Gilbert's syndrome: Difference between revisions

Gilbert's syndrome
Gilbert's syndrome
Other names	Gilbert syndrome, Meulengracht syndrome, Gilbert-Lereboullet syndrome, hyperbilirubinemia Arias type, hyperbilirubinemia type 1, familial cholemia, familial nonhemolytic jaundice
	Bilirubin
Pronunciation	/ʒiːlˈbɛərz/ zheel-BAIRZ ;
Specialty	Gastroenterology
Symptoms	Usually none, still, abdominal pain, nausea, tired and weak feeling, slight jaundice may present
Complications	Usually none
Causes	Genetic
Differential diagnosis	Crigler–Najjar syndrome, Rotor syndrome, Dubin–Johnson syndrome
Treatment	None typically needed
Frequency	~5%

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Gilbert syndrome (GS) is a syndrome in which the liver of affected individuals processes bilirubin more slowly than the majority.^[1] Many people never have symptoms.^[1] Occasionally jaundice (a slight yellowish color of the skin or whites of the eyes) may occur.^[1]

Gilbert syndrome is due to a genetic variant in the UGT1A1 gene which results in decreased activity of the bilirubin uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase enzyme.^[1]^[3] It is typically inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern and occasionally in an autosomal dominant pattern depending on the type of variant.^[3] Episodes of jaundice may be triggered by stress such as exercise, menstruation, or not eating.^[3] Diagnosis is based on higher levels of unconjugated bilirubin in the blood without either signs of other liver problems or red blood cell breakdown.^[2]^[3]

Typically no treatment is needed.^[1] Gilbert syndrome is associated with decreased cardiovascular health risks.^[4] If jaundice is significant phenobarbital may be used, which aids in the conjugation of bilirubin.^[1] Gilbert syndrome affects about 5% of people in the United States.^[3] Males are more often diagnosed than females.^[1] It is often not noticed until late childhood to early adulthood.^[2] The condition was first described in 1901 by Augustin Nicolas Gilbert.^[5]^[2]^[6]

Signs and symptoms

Jaundice

Gilbert syndrome produces an elevated level of unconjugated bilirubin in the bloodstream, but normally has no consequences. Mild jaundice may appear under conditions of exertion, stress, fasting, and infections, but the condition is otherwise usually asymptomatic.^[7]^[8] Severe cases are seen by yellowing of the skin tone and yellowing of the conjunctiva in the eye.^[9]

Gilbert syndrome has been reported to contribute to an accelerated onset of neonatal jaundice. The syndrome cannot cause severe indirect hyperbilirubinemia in neonates by itself, but it may have a summative effect on rising bilirubin when combined with other factors,^[10] for example in the presence of increased red blood cell destruction due to diseases such as G6PD deficiency.^[11]^[12] This situation can be especially dangerous if not quickly treated, as the high serum bilirubin can cause irreversible neurological disability in the form of kernicterus.^[13]^[14]^[15]

Detoxification of certain drugs

The enzymes that are defective in GS – UDP glucuronosyltransferase 1 family, polypeptide A1 (UGT1A1) – are also responsible for some of the liver's ability to detoxify certain drugs. For example, Gilbert syndrome is associated with severe diarrhea and neutropenia in patients who are treated with irinotecan, which is metabolized by UGT1A1.^[16]

While paracetamol (acetaminophen) is not metabolized by UGT1A1,^[17] it is metabolized by one of the other enzymes also deficient in some people with GS.^[18]^[19] A subset of people with GS may have an increased risk of paracetamol toxicity.^[19]^[20]

Cardiovascular effects

The mild increase in unconjugated bilirubin due to Gilbert syndrome is closely related to the reduction in the prevalence of chronic diseases, especially cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes, related risk factors, and all-cause mortality.^[21] Observational studies emphasize that the antioxidant effects of unconjugated bilirubin may bring survival benefits to patients.^[22]

Several analyses have found a significantly decreased risk of coronary artery disease (CAD) in individuals with GS.^[23]^[24]

Specifically, people with mildly elevated levels of bilirubin (1.1 mg/dl to 2.7 mg/dl) were at lower risk for CAD and at lower risk for future heart disease.^[25] These researchers went on to perform a meta-analysis of data available up to 2002, and confirmed the incidence of atherosclerotic disease (hardening of the arteries) in subjects with GS had a close and inverse relationship to the serum bilirubin.^[23] This beneficial effect was attributed to bilirubin IXα which is recognized as a potent antioxidant, rather than confounding factors such as high-density lipoprotein levels.^[25]

This association was also seen in long-term data from the Framingham Heart Study.^[26]^[4]^{[non-primary source needed]} Moderately elevated levels of bilirubin in people with GS and the (TA)₇/(TA)₇ genotype were associated with one-third the risk for both coronary heart disease and cardiovascular disease as compared to those with the (TA)₆/(TA)₆ genotype (i.e. a normal, nonmutated gene locus).^{[citation needed]}

Platelet counts and MPV (mean platelet volume) are decreased in patients with Gilbert's syndrome. The elevated levels of bilirubin and decreasing levels of MPV and CRP in Gilbert's syndrome patients may have an effect on the slowing down of the atherosclerotic process.^[27]

Other

Symptoms, whether connected or not to GS, have been reported in a subset of those affected: fatigue (feeling tired all the time), difficulty maintaining concentration, unusual patterns of anxiety, loss of appetite, nausea, abdominal pain, loss of weight, itching (with no rash), and others,^[28] such as humor change or depression. But scientific studies found no clear pattern of adverse symptoms related to the elevated levels of unconjugated bilirubin in adults. However, other substances glucuronidized by the affected enzymes in those with Gilbert's syndrome could theoretically, at their toxic levels, cause these symptoms.^[29]^[30] Consequently, debate exists about whether GS should be classified as a disease.^[29]^[31] However, Gilbert syndrome has been linked to an increased risk of gallstones.^[28]^[32]

Cause

Mutations in the UGT1A1 gene lead to Gilbert Syndrome.^[33] The gene provides instructions for making the bilirubin uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase (bilirubin-UGT) enzyme, which can be found in the liver cells and is responsible for preparing bilirubin for removal from the body.^[34]

The bilirubin-UGT enzyme performs a chemical reaction called glucuronidation. Glucuronic acid is transferred to unconjugated bilirubin, which is a yellowish pigment made when your body breaks down old red blood cells,^[35] and then being converted to conjugated bilirubin during the reaction. Conjugated bilirubin passes from the liver into the intestines with bile. It's then excreted in stool.^{[citation needed]}

People with Gilbert syndrome have approximately 30 percent of normal bilirubin-UGT enzyme function, which contributes to a lower rate of glucuronidation of unconjugated bilirubin. This substance then accumulates in the body, causing mild hyperbilirubinemia.^[34]

Genetics

Gilbert syndrome is a phenotypic effect, mostly associated with increased blood bilirubin levels, but also sometimes characterized by mild jaundice due to increased unconjugated bilirubin, that arises from several different genotypic variants of the gene for the enzyme responsible for changing bilirubin to the conjugated form.^{[citation needed]}

Gilbert's syndrome is characterized by a 70–80% reduction in the glucuronidation activity of the enzyme (UGT1A1). The UGT1A1 gene is located on human chromosome 2.^[36]

More than 100 polymorphisms of the UGT1A1 gene are known, designated as UGT1A1*n (where n is the general chronological order of discovery), either of the gene itself or of its promoter region. UGT1A1 is associated with a TATA box promoter region; this region most commonly contains the genetic sequence A(TA)₆TAA; this variant accounts for about 50% of alleles in many populations. However, several allelic polymorphic variants of this region occur, the most common of which results from adding another dinucleotide repeat TA to the promoter region, resulting in A(TA)₇TAA, which is called UGT1A1*28; this common variant accounts for about 40% of alleles in some populations, but is seen less often, around 3% of alleles, in Southeast and East Asian people and Pacific Islanders.^{[citation needed]}

In most populations, Gilbert syndrome is most commonly associated with homozygous A(TA)₇TAA alleles.^[37]^[38]^[39] In 94% of GS cases, two other glucuronosyltransferase enzymes, UGT1A6 (rendered 50% inactive) and UGT1A7 (rendered 83% ineffective), are also affected.^{[citation needed]}

However, Gilbert syndrome can arise without TATA box promoter polymorphic variants; in some populations, particularly healthy Southeast and East Asians, Gilbert's syndrome is more often a consequence of heterozygote missense mutations (such as Gly71Arg also known as UGT1A1*6, Tyr486Asp also known as UGT1A1*7, Pro364Leu also known as UGT1A1*73) in the actual gene coding region,^[20] which may be associated with significantly higher bilirubin levels.^[20]

Because of its effects on drug and bilirubin breakdown and because of its genetic inheritance, Gilbert's syndrome can be classed as a minor inborn error of metabolism.^{[citation needed]}

Diagnosis

People with GS predominantly have elevated unconjugated bilirubin, while conjugated bilirubin is usually within the normal range or is less than 20% of the total. Levels of bilirubin in GS patients are reported to be from 20 μM to 90 μM (1.2 to 5.3 mg/dl)^[38] compared to the normal amount of < 20 μM. GS patients have a ratio of unconjugated/conjugated (indirect/direct) bilirubin commensurately higher than those without GS.^{[citation needed]}

The level of total bilirubin is often further increased if the blood sample is taken after fasting for two days,^[40] and a fast can, therefore, be useful diagnostically. A further conceptual step that is rarely necessary or appropriate is to give a low dose of phenobarbital:^[41] the bilirubin will decrease substantially.

Tests can also detect DNA variants of UGT1A1 by polymerase chain reaction or DNA fragment sequencing.^{[citation needed]}

Differential diagnosis

While Gilbert syndrome is considered harmless, it is clinically important because it may give rise to a concern about a blood or liver condition, which could be more dangerous. However, these conditions have additional indicators:^{[citation needed]}

In GS, unless another disease of the liver is also present, the liver enzymes ALT/SGPT and AST/SGOT, as well as albumin, are within normal ranges.^{[citation needed]}
Crigler–Najjar syndrome (types I and II), a different glucuronyl transferase disorder, is much more severe, with 0–10% UGT1A1 activity,^[42] with affected individuals at risk of brain damage in infancy (type I) and teenage years (type II).^{[citation needed]}
Hemolysis of any cause can be excluded by a full blood count, haptoglobin, lactate dehydrogenase levels, and the absence of reticulocytosis (elevated reticulocytes in the blood would usually be observed in haemolytic anaemia).^{[citation needed]}
Dubin–Johnson syndrome and Rotor syndrome are rarer autosomal recessive disorders characterized by an increase of conjugated bilirubin.
Viral hepatitis associated with increase of conjugated bilirubin can be excluded by negative blood samples for antigens specific to the different hepatitis viruses.^{[citation needed]}
Cholestasis can be excluded by normal levels of bile acids in plasma, the absence of lactate dehydrogenase, low levels of conjugated bilirubin, and ultrasound scan of the bile ducts. ^{[citation needed]}
Vitamin B12 deficiency - elevated bilirubin levels (and MCV counts above 90–92) can be associated with a vitamin B12 deficiency.^{[citation needed]}

Treatment

Typically no treatment is needed.^[1] If jaundice is significant phenobarbital may be used.^[1]

Research directions

Vitamin levels

Studies conducted so far suggest that subjects with GS may have lower levels of vitamin D and folic acid than control subjects, having these levels inversely correlated with bilirubin levels. It may be that GS may impair the metabolism or absorption of these vitamins, or that these vitamins may affect the expression or activity of the UGT1A1 enzyme that is responsible for bilirubin conjugation. However, these studies had limitations, such as the small sample size, the lack of a standardized definition of GS, the possible confounding factors of diet, lifestyle, and medication use, and the cross-sectional and observational design that does not allow for causal inference.^[43]

The role of bilirubin in health and disease

Ongoing studies suggest that mild hyperbilirubinaemia in GS may have beneficial effects, probably due to the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of bilirubin. Hyperbilirubinaemia in GS may protect against oxidative stress and inflammation-related diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, cancers, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders. However, the mechanisms and pathways of bilirubin protection are not fully elucidated, and the optimal level and range of bilirubin are unknown. The genetic and environmental factors that influence UGT1A1 expression and activity are also poorly characterized and may affect the variability and penetrance of GS.^[44] Despite the fact that hyperbilirubinemia in GS is associated with reduced incidence of cardiovascular diseases,^[45] diabetes, and metabolic syndrome,^[46] the clinical significance and implications of these GS research findings are unclear, and can not yet be translated into preventive or therapeutic strategies.^[44]

History

Gilbert syndrome was first described by French gastroenterologist Augustin Nicolas Gilbert and co-workers in 1901.^[6]^[5] In German literature, it is commonly associated with Jens Einar Meulengracht.^[47]

Alternative, less common names for this disorder include:^{[citation needed]}

Familial benign unconjugated hyperbilirubinaemia
Constitutional liver dysfunction
Familial non-hemolytic non-obstructive jaundice
Icterus intermittens juvenilis
Low-grade chronic hyperbilirubinemia
Unconjugated benign bilirubinemia

Society and culture

Notable cases

Napoleon^[48]
Arthur Kornberg, Nobel laureate in Physiology or Medicine, 1959^[49]
Nicky Wire, Manic Street Preachers bassist^[50]
Alexandr Dolgopolov (tennis player)^[51]
Jonas Folger, MotoGP rider.^[52]

References

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^ Bancroft JD, Kreamer B, Gourley GR (1998). "Gilbert syndrome accelerates development of neonatal jaundice". Journal of Pediatrics. 132 (4): 656–60. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(98)70356-7. PMID 9580766.
^ Cappellini MD, Di Montemuros FM, Sampietro M, Tavazzi D, Fiorelli G (1999). "The interaction between Gilbert's syndrome and G6PD deficiency influences bilirubin levels". British Journal of Haematology. 104 (4): 928–9. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2141.1999.1331a.x. PMID 10192462. S2CID 40300539.
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^ "Wire preaches delights of three cliffs". South Wales Evening Post. 2007-04-27. p. 3.
^ David Cox. (19 April 2014). "A Tennis Player Learns to Be Aggressive for Health's Sake". New York Times. Monte Carlo. Archived from the original on 14 October 2016.
^ Khorounzhiy, Valentin (2017-11-09). "Illness that 'shut down' Tech3 MotoGP rookie Jonas Folger diagnosed". Autosport.com. Motorsport Network. Archived from the original on 2017-11-10. Retrieved 2017-11-09. After visiting specialists in his native Germany, Folger has been diagnosed with Gilbert's syndrome – a genetic ailment that precludes the liver from correctly processing bilirubin.

External links

Understanding Gilbert's Syndrome and living better with Gilbert's Syndrome symptoms
Gilbert's syndrome at NIH's Office of Rare Diseases
Gilbert's Syndrome Archived 2016-05-18 at the Wayback Machine BMJ Best Practices monograph

[GARD2016-1] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ "Gilbert syndrome". GARD. 2016. Archived from the original on 4 August 2017. Retrieved 2 July 2017.

[Rare2015-2] "Gilbert Syndrome". NORD (National Organization for Rare Disorders). 2015. Archived from the original on 20 February 2017. Retrieved 2 July 2017.

[GHR2017-3] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f "Gilbert syndrome". Genetics Home Reference. 27 June 2017. Archived from the original on 27 June 2017. Retrieved 2 July 2017.

[:0-4] Bulmer, A. C.; Verkade, H. J.; Wagner, K.-H. (April 2013). "Bilirubin and beyond: a review of lipid status in Gilbert's syndrome and its relevance to cardiovascular disease protection". Progress in Lipid Research. 52 (2): 193–205. doi:10.1016/j.plipres.2012.11.001. hdl:10072/54228. ISSN 1873-2194. PMID 23201182.

[Gilbert_&_Lereboullet,_Semaine_Médicale,_1901-5] Gilbert A, Lereboullet P (1901). "La cholémie simple familiale". La Semaine Médicale. 21: 241–3.

[WHO2017-6] "Whonamedit – dictionary of medical eponyms". www.whonamedit.com. Archived from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 2 July 2017.

[7] Kasper et al., Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 16th edition, McGraw-Hill 2005

[8] Boon et al., Davidson's Principles & Practice of Medicine, 20th edition, Churchill Livingstone 2006

[9] Philadelphia, The Children's Hospital of (2014-08-23). "Hyperbilirubinemia and Jaundice". www.chop.edu. Archived from the original on 2022-02-17. Retrieved 2022-02-17.

[pmid21403409-10] Saki, F.; Hemmati, F.; Haghighat, M. (2011). "Prevalence of Gilbert syndrome in parents of neonates with pathologic indirect hyperbilirubinemia". Annals of Saudi Medicine. 31 (2): 140–4. doi:10.4103/0256-4947.77498. PMC 3102472. PMID 21403409.

[11] Bancroft JD, Kreamer B, Gourley GR (1998). "Gilbert syndrome accelerates development of neonatal jaundice". Journal of Pediatrics. 132 (4): 656–60. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(98)70356-7. PMID 9580766.

[12] Cappellini MD, Di Montemuros FM, Sampietro M, Tavazzi D, Fiorelli G (1999). "The interaction between Gilbert's syndrome and G6PD deficiency influences bilirubin levels". British Journal of Haematology. 104 (4): 928–9. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2141.1999.1331a.x. PMID 10192462. S2CID 40300539.

[13] Usman, Fatima; Diala, Udochukwu; Shapiro, Steven; Le Pichon, Jean-Baptiste; Slusher, Tina (2018). "Acute bilirubin encephalopathy and its progression to kernicterus: current perspectives". Research and Reports in Neonatology. 8: 33–44. doi:10.2147/RRN.S125758. Archived from the original on 2020-08-13. Retrieved 2020-07-15.

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@@ Line 7: / Line 7: @@
 | pronounce       = {{IPAc-en|ʒ|iː|l|ˈ|b|ɛər|z}} {{respell|zheel|BAIRZ}}
 | speciality      = [[Gastroenterology]]
-| symptoms        = Usually none. Abdominal pain, nausea, tired and weak feeling, slight [[jaundice]]<ref name=GARD2016/>
+| symptoms        = Usually none, still, abdominal pain, nausea, tired and weak feeling, slight [[jaundice]] may present<ref name=GARD2016/>
 | complications   = Usually none<ref name=GARD2016/>
 | onset           =
@@ Line 24: / Line 24: @@
 }}
 <!-- Definition and symptoms -->
-'''Gilbert syndrome''' ('''GS''') is a syndrome in which the [[liver]] of affected individuals processes [[bilirubin]] more slowly than the majority.<ref name=GARD2016>{{cite web|title=Gilbert syndrome|url=https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/6507/gilbert-syndrome|website=GARD|access-date=2 July 2017|language=en|date=2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804052908/https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/6507/gilbert-syndrome|archive-date=4 August 2017}}</ref> Many people never have symptoms.<ref name=GARD2016/> Occasionally [[jaundice]] (a slight [[jaundice|yellowish color of the skin or whites of the eyes]]) may occur.<ref name=GARD2016/>
+'''Gilbert syndrome''' ('''GS''') is a syndrome in which the [[liver]] of affected individuals processes [[bilirubin]] more slowly than the majority.<ref name=GARD2016>{{cite web|title=Gilbert syndrome|url=https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/6507/gilbert-syndrome|website=GARD|access-date=2 July 2017|language=en|date=2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804052908/https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/6507/gilbert-syndrome|archive-date=4 August 2017}}</ref> Many people never have symptoms.<ref name=GARD2016/> Occasionally [[jaundice]] (a slight yellowish color of the skin or whites of the eyes) may occur.<ref name=GARD2016/>
 <!-- Cause and diagnosis -->
-Gilbert syndrome is due to a [[Mutation|genetic variant]] in the [[UGT1A1 gene]] which results in decreased activity of the [[bilirubin uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase]] enzyme.<ref name=GARD2016/><ref name=GHR2017/> It is typically inherited in an [[autosomal recessive]] pattern and occasionally in an [[autosomal dominant]] pattern depending on the type of variant.<ref name=GHR2017/> Episodes of jaundice may be triggered by stress such as exercise, [[menstruation]], or not eating.<ref name=GHR2017>{{cite web|title=Gilbert syndrome|url=https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/gilbert-syndrome|website=Genetics Home Reference|access-date=2 July 2017|language=en|date=27 June 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627221429/https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/gilbert-syndrome|archive-date=27 June 2017}}</ref> Diagnosis is based on higher levels of [[unconjugated bilirubin]] in the blood without either signs of other [[liver problems]] or [[hemolysis|red blood cell breakdown]].<ref name=Rare2015>{{cite web|title=Gilbert Syndrome|url=https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/gilbert-syndrome/|website=NORD (National Organization for Rare Disorders)|access-date=2 July 2017|date=2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170220165114/https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/gilbert-syndrome/|archive-date=20 February 2017}}</ref><ref name=GHR2017/>
+Gilbert syndrome is due to a [[Mutation|genetic variant]] in the [[UGT1A1 gene|''UGT1A1'' gene]] which results in decreased activity of the [[bilirubin uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase]] enzyme.<ref name=GARD2016/><ref name=GHR2017/> It is typically inherited in an [[autosomal recessive]] pattern and occasionally in an [[autosomal dominant]] pattern depending on the type of variant.<ref name=GHR2017/> Episodes of jaundice may be triggered by stress such as exercise, [[menstruation]], or not eating.<ref name=GHR2017>{{cite web|title=Gilbert syndrome|url=https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/gilbert-syndrome|website=Genetics Home Reference|access-date=2 July 2017|language=en|date=27 June 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627221429/https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/gilbert-syndrome|archive-date=27 June 2017}}</ref> Diagnosis is based on higher levels of [[unconjugated bilirubin]] in the blood without either signs of other [[liver problems]] or [[hemolysis|red blood cell breakdown]].<ref name=Rare2015>{{cite web|title=Gilbert Syndrome|url=https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/gilbert-syndrome/|website=NORD (National Organization for Rare Disorders)|access-date=2 July 2017|date=2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170220165114/https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/gilbert-syndrome/|archive-date=20 February 2017}}</ref><ref name=GHR2017/>
 <!-- Treatment, epidemiology, and history -->
@@ Line 35: / Line 35: @@
 ===Jaundice===
-Gilbert syndrome produces an elevated level of unconjugated bilirubin in the [[blood]]stream, but normally has no consequences. Mild [[jaundice]] may appear under conditions of exertion, stress, fasting, and infections, but the condition is otherwise usually asymptomatic.<ref>Kasper et al., ''Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine'', 16th edition, McGraw-Hill 2005</ref><ref>Boon et al., ''Davidson's Principles & Practice of Medicine'', 20th edition, Churchill Livingstone 2006</ref> Severe cases are seen by yellowing of the skin tone and yellowing of the conjunctiva in the eye.<ref>{{cite web|last=Philadelphia|first=The Children's Hospital of|date=2014-08-23|title=Hyperbilirubinemia and Jaundice|url=https://www.chop.edu/conditions-diseases/hyperbilirubinemia-and-jaundice|access-date=2022-02-17|website=www.chop.edu|language=en}}</ref>
+Gilbert syndrome produces an elevated level of unconjugated bilirubin in the [[blood]]stream, but normally has no consequences. Mild [[jaundice]] may appear under conditions of exertion, stress, fasting, and infections, but the condition is otherwise usually asymptomatic.<ref>Kasper et al., ''Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine'', 16th edition, McGraw-Hill 2005</ref><ref>Boon et al., ''Davidson's Principles & Practice of Medicine'', 20th edition, Churchill Livingstone 2006</ref> Severe cases are seen by yellowing of the skin tone and yellowing of the conjunctiva in the eye.<ref>{{cite web|last=Philadelphia|first=The Children's Hospital of|date=2014-08-23|title=Hyperbilirubinemia and Jaundice|url=https://www.chop.edu/conditions-diseases/hyperbilirubinemia-and-jaundice|access-date=2022-02-17|website=www.chop.edu|language=en|archive-date=2022-02-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217090215/https://www.chop.edu/conditions-diseases/hyperbilirubinemia-and-jaundice|url-status=live}}</ref>
-Gilbert syndrome has been reported to contribute to an accelerated onset of [[neonatal jaundice]]. The syndrome cannot cause severe indirect hyperbilirubinemia in neonates by itself, but it may have a summative effect on rising bilirubin when combined with other factors,<ref name="pmid21403409">{{cite journal |pmid = 21403409|year = 2011|last1 = Saki|first1 = F.|last2 = Hemmati|first2 = F.|last3 = Haghighat|first3 = M.|title = Prevalence of Gilbert syndrome in parents of neonates with pathologic indirect hyperbilirubinemia|journal = Annals of Saudi Medicine|volume = 31|issue = 2|pages = 140–4|doi = 10.4103/0256-4947.77498|pmc = 3102472}}</ref> for example in the presence of increased [[hemolysis|red blood cell destruction]] due to diseases such as [[G6PD deficiency]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bancroft JD, Kreamer B, Gourley GR |title=Gilbert syndrome accelerates development of neonatal jaundice |journal=Journal of Pediatrics | volume=132 |issue=4 |pages=656–60 |year=1998 |pmid=9580766 |doi=10.1016/S0022-3476(98)70356-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cappellini MD, Di Montemuros FM, Sampietro M, Tavazzi D, Fiorelli G |title=The interaction between Gilbert's syndrome and G6PD deficiency influences bilirubin levels |journal=British Journal of Haematology | volume=104 |issue=4 |pages=928–9 |year=1999 |pmid=10192462 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2141.1999.1331a.x|s2cid=40300539 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This situation can be especially dangerous if not quickly treated, as the high bilirubin causes irreversible neurological disability in the form of [[kernicterus]].<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.dovepress.com/acute-bilirubin-encephalopathy-and-its-progression-to-kernicterus-curr-peer-reviewed-article-RRN |title=Acute bilirubin encephalopathy and its progression to kernicterus: current perspectives|year=2018|doi=10.2147/RRN.S125758|last1=Usman|first1=Fatima|last2=Diala|first2=Udochukwu|last3=Shapiro|first3=Steven|last4=Le Pichon|first4=Jean-Baptiste|last5=Slusher|first5=Tina|journal=Research and Reports in Neonatology|volume=8|pages=33–44|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://fn.bmj.com/content/104/2/F202 |title=Learning from claims: hyperbilirubinaemia and kernicterus|year=2019|doi=10.1136/archdischild-2017-314622|last1=Rennie|first1=Janet M.|last2=Beer|first2=Jeanette|last3=Upton|first3=Michele|journal=Archives of Disease in Childhood - Fetal and Neonatal Edition|volume=104|issue=2|pages=F202–F204|pmid=29802103|pmc=6580733}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559120/ |title=Kernicterus|year=2021|publisher=StatPearls}}</ref>
+Gilbert syndrome has been reported to contribute to an accelerated onset of [[neonatal jaundice]]. The syndrome cannot cause severe indirect hyperbilirubinemia in neonates by itself, but it may have a summative effect on rising bilirubin when combined with other factors,<ref name="pmid21403409">{{cite journal |pmid = 21403409|year = 2011|last1 = Saki|first1 = F.|last2 = Hemmati|first2 = F.|last3 = Haghighat|first3 = M.|title = Prevalence of Gilbert syndrome in parents of neonates with pathologic indirect hyperbilirubinemia|journal = Annals of Saudi Medicine|volume = 31|issue = 2|pages = 140–4|doi = 10.4103/0256-4947.77498|pmc = 3102472 | doi-access=free }}</ref> for example in the presence of increased [[hemolysis|red blood cell destruction]] due to diseases such as [[G6PD deficiency]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bancroft JD, Kreamer B, Gourley GR |title=Gilbert syndrome accelerates development of neonatal jaundice |journal=Journal of Pediatrics | volume=132 |issue=4 |pages=656–60 |year=1998 |pmid=9580766 |doi=10.1016/S0022-3476(98)70356-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cappellini MD, Di Montemuros FM, Sampietro M, Tavazzi D, Fiorelli G |title=The interaction between Gilbert's syndrome and G6PD deficiency influences bilirubin levels |journal=British Journal of Haematology | volume=104 |issue=4 |pages=928–9 |year=1999 |pmid=10192462 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2141.1999.1331a.x|s2cid=40300539 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This situation can be especially dangerous if not quickly treated, as the [[Bilirubin#Hyperbilirubinemia|high serum bilirubin]] can cause irreversible neurological disability in the form of [[kernicterus]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.dovepress.com/acute-bilirubin-encephalopathy-and-its-progression-to-kernicterus-curr-peer-reviewed-article-RRN|title=Acute bilirubin encephalopathy and its progression to kernicterus: current perspectives|year=2018|doi=10.2147/RRN.S125758|last1=Usman|first1=Fatima|last2=Diala|first2=Udochukwu|last3=Shapiro|first3=Steven|last4=Le Pichon|first4=Jean-Baptiste|last5=Slusher|first5=Tina|journal=Research and Reports in Neonatology|volume=8|pages=33–44|doi-access=free|access-date=2020-07-15|archive-date=2020-08-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813152457/https://www.dovepress.com/acute-bilirubin-encephalopathy-and-its-progression-to-kernicterus-curr-peer-reviewed-article-RRN|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://fn.bmj.com/content/104/2/F202|title=Learning from claims: hyperbilirubinaemia and kernicterus|year=2019|doi=10.1136/archdischild-2017-314622|last1=Rennie|first1=Janet M.|last2=Beer|first2=Jeanette|last3=Upton|first3=Michele|journal=Archives of Disease in Childhood - Fetal and Neonatal Edition|volume=104|issue=2|pages=F202–F204|pmid=29802103|pmc=6580733|access-date=2020-07-15|archive-date=2020-07-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715192936/https://fn.bmj.com/content/104/2/F202|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559120/ |title=Kernicterus |year=2021 |publisher=StatPearls |pmid=32644546 |last1=Reddy |first1=D. K. |last2=Pandey |first2=S. |access-date=2020-07-15 |archive-date=2021-08-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828093238/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559120/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
 ===Detoxification of certain drugs===
@@ Line 45: / Line 45: @@
 ===Cardiovascular effects===
-The mild increase in unconjugated bilirubin due to Gilbert syndrome is closely related to the reduction in the prevalence of chronic diseases, especially cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes, related risk factors, and all-cause mortality.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=29390925|year=2018|last1=Wagner|first1=K. H.|last2=Shiels|first2=R. G.|last3=Lang|first3=C. A.|last4=Seyed Khoei|first4=N.|last5=Bulmer|first5=A. C.|title=Diagnostic criteria and contributors to Gilbert's syndrome|journal=Critical Reviews in Clinical Laboratory Sciences|volume=55|issue=2|pages=129–139|doi=10.1080/10408363.2018.1428526|s2cid=46870015|doi-access=free}}</ref> Observational studies emphasize that the antioxidant effects of unconjugated bilirubin may bring survival benefits to patients.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30709860|pmid=30709860|year=2019|last1=King|first1=D.|last2=Armstrong|first2=M. J.|title=Overview of Gilbert's syndrome|journal=Drug and Therapeutics Bulletin|volume=57|issue=2|pages=27–31|doi=10.1136/dtb.2018.000028|s2cid=73447592}}</ref>
+The mild increase in unconjugated bilirubin due to Gilbert syndrome is closely related to the reduction in the prevalence of chronic diseases, especially cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes, related risk factors, and all-cause mortality.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=29390925|year=2018|last1=Wagner|first1=K. H.|last2=Shiels|first2=R. G.|last3=Lang|first3=C. A.|last4=Seyed Khoei|first4=N.|last5=Bulmer|first5=A. C.|title=Diagnostic criteria and contributors to Gilbert's syndrome|journal=Critical Reviews in Clinical Laboratory Sciences|volume=55|issue=2|pages=129–139|doi=10.1080/10408363.2018.1428526|s2cid=46870015|doi-access=free}}</ref> Observational studies emphasize that the antioxidant effects of unconjugated bilirubin may bring survival benefits to patients.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30709860|pmid=30709860|year=2019|last1=King|first1=D.|last2=Armstrong|first2=M. J.|title=Overview of Gilbert's syndrome|journal=Drug and Therapeutics Bulletin|volume=57|issue=2|pages=27–31|doi=10.1136/dtb.2018.000028|s2cid=73447592|access-date=2021-02-17|archive-date=2021-05-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523221721/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30709860/|url-status=live}}</ref>
-Several analyses have found a significantly decreased risk of [[coronary artery disease]] (CAD) in individuals with GS.<ref name="2002meta">{{cite journal |author1=Ladislav Novotnýc |author2=Libor Vítek |s2cid=43486067 |title=Inverse Relationship Between Serum Bilirubin and Atherosclerosis in Men: A Meta-Analysis of Published Studies |journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine |issue=  5|pages=568–571 |year=2003 |pmid=12709588 |volume=228 |doi=10.1177/15353702-0322805-29}}</ref><ref name="2008meta">{{cite journal |author1=Schwertner Harvey A |author2=Vítek Libor | title=Gilbert syndrome, UGT1A1*28 allele, and cardiovascular disease risk: possible protective effects and therapeutic applications of bilirubin | journal=Atherosclerosis |volume=198| issue=1 | pages=1–11 |date= May 2008|pmid=18343383 | doi=10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2008.01.001|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1258770|type=Review }}</ref>
+Several analyses have found a significantly decreased risk of [[coronary artery disease]] (CAD) in individuals with GS.<ref name="2002meta">{{cite journal |author1=Ladislav Novotnýc |author2=Libor Vítek |s2cid=43486067 |title=Inverse Relationship Between Serum Bilirubin and Atherosclerosis in Men: A Meta-Analysis of Published Studies |journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine |issue=  5|pages=568–571 |year=2003 |pmid=12709588 |volume=228 |doi=10.1177/15353702-0322805-29}}</ref><ref name="2008meta">{{cite journal |author1=Schwertner Harvey A |author2=Vítek Libor |title=Gilbert syndrome, UGT1A1*28 allele, and cardiovascular disease risk: possible protective effects and therapeutic applications of bilirubin |journal=Atherosclerosis |volume=198 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18343383 |doi=10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2008.01.001 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1258770 |type=Review |access-date=2018-09-01 |archive-date=2018-09-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180904052440/https://zenodo.org/record/1258770 |url-status=live }}</ref>
 Specifically, people with mildly elevated levels of bilirubin (1.1&nbsp;mg/dl to 2.7&nbsp;mg/dl) were at lower risk for CAD and at lower risk for future heart disease.<ref name="Vitek GS ischemic">{{cite journal |author=Vítek L |title=Gilbert syndrome and ischemic heart disease: a protective effect of elevated bilirubin levels |journal=Atherosclerosis |volume=160 |issue=2 |pages=449–56 |year=2002|pmid=11849670 |doi=10.1016/S0021-9150(01)00601-3 |author2= Jirsa M |author3= Brodanová M  |display-authors=etal  }}</ref> These researchers went on to perform a [[meta-analysis]] of data available up to 2002, and confirmed the incidence of [[Atherosclerosis|atherosclerotic disease]] (hardening of the arteries) in subjects with GS had a close and inverse relationship to the serum bilirubin.<ref name="2002meta" /> This beneficial effect was attributed to bilirubin IXα which is recognized as a potent antioxidant, rather than [[confounding]] factors such as [[high-density lipoprotein]] levels.<ref name="Vitek GS ischemic"/>
-This association was also seen in long-term data from the [[Framingham Heart Study]].<ref>{{cite journal | author=Lin JP | title=Association between the UGT1A1*28 allele, bilirubin levels, and coronary heart disease in the Framingham Heart Study | journal=Circulation | volume=114 | pages=1476–81 | year=2006 | pmid=17000907 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.633206 | issue=14| author2= O’Donnell CJ | author3= Schwaiger JP  | display-authors=etal  | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Bulmer|first1=A. C.|last2=Verkade|first2=H. J.|last3=Wagner|first3=K.-H.|date=April 2013|title=Bilirubin and beyond: a review of lipid status in Gilbert's syndrome and its relevance to cardiovascular disease protection|journal=Progress in Lipid Research|volume=52|issue=2|pages=193–205|doi=10.1016/j.plipres.2012.11.001|issn=1873-2194|pmid=23201182|hdl=10072/54228|hdl-access=free}}</ref>{{primary source inline|date=September 2018}} Moderately elevated levels of bilirubin in people with GS and the (TA)<sub>7</sub>/(TA)<sub>7</sub> genotype were associated with one-third the risk for both coronary heart disease and cardiovascular disease as compared to those with the (TA)<sub>6</sub>/(TA)<sub>6</sub> genotype (i.e. a normal, nonmutated gene locus).{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}
+This association was also seen in long-term data from the [[Framingham Heart Study]].<ref>{{cite journal | author=Lin JP | title=Association between the UGT1A1*28 allele, bilirubin levels, and coronary heart disease in the Framingham Heart Study | journal=Circulation | volume=114 | pages=1476–81 | year=2006 | pmid=17000907 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.633206 | issue=14| author2= O'Donnell CJ | author3= Schwaiger JP  | display-authors=etal  | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Bulmer|first1=A. C.|last2=Verkade|first2=H. J.|last3=Wagner|first3=K.-H.|date=April 2013|title=Bilirubin and beyond: a review of lipid status in Gilbert's syndrome and its relevance to cardiovascular disease protection|journal=Progress in Lipid Research|volume=52|issue=2|pages=193–205|doi=10.1016/j.plipres.2012.11.001|issn=1873-2194|pmid=23201182|hdl=10072/54228|hdl-access=free}}</ref>{{primary source inline|date=September 2018}} Moderately elevated levels of bilirubin in people with GS and the (TA)<sub>7</sub>/(TA)<sub>7</sub> genotype were associated with one-third the risk for both coronary heart disease and cardiovascular disease as compared to those with the (TA)<sub>6</sub>/(TA)<sub>6</sub> genotype (i.e. a normal, nonmutated gene locus).{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}
 Platelet counts and [[Mean platelet volume|MPV]] (mean platelet volume) are decreased in patients with Gilbert's syndrome. The elevated levels of bilirubin and decreasing levels of MPV and [[C-reactive protein|CRP]] in Gilbert's syndrome patients may have an effect on the slowing down of the [[Atherosclerosis|atherosclerotic]] process.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kundur|first1=Avinash R.|last2=Singh|first2=Indu|last3=Bulmer|first3=Andrew C.|date=March 2015|title=Bilirubin, platelet activation and heart disease: a missing link to cardiovascular protection in Gilbert's syndrome?|journal=Atherosclerosis|volume=239|issue=1|pages=73–84|doi=10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.12.042|issn=1879-1484|pmid=25576848}}</ref>
 ===Other===
-Symptoms, whether connected or not to GS, have been reported in a subset of those affected: [[fatigue]] (feeling tired all the time), difficulty maintaining concentration, unusual patterns of [[anxiety]], loss of [[appetite]], [[nausea]], abdominal pain, loss of weight, itching (with no rash), and others,<ref name=GSC>[http://www.gilbertssyndrome.com/ GilbertsSyndrome.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060810065536/http://www.gilbertssyndrome.com/ |date=2006-08-10 }}</ref> such as humor change or [[depression (mood)|depression]]. But scientific studies found no clear pattern of adverse symptoms related to the elevated levels of unconjugated bilirubin in adults. However, other substances glucuronidized by the affected enzymes in those with Gilbert's syndrome could theoretically, at their toxic levels, cause these symptoms.<ref name=dispute>{{cite journal |vauthors=Olsson R, Bliding A, Jagenburg R, Lapidus L, Larsson B, Svärdsudd K, Wittboldt S | title=Gilbert's syndrome—does it exist? A study of the prevalence of symptoms in Gilbert syndrome | journal= Acta Medica Scandinavica | volume=224 | issue=5 | pages=485–490 | year=1988 | pmid=3264448 | doi=10.1111/j.0954-6820.1988.tb19615.x}}</ref><ref name="Bailey does it exist">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bailey A, Robinson D, Dawson AM | s2cid=41989158 | title=Does Gilbert's disease exist? | journal=Lancet | volume=1 | pages=931–3 | year=1977 | pmid=67389 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(77)92226-7 | issue=8018}}</ref>  Consequently, debate exists about whether GS should be classified as a disease.<ref name=dispute/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Larissa K. F. Temple |author2=Robin S. McLeod |author3=Steven Gallinger |author4=James G. Wright | title=Defining Disease in the Genomics Era | journal= Science Magazine | volume=293 | issue=5531 | pages=807–808 | year=2001 | doi=10.1126/science.1062938 | pmid=11486074| doi-access=free }}</ref> However, Gilbert syndrome has been linked to an increased risk of [[gallstone]]s.<ref name=GSC/><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=del Giudice EM, Perrotta S, Nobili B, Specchia C, d'Urzo G, Iolascon A |title=Coinheritance of Gilbert syndrome increases the risk for developing gallstones in patients with hereditary spherocytosis |journal=Blood |volume=94 |issue=7 |pages=2259–62 |date=October 1999 |pmid=10498597 |url=http://bloodjournal.hematologylibrary.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10498597 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130414231815/http://bloodjournal.hematologylibrary.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10498597 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-04-14 |doi=10.1182/blood.V94.7.2259.419k42_2259_2262 |s2cid=40558696 }}</ref>
+Symptoms, whether connected or not to GS, have been reported in a subset of those affected: [[fatigue]] (feeling tired all the time), difficulty maintaining concentration, unusual patterns of [[anxiety]], loss of [[appetite]], [[nausea]], abdominal pain, loss of weight, itching (with no rash), and others,<ref name=GSC>[http://www.gilbertssyndrome.com/ GilbertsSyndrome.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060810065536/http://www.gilbertssyndrome.com/ |date=2006-08-10 }}</ref> such as humor change or [[depression (mood)|depression]]. But scientific studies found no clear pattern of adverse symptoms related to the elevated levels of unconjugated bilirubin in adults. However, other substances glucuronidized by the affected enzymes in those with Gilbert's syndrome could theoretically, at their toxic levels, cause these symptoms.<ref name=dispute>{{cite journal |vauthors=Olsson R, Bliding A, Jagenburg R, Lapidus L, Larsson B, Svärdsudd K, Wittboldt S | title=Gilbert's syndrome—does it exist? A study of the prevalence of symptoms in Gilbert syndrome | journal= Acta Medica Scandinavica | volume=224 | issue=5 | pages=485–490 | year=1988 | pmid=3264448 | doi=10.1111/j.0954-6820.1988.tb19615.x}}</ref><ref name="Bailey does it exist">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bailey A, Robinson D, Dawson AM | s2cid=41989158 | title=Does Gilbert's disease exist? | journal=Lancet | volume=1 | pages=931–3 | year=1977 | pmid=67389 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(77)92226-7 | issue=8018}}</ref>  Consequently, debate exists about whether GS should be classified as a disease.<ref name=dispute/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Larissa K. F. Temple |author2=Robin S. McLeod |author3=Steven Gallinger |author4=James G. Wright | title=Defining Disease in the Genomics Era | journal= Science Magazine | volume=293 | issue=5531 | pages=807–808 | year=2001 | doi=10.1126/science.1062938 | pmid=11486074|s2cid=6520035 | doi-access= }}</ref> However, Gilbert syndrome has been linked to an increased risk of [[gallstone]]s.<ref name=GSC/><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=del Giudice EM, Perrotta S, Nobili B, Specchia C, d'Urzo G, Iolascon A |title=Coinheritance of Gilbert syndrome increases the risk for developing gallstones in patients with hereditary spherocytosis |journal=Blood |volume=94 |issue=7 |pages=2259–62 |date=October 1999 |pmid=10498597 |url=http://bloodjournal.hematologylibrary.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10498597 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130414231815/http://bloodjournal.hematologylibrary.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10498597 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-04-14 |doi=10.1182/blood.V94.7.2259.419k42_2259_2262 |s2cid=40558696 }}</ref>
 == Cause ==
-Mutations in the UGT1A1 gene lead to Gilbert Syndrome.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gilbert Syndrome |url=https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/gilbert-syndrome/ |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=NORD (National Organization for Rare Disorders) |language=en-US}}</ref> The gene provides instructions for making the [[bilirubin uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase]] (bilirubin-UGT) enzyme, which can be found in the liver cells and responsible for the removal of bilirubin from the body.<ref name="medlineplus1">{{cite web |title=Gilbert syndrome: MedlinePlus Genetics |url=https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/gilbert-syndrome/ |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=medlineplus.gov |language=en}}</ref>
+Mutations in the ''UGT1A1'' gene lead to Gilbert Syndrome.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gilbert Syndrome |url=https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/gilbert-syndrome/ |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=NORD (National Organization for Rare Disorders) |language=en-US |archive-date=2017-02-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170220165114/https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/gilbert-syndrome/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The gene provides instructions for making the [[bilirubin uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase]] (bilirubin-UGT) enzyme, which can be found in the liver cells and is responsible for preparing bilirubin for removal from the body.<ref name="medlineplus1">{{cite web |title=Gilbert syndrome: MedlinePlus Genetics |url=https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/gilbert-syndrome/ |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=medlineplus.gov |language=en |archive-date=2019-04-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408003455/https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/gilbert-syndrome |url-status=live }}</ref>
-The bilirubin-UGT enzyme performs a chemical reaction called [[glucuronidation]]. [[Glucuronic acid]] is transferred to unconjugated bilirubin, which is a yellowish pigment made when your body breaks down old red blood cells,<ref>{{cite web |title=Gilbert's syndrome - Symptoms and causes |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/gilberts-syndrome/symptoms-causes/syc-20372811 |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=Mayo Clinic |language=en}}</ref> and then being converted to conjugated bilirubin during the reaction. Conjugated bilirubin passes from the liver into the intestines with bile. It's then excreted in stool.
+The bilirubin-UGT enzyme performs a chemical reaction called [[glucuronidation]]. [[Glucuronic acid]] is transferred to unconjugated bilirubin, which is a yellowish pigment made when your body breaks down old red blood cells,<ref>{{cite web |title=Gilbert's syndrome - Symptoms and causes |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/gilberts-syndrome/symptoms-causes/syc-20372811 |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=Mayo Clinic |language=en |archive-date=2017-11-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108164024/https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/gilberts-syndrome/basics/definition/con-20024904 |url-status=live }}</ref> and then being converted to conjugated bilirubin during the reaction. Conjugated bilirubin passes from the liver into the intestines with bile. It's then excreted in stool.{{cn|date=July 2024}}
 People with Gilbert syndrome have approximately 30 percent of normal bilirubin-UGT enzyme function, which contributes to a lower rate of glucuronidation of unconjugated bilirubin. This substance then accumulates in the body, causing mild hyperbilirubinemia.<ref name="medlineplus1"/>
@@ Line 72: / Line 72: @@
 More than 100 [[Genetic polymorphism|polymorphisms]] of the ''UGT1A1'' gene are known, designated as ''UGT1A1*n'' (where n is the general chronological order of discovery), either of the gene itself or of its [[promoter region]].  ''UGT1A1 ''is associated with a [[TATA box]] promoter region; this region most commonly contains the genetic sequence A(TA)<sub>6</sub>TAA; this variant accounts for about 50% of [[allele]]s in many populations.  However, several allelic [[Polymorphism (biology)|polymorphic variants]] of this region occur, the most common of which results from adding another [[Tandem repeat|dinucleotide repeat]] TA to the promoter region, resulting in A(TA)<sub>7</sub>TAA, which is called ''UGT1A1*28''; this common variant accounts for about 40% of alleles in some populations, but is seen less often, around 3% of alleles, in Southeast and East Asian people and Pacific Islanders.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}
-In most populations, Gilbert syndrome is most commonly associated with [[homozygous]] A(TA)<sub>7</sub>TAA alleles.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Raijmakers MT, Jansen PL, Steegers EA, Peters WH |title=Association of human liver bilirubin UDP-glucuronyltransferase activity, most commonly due to a polymorphism in the promoter region of the UGT1A1 gene|journal=Journal of Hepatology|year=2000|volume=33|issue=3|pages=348–351|pmid=11019988|doi=10.1016/S0168-8278(00)80268-8}}</ref><ref name="Bosma UDP-1">{{cite journal | author=Bosma PJ | title=The genetic basis of the reduced expression of bilirubin UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1 in Gilbert's syndrome |journal=New England Journal of Medicine| volume=333 | issue=18 | pages=1171–5 | year=1995 | pmid=7565971 |doi=10.1056/NEJM199511023331802| author2= Chowdhury JR | author3= Bakker C | author4= Gantla S | author5= de Boer A | author6= Oostra BA | author7= Lindhout D | author8= Tytgat GN | author9= Jansen PL | author10= Oude Elferink RP  | display-authors=etal  }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Monaghan G, Ryan M, Seddon R, Hume R, Burchell B | s2cid=24943762 | title=Genetic variation in bilirubin UPD-glucuronosyltransferase gene promoter and Gilbert's syndrome | journal=Lancet | volume=347 | issue=9001 | pages=578–81 | year=1996 | pmid=8596320 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(96)91273-8}}</ref>  In 94% of GS cases, two other glucuronosyltransferase enzymes, [[UGT1A6]] (rendered 50% inactive) and [[UGT1A7]] (rendered 83% ineffective), are also affected.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}
+In most populations, Gilbert syndrome is most commonly associated with [[homozygous]] A(TA)<sub>7</sub>TAA alleles.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Raijmakers MT, Jansen PL, Steegers EA, Peters WH |title=Association of human liver bilirubin UDP-glucuronyltransferase activity, most commonly due to a polymorphism in the promoter region of the UGT1A1 gene|journal=Journal of Hepatology|year=2000|volume=33|issue=3|pages=348–351|pmid=11019988|doi=10.1016/S0168-8278(00)80268-8}}</ref><ref name="Bosma UDP-1">{{cite journal | author=Bosma PJ | title=The genetic basis of the reduced expression of bilirubin UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1 in Gilbert's syndrome |journal=New England Journal of Medicine| volume=333 | issue=18 | pages=1171–5 | year=1995 | pmid=7565971 |doi=10.1056/NEJM199511023331802| author2= Chowdhury JR | author3= Bakker C | author4= Gantla S | author5= de Boer A | author6= Oostra BA | author7= Lindhout D | author8= Tytgat GN | author9= Jansen PL | author10= Oude Elferink RP  | display-authors=etal  | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Monaghan G, Ryan M, Seddon R, Hume R, Burchell B | s2cid=24943762 | title=Genetic variation in bilirubin UPD-glucuronosyltransferase gene promoter and Gilbert's syndrome | journal=Lancet | volume=347 | issue=9001 | pages=578–81 | year=1996 | pmid=8596320 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(96)91273-8}}</ref>  In 94% of GS cases, two other glucuronosyltransferase enzymes, [[UGT1A6]] (rendered 50% inactive) and [[UGT1A7]] (rendered 83% ineffective), are also affected.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}
 However, Gilbert syndrome can arise without TATA box promoter polymorphic variants; in some populations, particularly healthy Southeast and East Asians, Gilbert's syndrome is more often a consequence of [[heterozygote]] [[missense mutations]] (such as Gly71Arg also known as ''UGT1A1*6'', Tyr486Asp also known as ''UGT1A1*7'', Pro364Leu also known as ''UGT1A1*73'') in the actual gene coding region,<ref name="Mukherjee">{{EMedicine|article|176822|Gilbert Syndrome}}</ref> which may be associated with significantly higher bilirubin levels.<ref name="Mukherjee" />
@@ Line 88: / Line 88: @@
 While Gilbert syndrome is considered harmless, it is clinically important because it may give rise to a concern about a blood or liver condition, which could be more dangerous.  However, these conditions have additional indicators:{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}
 * In GS, unless another disease of the liver is also present, the liver enzymes [[Alanine transaminase|ALT/SGPT]] and [[Aspartate transaminase|AST/SGOT]], as well as [[albumin]], are within normal ranges.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}
-* More severe types of glucuronyl transferase disorders such as [[Crigler–Najjar syndrome]] (types I and II) are much more severe, with 0–10% UGT1A1 activity, with affected individuals at risk of brain damage in infancy (type I) and teenage years (type II).{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}
+* [[Crigler–Najjar syndrome]] (types I and II), a different glucuronyl transferase disorder, is much more severe, with 0–10% UGT1A1 activity,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549796/|author1=Singh, A.|author2=Koritala, J.|author3=Jialal, I.|chapter=Unconjugated Hyperbilirubinemia|date=20 May 2023|access-date=21 December 2023|title=StatPearls|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|location=Treasure Island, Florida|pmid=31747203|archive-date=18 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118165105/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549796/|url-status=live}}</ref> with affected individuals at risk of brain damage in infancy (type I) and teenage years (type II).{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}
 * [[Hemolysis]] of any cause can be excluded by a full blood count, haptoglobin, [[lactate dehydrogenase]] levels, and the absence of reticulocytosis (elevated reticulocytes in the blood would usually be observed in haemolytic anaemia).{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}
 * [[Dubin–Johnson syndrome]] and [[Rotor syndrome]] are rarer [[autosomal]] [[recessive]] disorders characterized by an increase of conjugated bilirubin.
@@ Line 97: / Line 97: @@
 ==Treatment==
 Typically no treatment is needed.<ref name=GARD2016/> If jaundice is significant [[phenobarbital]] may be used.<ref name=GARD2016/>
+==Research directions==
+===Vitamin levels===
+Studies conducted so far suggest that subjects with GS may have lower levels of vitamin D and folic acid than control subjects, having these levels inversely correlated with bilirubin levels. It may be that GS may impair the metabolism or absorption of these vitamins, or that these vitamins may affect the expression or activity of the UGT1A1 enzyme that is responsible for bilirubin conjugation. However, these studies had limitations, such as the small sample size, the lack of a standardized definition of GS, the possible confounding factors of diet, lifestyle, and medication use, and the cross-sectional and observational design that does not allow for causal inference.<ref name="pmid30717703">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kamal S, Abdelhakam S, Ghoraba D, Massoud Y, Aziz KA, Hassan H, Hafez T, Abdel Sallam A |title=The frequency, clinical course, and health related quality of life in adults with Gilbert's syndrome: a longitudinal study |journal=BMC Gastroenterol |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=22 |date=February 2019 |pmid=30717703 |pmc=6360704 |doi=10.1186/s12876-019-0931-2 |url= |doi-access=free }}</ref>
+===The role of bilirubin in health and disease===
+Ongoing studies suggest that mild hyperbilirubinaemia in GS may have beneficial effects, probably due to the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of bilirubin. Hyperbilirubinaemia in GS may protect against oxidative stress and inflammation-related diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, cancers, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders. However, the mechanisms and pathways of bilirubin protection are not fully elucidated, and the optimal level and range of bilirubin are unknown. The genetic and environmental factors that influence UGT1A1 expression and activity are also poorly characterized and may affect the variability and penetrance of GS.<ref name="pmid37390966"/> Despite the fact that hyperbilirubinemia in GS is associated with reduced incidence of cardiovascular diseases,<ref name="pmid31889709">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gorbunova O, Chernysheva E |title=A New Look at Gilbert Syndrome (Literature Review) |language=Russian |journal=Georgian Med News |volume= |issue=296 |pages=75–81 |date=November 2019 |pmid=31889709 |doi= |url=}}</ref> diabetes, and metabolic syndrome,<ref name="pmid34679671">{{cite journal |vauthors=Adin CA |title=Bilirubin as a Therapeutic Molecule: Challenges and Opportunities |journal=Antioxidants |volume=10 |issue=10 |date=September 2021 |page=1536 |pmid=34679671 |pmc=8532879 |doi=10.3390/antiox10101536 |url= |doi-access=free }}</ref> the clinical significance and implications of these GS research findings are unclear, and can not yet be translated into preventive or therapeutic strategies.<ref name="pmid37390966">{{cite journal |vauthors=Vítek L, Tiribelli C |title=Gilbert's syndrome revisited |journal=J Hepatol |volume=79 |issue=4 |pages=1049–1055 |date=October 2023 |pmid=37390966 |doi=10.1016/j.jhep.2023.06.004 |s2cid=259303433 |url=|doi-access=free }}</ref>
 == History ==
@@ Line 111: / Line 118: @@
 ==Society and culture==
 ===Notable cases===
-* [[Napoleon]]<ref name="Foulk">{{cite journal |author1=Foulk, WT |author2=Butt, HR |author3=Owen, CA Jr |author4=Whitcomb, FF Jr |author5=Mason, HL | title=Constitutional hepatic dysfunction (Gilbert's disease): its natural history and related syndromes | journal=Medicine (Baltimore) | volume=38  | year=1959 | pmid=13632313 | pages=25–46 | issue=1|doi=10.1097/00005792-195902000-00002 |s2cid=8265932 }}</ref>
+* [[Napoleon]]<ref name="Foulk">{{cite journal |author1=Foulk, WT |author2=Butt, HR |author3=Owen, CA Jr |author4=Whitcomb, FF Jr |author5=Mason, HL | title=Constitutional hepatic dysfunction (Gilbert's disease): its natural history and related syndromes | journal=Medicine (Baltimore) | volume=38  | year=1959 | pmid=13632313 | pages=25–46 | issue=1|doi=10.1097/00005792-195902000-00002 |s2cid=8265932 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
 * [[Arthur Kornberg]], Nobel laureate in Physiology or Medicine, 1959<ref name="Shmaefsky">{{cite book|last=Shmaefsky|first=Brian|title=Biotechnology 101|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2006|pages=[https://archive.org/details/biotechnology1010000shma/page/175 175]|chapter=5|isbn=978-0-313-33528-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E4KhutqTYNAC&q=%22Arthur%20Kornberg%22%20gilbert&pg=PA175|url=https://archive.org/details/biotechnology1010000shma/page/175}}</ref>
 * [[Nicky Wire]], [[Manic Street Preachers]] bassist<ref name="swep">{{cite news|title=Wire preaches delights of three cliffs|date=2007-04-27|work=[[South Wales Evening Post]]|page=3}}</ref>
 * [[Alexandr Dolgopolov]] (tennis player)<ref>{{cite news |author=David Cox. |title=A Tennis Player Learns to Be Aggressive for Health's Sake |newspaper=New York Times |date=19 April 2014 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/20/sports/tennis/tennis-roundup.html |location=Monte Carlo |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161014010306/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/20/sports/tennis/tennis-roundup.html |archive-date=14 October 2016 }}</ref>
-* [[Jonas Folger]], [[Grand Prix motorcycle racing|MotoGP]] rider<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.autosport.com/motogp/news/132907/illness-that-hut-down-folger-diagnosed |title=Illness that 'shut down' Tech3 MotoGP rookie Jonas Folger diagnosed |last=Khorounzhiy |first=Valentin |date=2017-11-09 |website=[[Autosport]].com |publisher=[[Motorsport Network]] |access-date=2017-11-09 |quote=After visiting specialists in his native Germany, Folger has been diagnosed with Gilbert's syndrome – a genetic ailment that precludes the liver from correctly processing bilirubin.}}</ref>
+* [[Jonas Folger]], [[Grand Prix motorcycle racing|MotoGP]] rider.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.autosport.com/motogp/news/132907/illness-that-hut-down-folger-diagnosed |title=Illness that 'shut down' Tech3 MotoGP rookie Jonas Folger diagnosed |last=Khorounzhiy |first=Valentin |date=2017-11-09 |website=[[Autosport]].com |publisher=[[Motorsport Network]] |access-date=2017-11-09 |quote=After visiting specialists in his native Germany, Folger has been diagnosed with Gilbert's syndrome – a genetic ailment that precludes the liver from correctly processing bilirubin. |archive-date=2017-11-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171110114518/https://www.autosport.com/motogp/news/132907/illness-that-hut-down-folger-diagnosed |url-status=live }}</ref>
-* [[Huo Yuanjia]] (master of Chinese martial art){{citation needed|date=August 2022}}
-* [[David Barnea]] (Mossad Chief){{citation needed|date=August 2022}}
 ==References==
@@ Line 127: / Line 130: @@
 * [https://gilbertssyndrome.org.uk Understanding Gilbert's Syndrome and living better with Gilbert's Syndrome symptoms]
 * {{RareDiseases|6507|Gilbert's syndrome }}
-* [http://bestpractice.bmj.com/best-practice/monograph/346.html Gilbert's Syndrome] [[BMJ]] Best Practices monograph
+* [http://bestpractice.bmj.com/best-practice/monograph/346.html Gilbert's Syndrome] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518044745/http://bestpractice.bmj.com/best-practice/monograph/346.html |date=2016-05-18 }} [[BMJ]] Best Practices monograph
+{{Heme metabolism disorders}}
 {{Medical resources
 | DiseasesDB      = 5218
@@ Line 140: / Line 145: @@
 | SNOMED CT       = 27503000
 }}
+{{Authority control}}
-{{Heme metabolism disorders}}
 {{DEFAULTSORT:Gilbert's Syndrome}}

Classification	D ICD-10: E80.4 ICD-9-CM: 277.4 OMIM: 143500 MeSH: D005878 DiseasesDB: 5218 SNOMED CT: 27503000
External resources	MedlinePlus: 000301 eMedicine: med/870 Patient UK: Gilbert's syndrome