effective, as large skins could accord with the size limits if cut and trimmed.<ref name="skin"/> According to the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN), further surveys of the species would help with future conservation plans.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" />
-The spectacled caiman is listed as a species of [[least concern]] on the [[IUCN Red List]], due to its large range and population globally, following two assessments as [[threatened species|threatened]] in 1986 and 1988.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> The subspecies ''C. c. crocodilus'' is on Appendix II of [[CITES]],<ref name="cites1"/> ''C. c. apaporiensis'' Appendix I,<ref name="cites2">{{cite web |title=Caiman crocodilus fuscus |url=https://cites.org/eng/node/43090 |website=CITES |access-date=30 March 2019}}</ref> and ''C. c. fuscus'' Appendix II.<ref name="cites3">{{cite web |title=Caiman crocodilus apaporiensis |url=https://cites.org/eng/node/20218 |website=CITES |access-date=30 March 2019}}</ref>
+The spectacled caiman is listed as a species of [[least concern]] on the [[IUCN Red List]], due to its large range and population globally, following two assessments as [[threatened species|threatened]] in 1986 and 1988.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> The subspecies ''C. c. crocodilus'' is on Appendix II of [[CITES]],<ref name="cites1"/> ''C. c. apaporiensis'' Appendix I,<ref name="cites2">{{cite web |title=Caiman crocodilus fuscus |url=https://cites.org/eng/node/43090 |website=CITES |access-date=30 March 2019 |archive-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330201837/https://cites.org/eng/node/43090 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and ''C. c. fuscus'' Appendix II.<ref name="cites3">{{cite web |title=Caiman crocodilus apaporiensis |url=https://cites.org/eng/node/20218 |website=CITES |access-date=30 March 2019 |archive-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330203635/https://cites.org/eng/node/20218 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
 {{-}}
 ==References==
 {{Reflist}}
@@ Line 96: / Line 122: @@
 [[Category:Alligatoridae]]
 [[Category:Crocodilians of North America]]
-[[Category:Crocodilians of South America]]
+[[Category:Crocodilians of Brazil]]
-[[Category:Reptiles of Brazil]]
 [[Category:Reptiles of Colombia]]
 [[Category:Reptiles of Costa Rica]]

Taxon identifiers
Caiman crocodilus	Wikidata: Q272582 Wikispecies: Caiman crocodilus CoL: PBBP ECOS: 4255 EoL: 454113 EPPO: CALRMB GBIF: 8953936 GISD: 1206 iNaturalist: 116517 IRMNG: 10782343 ISC: 91173 ITIS: 174370 IUCN: 46584 NAS: 222 NatureServe: 2.104294 NCBI: 8499 Observation.org: 87295 OBIS: 1417014 Open Tree of Life: 912130 Paleobiology Database: 321259 RD: crocodilus SeaLifeBase: 67467 Species+: 10090 WoRMS: 1417014
Caiman crocodilus crocodilus	Wikidata: Q21401374 Wikispecies: Caiman crocodilus crocodilus CoL: 5DPM7 ECOS: 2889 EoL: 1285329 GBIF: 7190930 iNaturalist: 116602 ITIS: 202210 NCBI: 313440 Open Tree of Life: 31216
Caiman crocodilus apaporiensis	Wikidata: Q107350083 CoL: 5DPM5 EoL: 1285349 GBIF: 6162968 iNaturalist: 116600 ITIS: 202211 NCBI: 157164
Lacerta crocodilus	Wikidata: Q106448563 GBIF: 2441295 WoRMS: 1417015 ZooBank: 73A8052C-C4C2-4224-ACBB-9B84687F41F6