Soda inermis: Difference between revisions

Soda inermis
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
Clade:	Tracheophytes
Clade:	Angiosperms
Clade:	Eudicots
Order:	Caryophyllales
Family:	Amaranthaceae
Subfamily:	Salsoloideae
Genus:	Soda
Species:	S. inermis
Binomial name
	Soda inermis; Fourr., 1869
Synonyms
	Salsola soda L.

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Soda inermis, the opposite-leaved saltwort, oppositeleaf Russian thistle, or barilla plant, is a small (to 0.7 m tall), annual, succulent shrub that is native to the Mediterranean Basin.^[1]^[2] It is a halophyte (a salt-tolerant plant) that typically grows in coastal regions and can be irrigated with salt water. The plant was previously classified as Salsola soda, now regarded as a synonym.

The plant has great historical importance as a source of soda ash, which was extracted from the ashes of Salsola soda and other saltwort plants.^[3] Soda ash is one of the alkali substances that are crucial in glassmaking and soapmaking. The famed clarity of 16th-century cristallo glass from Murano and Venice depended upon the purity of "Levantine soda ash",^[4] and the nature of this ingredient was kept secret. Spain had an enormous 18th-century industry that produced soda ash from the saltworts (barrilla in Spanish).^[5] Soda ash is now known to be predominantly sodium carbonate. In 1807, Sir Humphry Davy isolated a metallic element from caustic soda; he named the new element "sodium" to indicate its relationship to "soda". Before "soda" was somewhat synonymous (in U.S. English) with soft drinks, the word referred to Salsola soda and other saltwort plants, and to soda ash.

While the era of farming for soda ash is long past, S. soda is still cultivated as a vegetable that enjoys considerable popularity in Greece, Italy and with gourmets around the world. In Greek it is called almyra, while in Italian its common names include barba di frate, agretti, and liscari sativa (short: lischi or lischeri). Of its culinary value, Frances Mayes has written that "Spinach is the closest taste, but while agretti has the mineral sharpness of spinach, it tastes livelier, full of the energy of spring."^[6]

Description

This annual, succulent plant can grow into small shrubs up to 0.7 m tall (sometimes called subshrubs). It has fleshy green leaves with either green or red stems. The tiny flowers develop from inflorescences that grow out of the base of the leaves near the stem.^[7]^[8]

Distribution

Salsola soda is native in Eurasia and North Africa. Historically, it was well known in Italy, Sicily, and Spain. In modern Europe, it is also found on the Atlantic coasts of France and Portugal and on the Black Sea coast.^[9] It has become naturalized along the Pacific coast of North America,^[10] and there is concern about its invasiveness in California's salt marshes.^[11]^[12] It is also reported to be naturalized in South America.^[8]

Soda ash and the biology of sodium accumulation

The ashes obtained by the burning of S. soda can be refined to make a product called soda ash,^[3] which is one of the alkali materials essential to making soda-lime glass, soap, and many other products. The principal active ingredient is sodium carbonate, with which the term "soda ash" is now nearly synonymous. The processed ashes of S. soda contain as much as 30% sodium carbonate.^[13]

A high concentration of sodium carbonate in the ashes of S. soda occurs if the plant is grown in highly saline soils (i.e. in soils with a high concentration of sodium chloride), so that the plant's tissues contain a fairly high concentration of sodium ions. S. soda can be irrigated with sea water, which contains about 40 g/L of dissolved sodium chloride and other salts. When these sodium-rich plants are burned, the carbon dioxide that is produced presumably reacts with this sodium to form sodium carbonate.^{[citation needed]}

It is surprising to find a higher concentration of sodium than of potassium in plant tissues; the former element is usually toxic, and the latter element is essential, to the metabolic processes of plants. Thus, most plants, and especially most crop plants, are "glycophytes", and suffer damage when planted in saline soils.^[14]^[15] S. soda, and the other plants that were cultivated for soda ash, are "halophytes" that tolerate much more saline soils than do glycophytes, and that can thrive with much larger densities of sodium in their tissues than can glycophytes.^{[citation needed]}

The biochemical processes within the cells of halophytes are typically as sensitive to sodium as are the processes in glycophytes. Sodium ions from a plant's soil or irrigation water are toxic primarily because they interfere with biochemical processes within a plant's cells that require potassium, which is a chemically similar alkali metal element.^[16] The cell of a halophyte such as S. soda has a molecular transport mechanism that sequesters sodium ions into a compartment within the plant cell called a "vacuole". The vacuole of a plant cell can occupy 80% of the cell's volume; most of a halophyte plant cell's sodium can be sequestered in the vacuole, leaving the rest of the cell with a tolerable ratio of sodium to potassium ions.^{[citation needed]}

In addition to S. soda, soda ash has also been produced from the ashes of S. kali (another saltwort plant), of glasswort plants, and of kelp, a type of seaweed. The sodium carbonate, which is water-soluble, is "lixiviated" from the ashes (extracted with water), and the resulting solution is boiled dry to obtain the finished soda ash product. A very similar process is used to obtain potash (mainly potassium carbonate) from the ashes of hardwood trees. Because halophytes must also have potassium ions in their tissues, even the best soda ash derived from them also contains some potash (potassium carbonate), as was known by the 19th century.^[3]^[17]

Plants were a very important source of soda ash until the early 19th century. In the 18th century, Spain had an enormous industry producing barilla (one type of plant-derived soda ash) from saltwort plants.^[5] Similarly, Scotland had a large 18th-century industry producing soda ash from kelp; this industry was so lucrative that it led to overpopulation in the Western Isles of Scotland, and one estimate is that 100,000 people were occupied with "kelping" during the summer months.^[3] The commercialization of the Leblanc process for synthesizing sodium carbonate (from salt, limestone, and sulfuric acid) brought an end to the era of farming for soda ash in the first half of the 19th century.^{[citation needed]}

Cultivation and culinary uses

The Italian name agretti is commonly used in English to refer to the edible leaves of S. soda; barba di frate (or friar's beard) is the most common of the Italian names. This plant is not a summer green and should be started early indoors or in autumn. The seed is notorious for poor germination at about 30 to 40% standard, much like rosemary. Though the plant is often grown in saltwater-irrigated land in the Mediterranean Basin, it will grow without salt water. S. soda is harvested in bunches when small, or cropped regularly to encourage new growth when mature. It is most commonly boiled and eaten as a leafy vegetable; the recommendation is to cook it in boiling water until the leaves soften, and to serve while some bite (crunch) remains (much like samphire). It can also be eaten raw; it is said to taste "grassy and slightly salty with a pleasant, crunchy texture".^[18]

Salsola soda is sometimes confused with a plant known in Japan as okahijiki (land seaweed), which is actually the species S. komarovii. The harvested leaves of the two species have a similar appearance.^{[citation needed]}

Phytoremediation

Salsola soda has also been studied as a bioremediation "biodesalinating companion plant" for crops such as tomatoes and peppers when they are grown in saline soils.^[19] The Salsola soda extracts enough sodium from the soil to improve the growth of the crop plant, and better crop yields result despite the competition of the two plants for the remaining minerals from the soil.^{[citation needed]}

References

^ Plants of the World Online: Soda inermis Fourr. (retrieved 5 March 2024)
^ "Salsola soda L." Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 19 May 2007.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Clow, Archibald and Clow, Nan L. (1952). Chemical Revolution, (Ayer Co Pub, June 1952), pp. 65–90. ISBN 0-8369-1909-2.
^ Turner, Guy (1999). "Allume Catina and the Aesthetics of Venetian Cristallo," Journal of Design History 12, No. 2, pp. 111–122. doi:10.1093/jdh/12.2.111
^ ^a ^b Pérez, Joaquín Fernández (1998). "From the barrilla to the Solvay factory in Torrelavega: The Manufacture of Saltwort in Spain," Antilia: The Spanish Journal of History of Natural Sciences and Technology, Vol. IV, Art. 1. ISSN 1136-2049. Archived at WebCite from this original URL on 1 March 2008.
^ Mayes, Frances (2000). Bella Tuscany: The Sweet Life of Italy, (Broadway), p. 15. ISBN 0-7679-0284-X.
^ Jepson, Willis Linn (1993). The Jepson manual: higher plants of California, James C. Hickman, editor (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), p. 514. ISBN 0-520-08255-9
^ ^a ^b Robertson, Kenneth R. and Clemants, Steven E. (1997). Salsola Soda, from "Amaranthaceae" chapter, in: Flora of North America Editorial Committee, eds. 1993+. Flora of North America North of Mexico. 12+ vols. New York and Oxford. Vol. 4, pp. 399–402. ISBN 0-19-517389-9.
^ Jalas, Jaakko and Suominen, Juha (1989). Atlas Florae Europaeae: Distribution of Vascular Plants in Europe (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge), p. 78. ISBN 0-521-34271-6.
^ "County-Level Distribution of Salsola soda," from SMASCH (Specimen Management for California Herbaria) database (The University and Jepson Herbaria, University of California, Berkeley). Entry retrieved 13 December 2006.
^ California Exotic Pest Plant Council, Exotic Pest Plants of Greatest Ecological Concern in California, October 1999.
^ Baye, Peter (1998). "More on Salsola soda," CalEPPC News (Newsletter of the California Exotic Pest Plant Council), Vol. 6, No. 4 (Fall 1998).
^ Barker, T. C., Dickinson, R., and Hardie, D. W. F. (1956). "The Origins of the Synthetic Alkali Industry in Britain," Economica, New Series, Vol. 23, No. 90. (May 1956), pp. 158–171.
^ Glenn, Edward P., Brown, J. Jed, and Blumwald, Eduardo (1999). "Salt Tolerance and Crop Potential of Halophytes," Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 227–255. doi:10.1080/07352689991309207
^ Xiong, Liming and Zhu, Jian-Kang (2002). (30 September 2002) "Salt Tolerance," in Somerville, C. R. and Meyerowitz, E. M., eds, The Arabidopsis Book. American Society of Plant Biologists, Rockville, MD. doi:10.1199/tab.0048.
^ Tester, Mark and Davenport, Romola (2003). "Na⁺ Tolerance and Na⁺ Transport in Higher Plants," Annals of Botany 91: 503-527. doi:10.1093/aob/mcg058.
^ Porcher, Francis Peyre (1863). Resources of the Southern Fields and Forests, Medical, Economical, and Agricultural. Being also a Medical Botany of the Confederate States; with Practical Information on the Useful Properties of the Trees, Plants, and Shrubs, (Evans and Cogswell, Charleston), p. 133. Online version at http://docsouth.unc.edu/imls/porcher/porcher.html (retrieved 28 November 2006).
^ Lennartson, Margi (2005). Organic Vegetable Production. The Crowood Press Ltd. p. 247. ISBN 1-86126-788-6.
^ Colla, G.; Rouphael, Y.; Fallovo, C.; Cardarelli, M. (2006). "Use of Salsola soda as a companion plant to improve greenhouse pepper (Capsicum annuum) performance under saline conditions". New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science. 34 (4): 283–290. Bibcode:2006NZJCH..34..283C. doi:10.1080/01140671.2006.9514418. Retrieved 28 November 2006.

External links

Data related to Soda inermis at Wikispecies
Media related to Soda inermis at Wikimedia Commons
"PLANTS Profile for Salsola soda." Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 3 November 2006.
Excellent gallery of photographs of Salsola soda (soude commune) from Bouches du Rhône region of France. From Banque de données Botaniques et Ecologiques, Universite Aix-Marseille, France. Retrieved 30 November 2006.
Salsola soda listing at website Plants for a Future (http://www.pfaf.org). Retrieved 7 December 2006.

[POWO-1] Plants of the World Online: Soda inermis Fourr. (retrieved 5 March 2024)

[2] "Salsola soda L." Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 19 May 2007.

[Clow52-3] Clow, Archibald and Clow, Nan L. (1952). Chemical Revolution, (Ayer Co Pub, June 1952), pp. 65–90. ISBN 0-8369-1909-2.

[4] Turner, Guy (1999). "Allume Catina and the Aesthetics of Venetian Cristallo," Journal of Design History 12, No. 2, pp. 111–122. doi:10.1093/jdh/12.2.111

[Perez-5] Pérez, Joaquín Fernández (1998). "From the barrilla to the Solvay factory in Torrelavega: The Manufacture of Saltwort in Spain," Antilia: The Spanish Journal of History of Natural Sciences and Technology, Vol. IV, Art. 1. ISSN 1136-2049. Archived at WebCite from this original URL on 1 March 2008.

[6] Mayes, Frances (2000). Bella Tuscany: The Sweet Life of Italy, (Broadway), p. 15. ISBN 0-7679-0284-X.

[7] Jepson, Willis Linn (1993). The Jepson manual: higher plants of California, James C. Hickman, editor (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), p. 514. ISBN 0-520-08255-9

[Eflora-8] Robertson, Kenneth R. and Clemants, Steven E. (1997). Salsola Soda, from "Amaranthaceae" chapter, in: Flora of North America Editorial Committee, eds. 1993+. Flora of North America North of Mexico. 12+ vols. New York and Oxford. Vol. 4, pp. 399–402. ISBN 0-19-517389-9.

[9] Jalas, Jaakko and Suominen, Juha (1989). Atlas Florae Europaeae: Distribution of Vascular Plants in Europe (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge), p. 78. ISBN 0-521-34271-6.

[10] "County-Level Distribution of Salsola soda," from SMASCH (Specimen Management for California Herbaria) database (The University and Jepson Herbaria, University of California, Berkeley). Entry retrieved 13 December 2006.

[11] California Exotic Pest Plant Council, Exotic Pest Plants of Greatest Ecological Concern in California, October 1999.

[12] Baye, Peter (1998). "More on Salsola soda," CalEPPC News (Newsletter of the California Exotic Pest Plant Council), Vol. 6, No. 4 (Fall 1998).

[13] Barker, T. C., Dickinson, R., and Hardie, D. W. F. (1956). "The Origins of the Synthetic Alkali Industry in Britain," Economica, New Series, Vol. 23, No. 90. (May 1956), pp. 158–171.

[14] Glenn, Edward P., Brown, J. Jed, and Blumwald, Eduardo (1999). "Salt Tolerance and Crop Potential of Halophytes," Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 227–255. doi:10.1080/07352689991309207

[15] Xiong, Liming and Zhu, Jian-Kang (2002). (30 September 2002) "Salt Tolerance," in Somerville, C. R. and Meyerowitz, E. M., eds, The Arabidopsis Book. American Society of Plant Biologists, Rockville, MD. doi:10.1199/tab.0048.

[Tester-16] Tester, Mark and Davenport, Romola (2003). "Na⁺ Tolerance and Na⁺ Transport in Higher Plants," Annals of Botany 91: 503-527. doi:10.1093/aob/mcg058.

[17] Porcher, Francis Peyre (1863). Resources of the Southern Fields and Forests, Medical, Economical, and Agricultural. Being also a Medical Botany of the Confederate States; with Practical Information on the Useful Properties of the Trees, Plants, and Shrubs, (Evans and Cogswell, Charleston), p. 133. Online version at http://docsouth.unc.edu/imls/porcher/porcher.html (retrieved 28 November 2006).

[18] Lennartson, Margi (2005). Organic Vegetable Production. The Crowood Press Ltd. p. 247. ISBN 1-86126-788-6.

[19] Colla, G.; Rouphael, Y.; Fallovo, C.; Cardarelli, M. (2006). "Use of Salsola soda as a companion plant to improve greenhouse pepper (Capsicum annuum) performance under saline conditions". New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science. 34 (4): 283–290. Bibcode:2006NZJCH..34..283C. doi:10.1080/01140671.2006.9514418. Retrieved 28 November 2006.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{short description|Species of plant}}
-{{italic title}}
+{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
-{{taxobox
+{{Speciesbox
-|name = ''Salsola soda''
 |image = Salsola soda Rignanese.jpg
+|genus = Soda
-|regnum = [[Plant]]ae
+|species = inermis
-|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
+|authority = Fourr., 1869
-|unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]]
+|display_parents = 2
-|unranked_ordo = [[Core eudicots]]
+|synonyms = ''Salsola soda'' [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
-|ordo = [[Caryophyllales]]
-|familia = [[Amaranthaceae]]
-|subfamilia = [[Salsoloideae]]
-|genus = ''[[Salsola]]''
-|species = '''''S. soda'''''
-|binomial = ''Salsola soda''
-|binomial_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
 }}
-'''''Salsola soda''''', more commonly known in English as '''opposite-leaved [[Salsola|saltwort]]''', '''oppositeleaf Russian thistle,''' or '''barilla plant,''' is a small (to 0.7 m tall), annual, succulent shrub that is native to the [[Mediterranean Basin]].<ref>{{ITIS |id=504989 |taxon=''Salsola soda'' L. |accessdate=May 19, 2007}}</ref> It is a [[halophyte]] (a salt-tolerant plant) that typically grows in coastal regions and can be irrigated with salt water.
+'''''Soda inermis''''', the '''opposite-leaved [[Salsola|saltwort]]''', '''oppositeleaf Russian thistle,''' or '''barilla plant,''' is a small (to 0.7 m tall), annual, succulent shrub that is native to the [[Mediterranean Basin]].<ref name=POWO>[https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:167375-1 Plants of the World Online]: ''Soda inermis'' Fourr. (retrieved 5 March 2024)</ref><ref>{{ITIS |id=504989 |taxon=''Salsola soda'' L. |accessdate=19 May 2007}}</ref> It is a [[halophyte]] (a salt-tolerant plant) that typically grows in coastal regions and can be irrigated with salt water. The plant was previously classified as ''Salsola soda'', now regarded as a [[Synonym (taxonomy)|synonym]].
 The plant has great historical importance as a source of [[soda ash]], which was extracted from the ashes of ''Salsola soda'' and other [[saltwort]] plants.<ref name="Clow52">
-Clow, Archibald and Clow, Nan L. (1952). ''Chemical Revolution,'' (Ayer Co Pub, June 1952), pp. 65–90. {{ISBN|0-8369-1909-2}}.</ref> Soda ash is one of the [[alkali]] substances that are crucial in glassmaking and soapmaking. The famed clarity of 16th century [[cristallo|''cristallo'' glass]] from [[Venetian glass|Murano and Venice]] depended upon the purity of "[[Levant]]ine soda ash,"<ref>
+Clow, Archibald and Clow, Nan L. (1952). ''Chemical Revolution,'' (Ayer Co Pub, June 1952), pp. 65–90. {{ISBN|0-8369-1909-2}}.</ref> Soda ash is one of the [[alkali]] substances that are crucial in glassmaking and soapmaking. The famed clarity of 16th-century [[cristallo|''cristallo'' glass]] from [[Venetian glass|Murano and Venice]] depended upon the purity of "[[Levant]]ine soda ash",<ref>
 Turner, Guy (1999). "''Allume Catina'' and the Aesthetics of Venetian ''Cristallo'',"
-''Journal of Design History'' '''12,''' No. 2, pp. 111–122. {{doi|10.1093/jdh/12.2.111}}</ref> and the nature of this ingredient was kept secret. Spain had an enormous 18th century industry that produced soda ash from the saltworts ([[:es:barrilla|''barrilla'']] in Spanish).<ref name="Perez">
+''Journal of Design History'' '''12,''' No. 2, pp. 111–122. {{doi|10.1093/jdh/12.2.111}}</ref> and the nature of this ingredient was kept secret. Spain had an enormous 18th-century industry that produced soda ash from the saltworts ([[:es:barrilla|''barrilla'']] in Spanish).<ref name="Perez">
-Pérez, Joaquín Fernández (1998). [https://www.webcitation.org/5W0IroD9s "From the barrilla to the Solvay factory in Torrelavega: The Manufacture of Saltwort in Spain,"] ''Antilia: The Spanish Journal of History of Natural Sciences and Technology,'' Vol. IV, Art. 1. {{ISSN|1136-2049}}. Archived at WebCite from [http://www.ucm.es/info/antilia/revista/vol4-en/ant4-1-en.htm this original URL] on 2008-03-01.</ref> Soda ash is now known to be predominantly [[sodium carbonate]]. In 1807, Sir [[Humphry Davy]] isolated a metallic element from [[caustic soda]]; he named the new element "[[sodium]]" to indicate its relationship to "soda." Before soda was synonymous (in U.S. English) with soft drinks, the word referred to ''Salsola soda'' and other [[saltwort]] plants, and to "sodas" derived from soda ash.
+Pérez, Joaquín Fernández (1998). [https://web.archive.org/web/20071218070149/http://www.ucm.es/info/antilia/revista/vol4-en/ant4-1-en.htm "From the barrilla to the Solvay factory in Torrelavega: The Manufacture of Saltwort in Spain,"] ''Antilia: The Spanish Journal of History of Natural Sciences and Technology,'' Vol. IV, Art. 1. {{ISSN|1136-2049}}. Archived at WebCite from [http://www.ucm.es/info/antilia/revista/vol4-en/ant4-1-en.htm this original URL] on 1 March 2008.</ref> Soda ash is now known to be predominantly [[sodium carbonate]]. In 1807, Sir [[Humphry Davy]] isolated a metallic element from [[caustic soda]]; he named the new element "[[sodium]]" to indicate its relationship to "soda". Before "soda" was somewhat synonymous (in U.S. English) with soft drinks, the word referred to ''Salsola soda'' and other [[saltwort]] plants, and to soda ash.
-While the era of farming for soda ash is long past, ''Salsola soda'' is still cultivated as a vegetable that enjoys considerable popularity in Italy and with gourmets around the world. Its common names in Italian include '''barba di frate''', '''agretti''', and '''liscari sativa''' (short: '''lischi''' or '''lischeri'''). Of its culinary value, [[Frances Mayes]] has written that "Spinach is the closest taste, but while ''agretti'' has the mineral sharpness of spinach, it tastes livelier, full of the energy of spring."<ref>
+While the era of farming for soda ash is long past, ''S. soda'' is still cultivated as a vegetable that enjoys considerable popularity in Greece, Italy and with gourmets around the world. In Greek it is called ''almyra'', while in Italian its common names include ''barba di frate'', ''agretti'', and ''liscari sativa'' (short: '''lischi''' or '''lischeri'''). Of its culinary value, [[Frances Mayes]] has written that "Spinach is the closest taste, but while ''agretti'' has the mineral sharpness of spinach, it tastes livelier, full of the energy of spring."<ref>
 Mayes, Frances (2000). ''Bella Tuscany: The Sweet Life of Italy,'' (Broadway), p. 15. {{ISBN|0-7679-0284-X}}.</ref>
 == Description ==
-This annual, succulent plant can grow into small shrubs up to 0.7 meters tall (sometimes called sub-shrubs). It has fleshy green leaves with either green or red stems. The tiny flowers develop from [[inflorescence]]s that grow out of the base of the leaves near the stem.<ref>
+This annual, succulent plant can grow into small shrubs up to 0.7 m tall (sometimes called subshrubs). It has fleshy green leaves with either green or red stems. The tiny flowers develop from [[inflorescence]]s that grow out of the base of the leaves near the stem.<ref>
 Jepson, Willis Linn (1993). ''The Jepson manual: higher plants of California,'' James C. Hickman, editor (Berkeley: [[University of California Press]], 1993), p. 514. {{ISBN|0-520-08255-9}}</ref><ref name="Eflora">
 Robertson, Kenneth R. and Clemants, Steven E. (1997). [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=200006933 ''Salsola Soda''], from "Amaranthaceae" chapter, in: Flora of North America Editorial Committee, eds.  1993+.  ''Flora of North America North of Mexico.''  12+  vols.  New York and Oxford.  Vol. 4, pp. 399–402. {{ISBN|0-19-517389-9}}.</ref>
@@ Line 39: / Line 34: @@
 http://www.mip.berkeley.edu:8080/servlet/SmaschCaCountyDist?taxon_name=Salsola%20soda&comp_radio=no&compare_to=no
 -->
-from [http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/db/smasch/ SMASCH] (Specimen Management for California Herbaria) database ([http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/ The University and Jepson Herbaria], University of California, Berkeley). Entry retrieved December 13, 2006.</ref>
+from [http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/db/smasch/ SMASCH] (Specimen Management for California Herbaria) database ([http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/ The University and Jepson Herbaria], University of California, Berkeley). Entry retrieved 13 December 2006.</ref>
 and there is concern about its [[Invasive species|invasiveness]] in California's salt marshes.<ref>
-California Exotic Pest Plant Council, [http://www.cal-ipc.org/ip/inventory/pdf/Inventory1999.pdf Exotic Pest Plants of Greatest Ecological Concern in California], October, 1999.</ref><ref>
+California Exotic Pest Plant Council, [http://www.cal-ipc.org/ip/inventory/pdf/Inventory1999.pdf Exotic Pest Plants of Greatest Ecological Concern in California], October 1999.</ref><ref>
 Baye, Peter (1998). "[http://www.cal-ipc.org/resources/news/pdf/caleppc_news878.pdf More on Salsola soda]," ''CalEPPC News'' (Newsletter of the California Exotic Pest Plant Council), Vol. 6, No. 4 (Fall 1998).</ref> It is also reported to be naturalized in South America.<ref name="Eflora" />
 == Soda ash and the biology of sodium accumulation ==
 {{see also|Soda ash|Halophyte}}
-The ashes obtained by the burning of ''Salsola soda'' can be refined to make a product called [[soda ash]],<ref name="Clow52" /> which is one of the [[alkali]] materials essential to making [[soda-lime glass]], [[soap]], and many other products. The principal active ingredient is [[sodium carbonate]], with which the term "soda ash" is now nearly synonymous. The processed ashes of ''Salsola soda'' contain as much as 30% sodium carbonate.<ref>
+The ashes obtained by the burning of ''S. soda'' can be refined to make a product called soda ash,<ref name="Clow52" /> which is one of the [[alkali]] materials essential to making [[soda-lime glass]], [[soap]], and many other products. The principal active ingredient is [[sodium carbonate]], with which the term "soda ash" is now nearly synonymous. The processed ashes of ''S. soda'' contain as much as 30% sodium carbonate.<ref>
 Barker, T. C., Dickinson, R., and Hardie, D. W. F. (1956).
-[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2550954 "The Origins of the Synthetic Alkali Industry in Britain,"] ''[[Economica]], New Series'', Vol. 23, No. 90. (May, 1956), pp. 158–171.</ref>
+[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2550954 "The Origins of the Synthetic Alkali Industry in Britain,"] ''[[Economica]], New Series'', Vol. 23, No. 90. (May 1956), pp. 158–171.</ref>
-A high concentration of sodium carbonate in the ashes of ''Salsola soda'' occurs if the plant is grown in highly saline soils (i.e. in soils with a high concentration of sodium chloride), so that the plant's tissues contain a fairly high concentration of sodium ions. ''Salsola soda'' can be irrigated with sea water, which contains about 40 grams per liter of dissolved sodium chloride and other salts. When these sodium-rich plants are burned, the carbon dioxide that is produced presumably reacts with this sodium to form sodium carbonate.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}
+A high concentration of sodium carbonate in the ashes of ''S. soda'' occurs if the plant is grown in highly saline soils (i.e. in soils with a high concentration of sodium chloride), so that the plant's tissues contain a fairly high concentration of sodium ions. ''S. soda'' can be irrigated with sea water, which contains about 40 g/L of dissolved sodium chloride and other salts. When these sodium-rich plants are burned, the carbon dioxide that is produced presumably reacts with this sodium to form sodium carbonate.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}
 [[Image:Rhoeo Discolor - Plasmolysis.jpg|right|thumb| Cells of the boatlily plant
 [http://plants.usda.gov/java/nameSearch?keywordquery=rhoeo+discolor&mode=sciname&submit.x=0&submit.y=0 ''Rhoeo discolor'']. The large pink region in each cell is a [[vacuole]]. Sodium is sequestered in vacuoles by halophyte cells.]]
-It is surprising to find a higher concentration of sodium than of potassium in plant tissues; the former element is usually toxic, and the latter element is essential, to the metabolic processes of plants. Thus most plants, and especially most crop plants, are "[[glycophyte]]s", and suffer damage when planted in saline soils.<ref>
+It is surprising to find a higher concentration of sodium than of potassium in plant tissues; the former element is usually toxic, and the latter element is essential, to the metabolic processes of plants. Thus, most plants, and especially most crop plants, are "[[glycophyte]]s", and suffer damage when planted in saline soils.<ref>
-Glenn, Edward P., Brown, J. Jed, and Blumwald, Eduardo (1999). "Salt Tolerance and Crop Potential of Halophytes," ''Critical Review in Plant Sciences,'' Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 227–255. {{doi|10.1080/07352689991309207}}</ref><ref>
+Glenn, Edward P., Brown, J. Jed, and Blumwald, Eduardo (1999). "Salt Tolerance and Crop Potential of Halophytes," ''Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences,'' Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 227–255. {{doi|10.1080/07352689991309207}}</ref><ref>
-Xiong, Liming and Zhu, Jian-Kang (2002). (September 30, 2002) "[http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1199%2Ftab.0048 Salt Tolerance]," in Somerville, C. R. and Meyerowitz, E. M., eds, ''The Arabidopsis Book.'' American Society of Plant Biologists, Rockville, MD. {{doi|10.1199/tab.0048}}.</ref> ''Salsola soda'', and the other plants that were cultivated for soda ash, are "[[halophytes]]" that tolerate much more saline soils than do glycophytes, and that can thrive with much larger densities of sodium in their tissues than can glycophytes.
+Xiong, Liming and Zhu, Jian-Kang (2002). (30 September 2002) "[http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1199%2Ftab.0048 Salt Tolerance]," in Somerville, C. R. and Meyerowitz, E. M., eds, ''The Arabidopsis Book.'' American Society of Plant Biologists, Rockville, MD. {{doi|10.1199/tab.0048}}.</ref> ''S. soda'', and the other plants that were cultivated for soda ash, are "[[halophytes]]" that tolerate much more saline soils than do glycophytes, and that can thrive with much larger densities of sodium in their tissues than can glycophytes.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
-The biochemical processes within the cells of halophytes are typically as sensitive to sodium as are the processes in glycophytes. Sodium ions from a plant's soil or irrigation water are toxic primarily because they interfere with biochemical processes within a plant's cells that require [[potassium]], which is a chemically similar ''[[alkali metal]]'' element.<ref name="Tester">
+The biochemical processes within the cells of halophytes are typically as sensitive to sodium as are the processes in glycophytes. Sodium ions from a plant's soil or irrigation water are toxic primarily because they interfere with biochemical processes within a plant's cells that require [[potassium]], which is a chemically similar [[alkali metal]] element.<ref name="Tester">
-Tester, Mark and Davenport, Romola (2003). "Na<sup>+</sup> Tolerance and Na<sup>+</sup> Transport in Higher Plants," [http://www.aob.oupjournals.org ''Annals of Botany''] '''91''': 503-527. {{doi|10.1093/aob/mcg058}}.</ref> The cell of a [[halophyte]] such as ''Salsola soda'' has a molecular transport mechanism that sequesters sodium ions into a compartment within the [[plant cell]] called a "[[Vacuole#Plants|vacuole]]." The vacuole of a plant cell can occupy 80% of the cell's volume; most of a halophyte plant cell's sodium can be sequestered in the vacuole, leaving the rest of the cell with a tolerable ratio of sodium to potassium ions.
+Tester, Mark and Davenport, Romola (2003). "Na<sup>+</sup> Tolerance and Na<sup>+</sup> Transport in Higher Plants," [http://www.aob.oupjournals.org ''Annals of Botany''] '''91''': 503-527. {{doi|10.1093/aob/mcg058}}.</ref> The cell of a [[halophyte]] such as ''S. soda'' has a molecular transport mechanism that sequesters sodium ions into a compartment within the [[plant cell]] called a "[[Vacuole#Plants|vacuole]]". The vacuole of a plant cell can occupy 80% of the cell's volume; most of a halophyte plant cell's sodium can be sequestered in the vacuole, leaving the rest of the cell with a tolerable ratio of sodium to potassium ions.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
-In addition to ''Salsola soda,'' soda ash has also been produced from the ashes of ''[[Salsola kali]]'' (another [[saltwort]] plant), of [[glasswort]] plants, and of [[kelp]], a type of seaweed. The sodium carbonate, which is water-soluble, is "[[wikt:lixiviate|lixiviated]]" from the ashes (extracted with water), and the resulting solution is boiled dry to obtain the finished soda ash product. A very similar process is used to obtain [[potash]] (mainly [[potassium carbonate]]) from the ashes of hardwood trees. Because ''halophytes'' must also have potassium ions in their tissues, even the best soda ash derived from them also contains some potash (potassium carbonate), as was known by the 19th century.<ref name="Clow52" /><ref>
+In addition to ''S. soda'', soda ash has also been produced from the ashes of ''[[Salsola kali|S. kali]]'' (another [[saltwort]] plant), of [[glasswort]] plants, and of [[kelp]], a type of seaweed. The sodium carbonate, which is water-soluble, is "[[wikt:lixiviate|lixiviated]]" from the ashes (extracted with water), and the resulting solution is boiled dry to obtain the finished soda ash product. A very similar process is used to obtain [[potash]] (mainly [[potassium carbonate]]) from the ashes of hardwood trees. Because halophytes must also have potassium ions in their tissues, even the best soda ash derived from them also contains some potash (potassium carbonate), as was known by the 19th century.<ref name="Clow52" /><ref>
-Porcher, Francis Peyre (1863). ''Resources of the Southern Fields and Forests, Medical, Economical, and Agricultural. Being also a Medical Botany of the Confederate States; with Practical Information on the Useful Properties of the Trees, Plants, and Shrubs,'' (Evans and Cogswell, Charleston), p. 133. Online version at http://docsouth.unc.edu/imls/porcher/porcher.html (retrieved November 28, 2006).</ref>
+Porcher, Francis Peyre (1863). ''Resources of the Southern Fields and Forests, Medical, Economical, and Agricultural. Being also a Medical Botany of the Confederate States; with Practical Information on the Useful Properties of the Trees, Plants, and Shrubs,'' (Evans and Cogswell, Charleston), p. 133. Online version at http://docsouth.unc.edu/imls/porcher/porcher.html (retrieved 28 November 2006).</ref>
-Plants were a very important source of soda ash until the early 19th century. In the 18th century, [[Spain]] had an enormous industry producing "[[barilla]]" (one type of plant-derived soda ash) from saltwort plants (''barrilla'' in Spanish).<ref name="Perez" /> Similarly, [[Scotland]] had a large 18th century industry producing soda ash from kelp; this industry was so lucrative that it led to overpopulation in the [[Western Isles]] of Scotland, and one estimate is that 100,000 people were occupied with "kelping" during the summer months.<ref name="Clow52" /> The commercialization of the [[Leblanc process]] for synthesizing sodium carbonate (from salt, [[limestone]], and [[sulfuric acid]]) brought an end to the era of farming for soda ash in the first half of the 19th century.
+Plants were a very important source of soda ash until the early 19th century. In the 18th century, Spain had an enormous industry producing ''[[barilla]]'' (one type of plant-derived soda ash) from saltwort plants.<ref name="Perez" /> Similarly, [[Scotland]] had a large 18th-century industry producing soda ash from kelp; this industry was so lucrative that it led to overpopulation in the [[Western Isles]] of Scotland, and one estimate is that 100,000 people were occupied with "kelping" during the summer months.<ref name="Clow52" /> The commercialization of the [[Leblanc process]] for synthesizing sodium carbonate (from salt, [[limestone]], and [[sulfuric acid]]) brought an end to the era of farming for soda ash in the first half of the 19th century.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
-[[Image:Salsola soda.jpg|thumb|right| Freshly harvested ''agretti'' (''Salsola soda'').]]
+[[Image:Salsola soda.jpg|thumb|right| Freshly harvested ''agretti'' (''S. soda'')]]
-[[Image:Barba frate saltata con cipolla e pancetta.jpg|thumb|''Agretti'' cooked with onions and bacon.]]
+[[Image:Barba frate saltata con cipolla e pancetta.jpg|thumb|''Agretti'' cooked with onions and bacon]]
 == Cultivation and culinary uses ==
-The Italian name ''agretti'' is commonly used in English to refer to the edible leaves of ''Salsola soda''; ''Barba Di Frate'' (or Friar's Beard) is the most common of the Italian names. This plant is not a summer green and should be started early indoors or in Autumn. The seed is notorious for poor [[germination]] at about 30% to 40% standard, much like [[Rosemary]]. Though the plant is often grown in saltwater irrigated land in the [[Mediterranean Basin]], it will grow without salt water. ''Salsola soda'' is harvested in bunches when small, or cropped regularly to encourage new growth when mature. It is most commonly boiled and eaten as a [[leafy vegetable]]; the recommendation is to cook it in boiling water until the leaves soften, and to serve while some bite (crunch) remains (much like [[Glasswort#Culinary|Samphire]]). It can also be eaten raw; it is said to "taste grassy and slightly salty with a pleasant crunchy texture." <ref>Lennartson, Margi (2005). ''Organic Vegetable Production'' (The Crowood Press, Ltd, ), p. 247. {{ISBN|1-86126-788-6}}.</ref>
+The Italian name ''agretti'' is commonly used in English to refer to the edible leaves of ''S. soda''; ''barba di frate'' (or friar's beard) is the most common of the Italian names. This plant is not a summer green and should be started early indoors or in autumn. The seed is notorious for poor [[germination]] at about 30 to 40% standard, much like [[rosemary]]. Though the plant is often grown in saltwater-irrigated land in the [[Mediterranean Basin]], it will grow without salt water. ''S. soda'' is harvested in bunches when small, or cropped regularly to encourage new growth when mature. It is most commonly boiled and eaten as a [[leafy vegetable]]; the recommendation is to cook it in boiling water until the leaves soften, and to serve while some bite (crunch) remains (much like [[Glasswort#Culinary|samphire]]). It can also be eaten raw; it is said to taste "grassy and slightly salty with a pleasant, crunchy texture".<ref>{{cite book |last=Lennartson |first=Margi |date=2005 |title=Organic Vegetable Production |publisher=The Crowood Press Ltd. |page=247 |isbn=1-86126-788-6}}</ref>
-''Salsola soda'' is sometimes confused with a plant known in Japan as '''okahijiki''' ("Land Seaweed"), which is actually the species ''Salsola komarovi''. The harvested leaves of the two species have a similar appearance.
+''Salsola soda'' is sometimes confused with a plant known in Japan as ''okahijiki'' (land seaweed), which is actually the species ''[[Salsola komarovii|S. komarovii]]''. The harvested leaves of the two species have a similar appearance.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
 == Phytoremediation ==
-''Salsola soda'' has also been studied as a [[bioremediation]] "biodesalinating companion plant" for crops such as tomatoes and peppers when they are grown in saline soils.<ref>
+''Salsola soda'' has also been studied as a [[bioremediation]] "biodesalinating companion plant" for crops such as tomatoes and peppers when they are grown in saline soils.<ref>{{cite journal
-Colla, G., Rouphael, Y., Fallovo, C., and Cardarelli, M. (2006). "Use of ''Salsola soda'' as a companion plant to improve greenhouse pepper (''Capsicum annuum'') performance under saline conditions," ''New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science'', Vol. 34: 283 - 290. Online abstract at http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjchs/2006/039.php (retrieved November 28, 2006).</ref> The ''Salsola soda'' extracts enough sodium from the soil to improve the growth of the crop plant, and better crop yields result despite the competition of the two plants for the remaining minerals from the soil.
+|last1=Colla |first1=G. |last2=Rouphael |first2=Y. |last3=Fallovo |first3=C. |last4=Cardarelli |first4=M. |date=2006 |title=Use of ''Salsola soda'' as a companion plant to improve greenhouse pepper (''Capsicum annuum'') performance under saline conditions |journal=New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=283–290 |url=http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjchs/2006/039.php |accessdate=28 November 2006|doi=10.1080/01140671.2006.9514418 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2006NZJCH..34..283C }}</ref> The ''Salsola soda'' extracts enough sodium from the soil to improve the growth of the crop plant, and better crop yields result despite the competition of the two plants for the remaining minerals from the soil.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
 == See also ==
@@ Line 86: / Line 81: @@
 == External links ==
+*{{Wikispecies inline}}
-{{wikispecies}}
-{{Wikicommons}}
+*{{Commons inline}}
-*"[http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=SASO3 PLANTS Profile for ''Salsola soda''.]" Natural Resources Conservation Service, United State Department of Agriculture. Retrieved November 3, 2006.
+*"[http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=SASO3 PLANTS Profile for ''Salsola soda''.]" Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 3 November 2006.
-*Excellent [http://sophy.u-3mrs.fr/photohtm/ZI1379.HTM  gallery of photographs] of ''Salsola soda'' (''soude commune'') from Bouches du Rhône region of France. From ''Banque de données Botaniques et Ecologiques'', Universite Aix-Marseille, France. Retrieved November 30, 2006.
+*Excellent [http://sophy.u-3mrs.fr/photohtm/ZI1379.HTM  gallery of photographs] of ''Salsola soda'' (''soude commune'') from Bouches du Rhône region of France. From ''Banque de données Botaniques et Ecologiques'', Universite Aix-Marseille, France. Retrieved 30 November 2006.
-*[http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Salsola+soda ''Salsola soda''] listing at website ''Plants for a Future'' (http://www.pfaf.org). Retrieved December 7, 2006.
+*[http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Salsola+soda ''Salsola soda''] listing at website ''Plants for a Future'' (http://www.pfaf.org). Retrieved 7 December 2006.
+{{Taxonbar|from=Q54932224|from2=Q2713171}}
 [[Category:Leaf vegetables]]
@@ Line 98: / Line 95: @@
 [[Category:Phytoremediation plants]]
 [[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
+[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
 [[Category:Barilla plants]]
+[[Category:Flora of Malta]]