View source for Ore

{{short description|Rock with valuable metals, minerals and elements}}
{{other uses}}
[[File:Banded iron formation.png|thumb|[[Iron]] ore ([[banded iron formation]])]]
[[File:Psilomelane-167850.jpg|thumb|[[Manganese]] ore&nbsp;– [[psilomelane]] (size: 6.7 × 5.8 × 5.1&nbsp;cm)]]
[[File:Anglesite-Galena-249200.jpg|thumb|[[Lead]] ore&nbsp;– [[galena]] and [[anglesite]] (size: 4.8 × 4.0 × 3.0&nbsp;cm)]]

'''Ore''' is natural [[Rock (geology)|rock]] or [[sediment]] that contains one or more valuable [[mineral]]s, typically including [[metal]]s, concentrated above background levels, and that is economically viable to mine and process.<ref name="Jenkin-2014">{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkin |first1=Gawen R. T. |last2=Lusty |first2=Paul A. J. |last3=McDonald |first3=Iain |last4=Smith |first4=Martin P. |last5=Boyce |first5=Adrian J. |last6=Wilkinson |first6=Jamie J. |date=2014 |title=Ore deposits in an evolving Earth: an introduction |url=https://doi.org/10.1144/SP393.14 |journal=Geological Society |volume=393 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1144/sp393.14 |s2cid=129135737 |issn=0305-8719}}</ref><ref name="Brit_Ore23">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Ore|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/ore-mining|access-date=2021-04-07}}</ref><ref name="AGI">{{cite book|editor-last1=Neuendorf|editor-first1=K.K.E.|editor-last2=Mehl|editor-first2=J.P. Jr.|editor-last3=Jackson|editor-first3=J.A.|year=2011|title=Glossary of Geology|publisher=American Geological Institute|page=799}}</ref> The grade of ore refers to the concentration of the desired material it contains. The value of the metals or minerals a rock contains must be weighed against the cost of extraction to determine whether it is of sufficiently high grade to be worth mining and is therefore considered an ore.<ref name="Hustrulid22">{{cite book |last1=Hustrulid |first1=William A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3XTOBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |title=Open Pit Mine Planning and Design |last2=Kuchta |first2=Mark |last3=Martin |first3=Randall K. |date=2013 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4822-2117-6 |location=Boca Raton, Florida |page=1 |access-date=5 May 2020}}</ref> A complex ore is one containing more than one valuable mineral.<ref name="Wills-2015" />

Minerals of interest are generally [[Oxide mineral|oxides]], [[Sulfide mineral|sulfides]], [[Silicate minerals|silicates]], or [[native metal]]s such as [[Native copper|copper]] or [[gold]].<ref name="Wills-2015">{{Cite book |last=Wills |first=B. A. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/920545608 |title=Wills' mineral processing technology : an introduction to the practical aspects of ore treatment and mineral recovery |date=2015 |publisher=Elsevier Science & Technology |isbn=978-0-08-097054-7 |edition=8th |location=Oxford |oclc=920545608}}</ref> Ore bodies are formed by a variety of [[Geology|geological]] processes generally referred to as [[ore genesis]] and can be classified based on their deposit type. Ore is extracted from the earth through [[mining]] and treated or [[Refining (metallurgy)|refined]], often via [[smelting]], to extract the valuable metals or minerals.<ref name="Hustrulid22" /> Some ores, depending on their composition, may pose threats to health or surrounding ecosystems.

The word ore is of [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] origin, meaning ''lump of metal''.<ref name="Rapp-2009">{{Citation |last=Rapp |first=George |title=Metals and Related Minerals and Ores |date=2009 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-540-78594-1_7 |work=Archaeomineralogy |series=Natural Science in Archaeology |pages=143–182 |access-date=2023-03-06 |place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |doi=10.1007/978-3-540-78594-1_7 |isbn=978-3-540-78593-4}}</ref>

== Gangue and tailings ==
In most cases, an ore does not consist entirely of a single mineral, but it is mixed with other valuable minerals and with unwanted or valueless rocks and minerals. The part of an ore that is not economically desirable and that cannot be avoided in mining is known as [[gangue]].<ref name="Brit_Ore23"/><ref name="AGI" /> The valuable ore minerals are separated from the gangue minerals by [[froth flotation]], gravity concentration, electric or magnetic methods, and other operations known collectively as [[mineral processing]]<ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Drzymała |first1=Jan |url=https://www.dbc.wroc.pl/Content/2070/Drzymala_mineral.pdf |title=Mineral processing : foundations of theory and practice of minerallurgy |date=2007 |publisher=University of Technology |isbn=978-83-7493-362-9 |edition=1st eng. |location=Wroclaw |access-date=24 September 2021}}</ref> or [[ore dressing]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Petruk |first1=William |title=Mineral Processing Design |chapter=Applied Mineralogy in Ore Dressing |date=1987 |pages=2–36 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3549-5_2 |isbn=978-94-010-8087-3}}</ref>

Mineral processing consists of first liberation, to free the ore from the gangue, and concentration to separate the desired mineral(s) from it.<ref name="Wills-2015" /> Once processed, the gangue is known as [[tailings]], which are useless but potentially harmful materials produced in great quantity, especially from lower grade deposits.<ref name="Wills-2015" />

== Ore deposits ==
{{Main|Mineral resource classification}}

An ore deposit is an economically significant accumulation of minerals within a host rock.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Heinrich |first1=C. A. |title=13.1 – Fluids and Ore Formation in the Earth's Crust |date=2014-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080959757011013 |work=Treatise on Geochemistry (Second Edition) |pages=1–28 |editor-last=Holland |editor-first=Heinrich D. |access-date=2023-02-10 |place=Oxford |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |isbn=978-0-08-098300-4 |last2=Candela |first2=P. A. |editor2-last=Turekian |editor2-first=Karl K.}}</ref> This is distinct from a mineral resource in that it is a mineral deposit occurring in high enough concentration to be economically viable.<ref name="Hustrulid22" /> An ore deposit is one occurrence of a particular ore type.<ref name="JORCCODE2">{{cite book |last1=Joint Ore Reserves Committee |url=http://www.jorc.org/docs/jorc_code2012.pdf |title=The JORC Code 2012 |date=2012 |edition=2012 |pages=44 |access-date=10 June 2020}}</ref> Most ore deposits are named according to their location, or after a discoverer (e.g. the [[Kambalda type komatiitic nickel ore deposits|Kambalda]] nickel shoots are named after drillers),<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chiat |first1=Josh |date=10 June 2021 |title=These secret Kambalda mines missed the 2000s nickel boom – meet the company bringing them back to life |work=Stockhead |url=https://stockhead.com.au/resources/kambalda-nickel-boom-lunnon/ |access-date=24 September 2021}}</ref> or after some whimsy, a historical figure, a prominent person, a city or town from which the owner came, something from mythology (such as the name of a god or goddess)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Thornton |first1=Tracy |date=19 July 2020 |title=Mines of the past had some odd names |agency=Montana Standard |url=https://mtstandard.com/lifestyles/mines-of-the-past-had-some-odd-names/article_efce26cc-a021-5493-b4ed-834aa6fe0dfe.html |access-date=24 September 2021}}</ref> or the code name of the resource company which found it (e.g. MKD-5 was the in-house name for the [[Mount Keith Mine|Mount Keith nickel sulphide deposit]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dowling |first1=S. E. |last2=Hill |first2=R. E. T. |date=July 1992 |title=The distribution of PGE in fractionated Archaean komatiites, Western and Central Ultramafic Units, Mt Keith region, Western Australia |journal=Australian Journal of Earth Sciences |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=349–363 |bibcode=1992AuJES..39..349D |doi=10.1080/08120099208728029}}</ref>

=== Classification ===
{{Main|Ore genesis}}

Ore deposits are classified according to various criteria developed via the study of economic geology, or [[ore genesis]]. The following is a general categorization of the main ore deposit types:

=== Magmatic deposits ===

Magmatic deposits are ones who originate directly from magma[[File:Grainitic Pegmatite.jpg|thumb|244x244px|Granitic pegmatite composed of plagioclase and K-feldspar, large hornblende crystal present. Scale bar is 5.0 cm]]
* [[Pegmatite]]s are very coarse grained, igneous rocks. They crystallize slowly at great depth beneath the surface, leading to their very large crystal sizes. Most are of granitic composition. They are a large source of industrial minerals such as [[quartz]], [[feldspar]], [[spodumene]], [[petalite]], and [[Lithophile element|rare lithophile elements]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=London |first=David |date=2018 |title=Ore-forming processes within granitic pegmatites |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169136818300283 |journal=Ore Geology Reviews |language= |volume=101 |pages=349–383 |doi=10.1016/j.oregeorev.2018.04.020 |bibcode=2018OGRv..101..349L |issn=0169-1368}}</ref>
* [[Carbonatite]]s are an igneous rock whose volume is made up of over 50% carbonate minerals. They are produced from mantle derived magmas, typically at continental rift zones. They contain more [[Rare-earth element|rare earth elements]] than any other igneous rock, and as such are a major source of light rare earth elements.<ref name="Verplanck-2016">{{Cite book |last1=Verplanck |first1=Philip L. |url=https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/70138176 |title=Rare earth and critical elements in ore deposits |last2=Mariano |first2=Anthony N. |last3=Mariano Jr |first3=Anthony |publisher=Society of Economic Geologists, Inc. |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-62949-218-6 |location=Littleton, CO |pages=5–32 |chapter=Rare earth element ore geology of carbonatites |oclc=946549103}}</ref>
* Magmatic [[Sulfide mineral|Sulfide]] Deposits form from mantle melts which rise upwards, and gain sulfur through interaction with the crust. This causes the sulfide minerals present to be immiscible, precipitating out when the melt crystallizes.<ref name="Naldrett-2011">{{Cite book |last=Naldrett |first=A. J. |title=Magmatic Ni-Cu and PGE Deposits: Geology, Geochemistry, and Genesis |publisher=Society of Economic Geologists |year=2011 |isbn=9781934969359 |chapter=Fundamentals of Magmatic Sulfide Deposits}}</ref><ref name="Song-2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Song |first1=Xieyan |last2=Wang |first2=Yushan |last3=Chen |first3=Liemeng |date=2011 |title=Magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits in magma plumbing systems: Features, formation and exploration |journal=Geoscience Frontiers |language= |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=375–384 |doi=10.1016/j.gsf.2011.05.005|bibcode=2011GeoFr...2..375S |doi-access=free }}</ref> Magmatic sulfide deposits can be subdivided into two groups by their dominant ore element:
** Ni-Cu, found in [[komatiite]]s, [[anorthosite]] complexes, and [[flood basalt]]s.<ref name="Naldrett-2011" /> This also includes the [[Sudbury Basin|Sudbury Nickel Basin]], the only known astrobleme source of such ore.<ref name="Song-2011" />
** [[Platinum group elements|Platinum Group Elements]] (PGE) from large [[mafic]] intrusions and [[Tholeiitic magma series|tholeiitic]] rock.<ref name="Naldrett-2011" />
* Stratiform Chromites are strongly linked to PGE magmatic sulfide deposits.<ref name="Schulte-2010">{{Cite journal |last1=Schulte |first1=Ruth F. |last2=Taylor |first2=Ryan D. |last3=Piatak |first3=Nadine M. |last4=Seal |first4=Robert R. |date=2010 |title=Stratiform chromite deposit model |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/ofr20101232 |journal=Open-File Report |page=49 |doi=10.3133/ofr20101232 |bibcode=2010usgs.rept...49S |issn=2331-1258}}</ref> These highly mafic intrusions are a source of [[chromite]], the only [[chromium]] ore.<ref name="Mosier-2012">{{Cite journal |last1=Mosier |first1=Dan L. |last2=Singer |first2=Donald A. |last3=Moring |first3=Barry C. |last4=Galloway |first4=John P. |date=2012 |title=Podiform chromite deposits—database and grade and tonnage models |journal=Scientific Investigations Report |publisher=USGS |pages=i–45 |doi=10.3133/sir20125157 |issn=2328-0328|doi-access=free |bibcode=2012usgs.rept...71M }}</ref> They are so named due to their strata-like shape and formation via layered magmatic injection into the host rock. Chromium is usually located within the bottom of the intrusion. They are typically found within intrusions in continental cratons, the most famous example being the [[Bushveld complex|Bushveld Complex]] in South Africa.<ref name="Schulte-2010" /><ref>{{Citation |last=Condie |first=Kent C. |title=Tectonic settings |date=2022 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780128199145000020 |work=Earth as an Evolving Planetary System |pages=39–79 |access-date=2023-03-03 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-819914-5.00002-0 |isbn=978-0-12-819914-5}}</ref>
* [[Podiform|Podiform Chromitites]] are found in ultramafic oceanic rocks resulting from complex magma mixing.<ref name="Arai-1997"/> They are hosted in serpentine and dunite rich layers and are another source of chromite.<ref name="Mosier-2012" />
* [[Kimberlite]]s are a primary source for diamonds. They originate from depths of 150&nbsp;km in the mantle and are mostly composed of crustal [[xenocryst]]s, high amounts of magnesium, other trace elements, gases, and in some cases diamond.<ref name="Giuliani-2019"/>
[[File:Kimberliite.jpg|thumb|260x260px|Piece of kimberlite. 11.1 cm x 4.5 cm]]

=== Metamorphic deposits ===
These are ore deposits which form as a direct result of metamorphism.
* [[Skarn]]s occur in numerous geologic settings worldwide.<ref name="Meinert-1992">{{Cite journal |last=Meinert |first=Lawrence D. |date=1992 |title=Skarns and Skarn Deposits |url=https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/GC/article/view/3773 |journal=Geoscience Canada |language= |volume=19 |issue=4 |issn=1911-4850}}</ref> They are silicates derived from the recrystallization of carbonates like [[limestone]] through [[Contact metamorphic|contact]] or [[regional metamorphism]], or fluid related [[Metasomatism|metasomatic]] events.<ref name="Einaudi-1981">{{Cite book |last1=Einaudi |first1=M. T. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/989865633 |title=Economic Geology Seventy-fifth anniversary volume |last2=Meinert |first2=L. D. |last3=Newberry |first3=R. J. |publisher=Society of Economic Geologists |others=Brian J. Skinner, Society of Economic Geologists |year=1981 |isbn=978-1-934969-53-3 |edition=75th |location=Littleton, Colorado |chapter=Skarn Deposits |oclc=989865633}}</ref> Not all are economic, but those with potential value are classified depending on the dominant element such as Ca, Fe, Mg, or Mn among many others.<ref name="Meinert-1992" /><ref name="Einaudi-1981" /> They are one of the most diverse and abundant mineral deposits.<ref name="Einaudi-1981" /> As such they are classified solely by their common mineralogy, mainly [[garnet]]s and [[pyroxene]]s.<ref name="Meinert-1992" />
* [[Greisen]]s, like skarns, are a metamorphosed silicate, quartz-mica mineral deposit. Formed from a granitic [[protolith]] due to alteration by intruding magmas, they are large ore sources of [[tin]] and [[tungsten]] in the form of [[wolframite]], [[cassiterite]], [[stannite]] and [[scheelite]].<ref name="Pirajno-1992">{{Cite book |last=Pirajno |first=Franco |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/851777050 |title=Hydrothermal Mineral Deposits : Principles and Fundamental Concepts for the Exploration Geologist |date=1992 |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-642-75671-9 |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |oclc=851777050}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Manutchehr-Danai |first=Mohsen |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/646793373 |title=Dictionary of gems and gemology |date=2009 |publisher=Springer |others=Christian Witschel, Kerstin Kindler |isbn=9783540727958 |edition=3rd |location=Berlin |oclc=646793373}}</ref>

=== Porphyry copper deposits ===

These are the leading source of copper ore.<ref name="Hayes-2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Hayes |first1=Timothy S. |last2=Cox |first2=Dennis P. |last3=Bliss |first3=James D. |last4=Piatak |first4=Nadine M. |last5=Seal |first5=Robert R. |date=2015 |title=Sediment-hosted stratabound copper deposit model |journal=Scientific Investigations Report |page=147 |doi=10.3133/sir20105070m |issn=2328-0328|doi-access=free |bibcode=2015usgs.rept...40H }}</ref><ref name="Lee-2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Cin-Ty A |last2=Tang |first2=Ming |date=2020 |title=How to make porphyry copper deposits |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |language= |volume=529 |page=115868 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2019.115868|bibcode=2020E&PSL.52915868L |s2cid=208008163 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Porphyry copper deposit]]s form along [[Convergent boundary|convergent boundaries]] and are thought to originate from the partial melting of subducted oceanic plates and subsequent concentration of Cu, driven by oxidation.<ref name="Lee-2020" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sun |first1=Weidong |last2=Wang |first2=Jin-tuan |last3=Zhang |first3=Li-peng |last4=Zhang |first4=Chan-chan |last5=Li |first5=He |last6=Ling |first6=Ming-xing |last7=Ding |first7=Xing |last8=Li |first8=Cong-ying |last9=Liang |first9=Hua-ying |date=2016 |title=The formation of porphyry copper deposits |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11631-016-0132-4 |journal=Acta Geochimica |language= |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=9–15 |doi=10.1007/s11631-016-0132-4 |s2cid=132971792 |issn=2096-0956}}</ref> These are large, round, disseminated deposits containing on average 0.8% copper by weight.<ref name="Wills-2015" />

'''Hydrothermal'''[[File:Classic_VMS_Deposit2.png|thumb|A cross-section of a typical [[Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit|volcanogenic massive sulfide]] (VMS) ore deposit]] [[Hydrothermal mineral deposit|Hydrothermal deposits]] are a large source of ore. They form as a result of the precipitation of dissolved ore constituents out of fluids.<ref name="Jenkin-2014" /><ref name="FutMinRes2">Arndt, N. and others (2017) Future mineral resources, Chap. 2, Formation of mineral resources, [https://www.geochemicalperspectives.org/online/v6n1/ Geochemical Perspectives, v6-1, p. 18–51].</ref>
* [[Mississippi Valley-Type]] (MVT) deposits precipitate from relatively cool, basal brinal fluids within carbonate strata. These are sources of [[lead]] and [[zinc]]  sulphide ore.<ref name="Leach-2001"/>
* Sediment-Hosted Stratiform Copper Deposits (SSC) form when copper sulphides precipitate out of brinal fluids into sedimentary basins near the equator.<ref name="Hayes-2015" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hitzman |first1=M. W. |last2=Selley |first2=D. |last3=Bull |first3=S. |date=2010 |title=Formation of Sedimentary Rock-Hosted Stratiform Copper Deposits through Earth History |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.105.3.627 |journal=Economic Geology |volume=105 |issue=3 |pages=627–639 |doi=10.2113/gsecongeo.105.3.627 |bibcode=2010EcGeo.105..627H |issn=0361-0128}}</ref> These are the second most common source of copper ore after porphyry copper deposits, supplying 20% of the worlds copper in addition to silver and cobalt.<ref name="Hayes-2015" />
* [[Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit|Volcanogenic massive sulphide]] (VMS) deposits form on the seafloor from precipitation of metal rich solutions, typically associated with hydrothermal activity. They take the general form of a large sulphide rich mound above disseminated sulphides and viens. VMS deposits are a major source of [[zinc]] (Zn), [[copper]] (Cu), [[lead]] (Pb), [[silver]] (Ag), and [[gold]] (Au).<ref name="Galley-2007" />[[File:Gold-Quartz-273364.jpg|thumb|[[Gold]] ore (size: 7.5 × 6.1 × 4.1&nbsp;cm)]]
* [[SEDEX|Sedimentary exhalative sulphide deposits]] (SEDEX) are a copper sulphide ore which form in the same manor as VMS from metal rich brine but are hosted within sedimentary rocks and are not directly related to volcanism.<ref name="Pirajno-1992" /><ref>{{Citation |last=Hannington |first=Mark |title=VMS and SEDEX Deposits |date=2021 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780081029084000758 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Geology |pages=867–876 |access-date=2023-03-03 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-102908-4.00075-8 |isbn=978-0-08-102909-1|s2cid=243007984 }}</ref>
* [[Orogenic gold deposit]]s are a bulk source for gold, with 75% of gold production originating from orogenic gold deposits. Formation occurs during late stage mountain building (''see [[orogeny]]'') where metamorphism forces gold containing fluids into joints and fractures where they precipitate. These tend to be strongly correlated with quartz veins.<ref name="Jenkin-2014" />
* [[Epithermal vein deposit]]s form in the shallow crust from concentration of metal bearing fluids into veins and stockworks where conditions favour precipitation.<ref name="Pirajno-1992" /><ref name="Mosier-2012" /> These volcanic related deposits are a source of gold and silver ore, the primary precipitants.<ref name="Mosier-2012" />

=== Sedimentary deposits ===

[[File:MichiganBIF.jpg|thumb|Magnified view of banded iron formation specimen from Upper Michigan. Scale bar is 5.0 mm.]]
[[Laterite]]s form from the weathering of highly mafic rock near the equator. They can form in as little as one million years and are a source of [[iron]] (Fe), [[manganese]] (Mn), and [[aluminum]] (Al).<ref name="Persons-1970" /> They may also be a source of nickel and cobalt when the parent rock is enriched in these elements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=Erin E. |last2=Anderson |first2=Eric D. |last3=Gray |first3=Floyd |date=2013 |title=Nickel-cobalt laterites: a deposit model |journal=Scientific Investigations Report |page=59 |doi=10.3133/sir20105070h |issn=2328-0328|doi-access=free |bibcode=2013usgs.rept...59M }}</ref>

[[Banded iron formation]]s (BIFs) are the highest concentration of any single metal available.<ref name="Jenkin-2014" /> They are composed of chert beds alternating between high and low iron concentrations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cloud |first=Preston |date=1973 |title=Paleoecological Significance of the Banded Iron-Formation |url=http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/economicgeology/article/68/7/1135/18462/Paleoecological-Significance-of-the-Banded |journal=Economic Geology |language=en |volume=68 |issue=7 |pages=1135–1143 |doi=10.2113/gsecongeo.68.7.1135 |bibcode=1973EcGeo..68.1135C |issn=1554-0774}}</ref> Their deposition occurred early in Earth's history when the atmospheric composition was significantly different from today. Iron rich water is thought to have upwelled where it oxidized to Fe (III) in the presence of early photosynthetic plankton producing oxygen. This iron then precipitated out and deposited on the ocean floor. The banding is thought to be a result of changing plankton population.<ref name="cloud-1968">{{cite journal |last1=Cloud |first1=Preston E. |year=1968 |title=Atmospheric and Hydrospheric Evolution on the Primitive Earth. |journal=Science |volume=160 |pages=729–736 |bibcode=1968Sci...160..729C |doi=10.1126/science.160.3829.729 |jstor=1724303 |pmid=5646415 |number=3829}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schad |first1=Manuel |last2=Byrne |first2=James M. |last3=ThomasArrigo |first3=Laurel K. |last4=Kretzschmar |first4=Ruben |last5=Konhauser |first5=Kurt O. |last6=Kappler |first6=Andreas |date=2022 |title=Microbial Fe cycling in a simulated Precambrian ocean environment: Implications for secondary mineral (trans)formation and deposition during BIF genesis |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0016703722002514 |journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta |language=en |volume=331 |pages=165–191 |doi=10.1016/j.gca.2022.05.016|bibcode=2022GeCoA.331..165S |s2cid=248977303 }}</ref>

Sediment Hosted Copper forms from the precipitation of a copper rich oxidized brine into sedimentary rocks. These are a source of copper primarily in the form of copper-sulfide minerals.<ref name="Sillit20172">{{cite journal | doi=10.1007/s00126-017-0769-x | title=Reply to discussions of "Age of the Zambian Copperbelt" by Hitzman and Broughton and Muchez et al | year=2017 | last1=Sillitoe | first1=Richard H. | last2=Perelló | first2=José | last3=Creaser | first3=Robert A. | last4=Wilton | first4=John | last5=Wilson | first5=Alan J. | last6=Dawborn | first6=Toby | journal=Mineralium Deposita | volume=52 | issue=8 | pages=1277–1281 | bibcode=2017MinDe..52.1277S | s2cid=134709798 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Hitzman |first1=Murray |title=The Sediment-Hosted Stratiform Copper Ore System |date=2005 |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/1940/chapter/107716228 |work=One Hundredth Anniversary Volume |access-date=2023-03-05 |publisher=Society of Economic Geologists |language=en |doi=10.5382/av100.19 |isbn=978-1-887483-01-8 |last2=Kirkham |first2=Rodney |last3=Broughton |first3=David |last4=Thorson |first4=Jon |last5=Selley |first5=David}}</ref>

[[Placer deposit|Placer]] deposits are the result of weathering, transport, and subsequent concentration of a valuable mineral via water or wind. They are typically sources of gold (Au), [[platinum group]] elements (PGE), [[sulfide mineral]]s, tin (Sn), [[tungsten]] (W), and [[rare-earth element]]s (REEs). A placer deposit is considered alluvial if formed via river, colluvial if by gravity, and eluvial when close to their parent rock.<ref name="Best-2015" /><ref name="Haldar-2013" />

=== Manganese nodules ===
[[Polymetallic nodules]], also called manganese nodules, are mineral [[concretion]]s on the [[sea]] floor formed of concentric layers of [[iron]] and [[manganese]] [[hydroxide]]s around a core.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=Laiming |date=2022-09-01 |title=Pedogenic ferromanganese nodules and their impacts on nutrient cycles and heavy metal sequestration |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825222002318 |journal=Earth-Science Reviews |volume=232 |pages=104147 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104147 |bibcode=2022ESRv..23204147H |issn=0012-8252}}</ref> They are formed by a combination of [[Diagenesis|diagenetic]] and sedimentary precipitation at the estimated rate of about a centimeter over several million years.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kobayashi |first1=Takayuki |last2=Nagai |first2=Hisao |last3=Kobayashi |first3=Koichi |date=October 2000 |title=Concentration profiles of 10Be in large manganese crusts |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0168583X00002068 |journal=Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms |language=en |volume=172 |issue=1–4 |pages=579–582 |doi=10.1016/S0168-583X(00)00206-8}}</ref> The average diameter of a polymetallic nodule is between 3 and 10&nbsp;cm (1 and 4 in) in diameter and are characterized by enrichment in iron, manganese, [[heavy metals]], and [[rare earth element]] content when compared to the Earth's crust and surrounding sediment. The proposed mining of these nodules via [[Remotely operated underwater vehicle|remotely operated]] ocean floor trawling robots has raised a number of ecological concerns.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Neate |first=Rupert |date=2022-04-29 |title='Deep-sea gold rush' for rare metals could cause irreversible harm |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/apr/29/deep-sea-gold-rush-rare-metals-environmental-harm |access-date=2023-11-28 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

== Extraction ==
{{Main|Mining}}
[[File:OreCartPachuca.JPG|thumb|upright|Minecart on display at the Historic Archive and Museum of Mining in [[Pachuca]], [[Mexico]]]]
[[File:Simplified world mining map 1.png|thumb|Some ore deposits in the world]]
[[File:Simplified world mining map 2.png|thumb|Some additional ore deposits in the world]]
The extraction of ore deposits generally follows these steps.<ref name="Hustrulid22" /> Progression from stages 1–3 will see a continuous disqualification of potential ore bodies as more information is obtained on their viability:<ref name="Marjoribanks-1997">{{Cite book |last=Marjoribanks |first=Roger W. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37694569 |title=Geological methods in mineral exploration and mining |date=1997 |publisher=Chapman & Hall |isbn=0-412-80010-1 |edition=1st |location=London |oclc=37694569}}</ref>

# [[Prospecting]] to find where an ore is located. The prospecting stage generally involves mapping, [[geophysical survey]] techniques ([[Aerial survey|aerial]] and/or [[Surveying|ground-based]] surveys), geochemical sampling, and preliminary drilling.<ref name="Marjoribanks-1997" /><ref name="novascotia.ca">{{Cite web |title=The Mining Cycle {{!}} novascotia.ca |url=https://novascotia.ca/natr/meb/education/mining-cycle.asp |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=novascotia.ca}}</ref>
# After a deposit is discovered, [[Mineral exploration|exploration]] is conducted to define its extent and value via further mapping and sampling techniques such as targeted [[Exploration diamond drilling|diamond drilling]] to intersect the potential ore body. This exploration stage determines ore grade, tonnage, and if the deposit is a viable economic resource.<ref name="Marjoribanks-1997" /><ref name="novascotia.ca" />
# A [[feasibility study]] then considers the theoretical implications of the potential mining operation in order to determine if it should move ahead with development. This includes evaluating the economically recoverable portion of the deposit, marketability and payability of the ore concentrates, engineering, milling and infrastructure costs, finance and equity requirements, potential environmental impacts, political implications, and a cradle to grave analysis from the initial excavation all the way through to [[Land reclamation|reclamation]].<ref name="Marjoribanks-1997" /> Multiple experts from differing fields must then approve the study before the project can move on to the next stage.<ref name="Hustrulid22" /> Depending on the size of the project, a pre-feasibility study is sometimes first performed to decide preliminary potential and if a much costlier full feasibility study is even warranted.<ref name="Marjoribanks-1997" />
# Development begins once an ore body has been confirmed economically viable and involves steps to prepare for its extraction such as building of a mine plant and equipment.<ref name="Hustrulid22" />
# Production can then begin and is the operation of the mine in an active sense. The time a mine is active is dependent on its remaining reserves and profitability.<ref name="Hustrulid22" /><ref name="novascotia.ca" /> The extraction method used is entirely dependent on the deposit type, geometry, and surrounding geology.<ref name="Onargan-2012">{{Cite book |last=Onargan |first=Turgay |url= |title=Mining Methods |date=2012 |publisher=IntechOpen |isbn=978-953-51-0289-2 |location= |oclc=}}</ref> Methods can be generally categorized into surface mining such as [[Open-pit mining|open pit]] or [[Strip-mining|strip mining]], and underground mining such as [[Block Caving|block caving]], cut and fill, and [[stoping]].<ref name="Onargan-2012" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Brady |first=B. H. G. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/262680067 |title=Rock mechanics : for underground mining |date=2006 |publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |others=E. T. Brown |isbn=978-1-4020-2116-9 |edition=3rd |location=Dordrecht |oclc=262680067}}</ref>
# [[Land rehabilitation|Reclamation]], once the mine is no longer operational, makes the land where a mine had been suitable for future use.<ref name="novascotia.ca" />

With rates of ore discovery in a steady decline since the mid 20th century, it is thought that most surface level, easily accessible sources have been exhausted. This means progressively lower grade deposits must be turned to, and new methods of extraction must be developed.<ref name="Jenkin-2014" />

== Hazards ==
{{Main|Environmental effects of mining}}
Some ores contain [[heavy metals]], toxins, [[radioactive isotopes]] and other potentially negative compounds which may pose a risk to the environment or health. The exact effects an ore and its tailings have is dependent on the minerals present. Tailings of particular concern are those of older mines, as containment and remediation methods in the past were next to non-existent, leading to high levels of leaching into the surrounding environment.<ref name="Wills-2015" /> [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] and [[arsenic]] are two ore related elements of particular concern.<ref name="Franks">{{cite journal|last1=Franks|first1=DM|last2=Boger|first2=DV|last3=Côte|first3=CM|last4=Mulligan|first4=DR|year=2011|title=Sustainable Development Principles for the Disposal of Mining and Mineral Processing Wastes|journal=Resources Policy|volume=36|number=2|pages=114–122|doi=10.1016/j.resourpol.2010.12.001 |bibcode=2011RePol..36..114F }}</ref> Additional elements found in ore which may have adverse health affects in organisms include iron, lead, uranium, zinc, silicon, titanium, sulfur, nitrogen, platinum, and chromium.<ref name="da Silva-Rêgo-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=da Silva-Rêgo |first1=Leonardo Lucas |last2=de Almeida |first2=Leonardo Augusto |last3=Gasparotto |first3=Juciano |date=2022 |title=Toxicological effects of mining hazard elements |journal=Energy Geoscience |language=en |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=255–262 |doi=10.1016/j.engeos.2022.03.003|bibcode=2022EneG....3..255D |s2cid=247735286 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Exposure to these elements may result in respiratory and cardiovascular problems and neurological issues.<ref name="da Silva-Rêgo-2022" /> These are of particular danger to aquatic life if dissolved in water.<ref name="Wills-2015" /> Ores such as those of sulphide minerals may severely increase the acidity of their immediate surroundings and of water, with numerous, long lasting impacts on ecosystems.<ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mestre |first1=Nélia C. |last2=Rocha |first2=Thiago L. |last3=Canals |first3=Miquel |last4=Cardoso |first4=Cátia |last5=Danovaro |first5=Roberto |last6=Dell’Anno |first6=Antonio |last7=Gambi |first7=Cristina |last8=Regoli |first8=Francesco |last9=Sanchez-Vidal |first9=Anna |last10=Bebianno |first10=Maria João |date=September 2017 |title=Environmental hazard assessment of a marine mine tailings deposit site and potential implications for deep-sea mining |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S026974911632574X |journal=Environmental Pollution |language=en |volume=228 |pages=169–178 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2017.05.027|pmid=28531798 |bibcode=2017EPoll.228..169M |hdl=10400.1/10388 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> When water becomes contaminated it may transport these compounds far from the tailings site, greatly increasing the affected range.<ref name="da Silva-Rêgo-2022" />

Uranium ores and those containing other radioactive elements may pose a significant threat if leaving occurs and isotope concentration increases above background levels. Radiation can have severe, long lasting environmental impacts and cause irreversible damage to living organisms.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kamunda |first1=Caspah |last2=Mathuthu |first2=Manny |last3=Madhuku |first3=Morgan |date=2016-01-18 |title=An Assessment of Radiological Hazards from Gold Mine Tailings in the Province of Gauteng in South Africa |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |language=en |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=138 |doi=10.3390/ijerph13010138 |issn=1660-4601 |pmc=4730529 |pmid=26797624|doi-access=free }}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of mining}}
Metallurgy began with the direct working of native metals such as gold, lead and copper.<ref name="Rostoker-1975">{{Cite journal |last=Rostoker |first=William |date=1975 |title=Some Experiments in Prehistoric Copper Smelting |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/paleo.1975.4209 |journal=Paléorient |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=311–315 |doi=10.3406/paleo.1975.4209 |issn=0153-9345}}</ref> Placer deposits, for example, would have been the first source of native gold.<ref name="Rapp-2009" /> The first exploited ores were copper oxides such as malachite and azurite, over 7000 years ago at [[Çatalhöyük]] .<ref name="Penhallurick-2008">{{Cite book |last=Penhallurick |first=R. D. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/705331805 |title=Tin in antiquity : its mining and trade throughout the ancient world with particular reference to Cornwall |date=2008 |publisher=Maney for the Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining |others=Minerals, and Mining Institute of Materials |isbn=978-1-907747-78-6 |edition=Pbk. |location=Hanover Walk, Leeds |oclc=705331805}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Radivojević |first1=Miljana |last2=Rehren |first2=Thilo |last3=Pernicka |first3=Ernst |last4=Šljivar |first4=Dušan |last5=Brauns |first5=Michael |last6=Borić |first6=Dušan |date=2010 |title=On the origins of extractive metallurgy: new evidence from Europe |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305440310001986 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |language=en |volume=37 |issue=11 |pages=2775–2787 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012|bibcode=2010JArSc..37.2775R }}</ref><ref name="H.-1975">{{Cite book |last=H. |first=Coghlan, H. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/610533025 |title=Notes on the prehistoric metallurgy of copper and bronze in the Old World : examination of specimens from the Pitt rivers Museum and Bronze castings in ancient moulds, by E. voce. |date=1975 |publisher=University Press |oclc=610533025}}</ref> These were the easiest to work, with relatively limited mining and basic requirements for smelting.<ref name="Rostoker-1975" /><ref name="H.-1975" /> It is believed they were once much more abundant on the surface than today.<ref name="H.-1975" /> After this, copper sulphides would have been turned to as oxide resources depleted and the [[Bronze Age]] progressed.<ref name="Rostoker-1975" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Amzallag |first=Nissim |date=2009 |title=From Metallurgy to Bronze Age Civilizations: The Synthetic Theory |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20627616 |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |volume=113 |issue=4 |pages=497–519 |doi=10.3764/aja.113.4.497 |jstor=20627616 |s2cid=49574580 |issn=0002-9114}}</ref> Lead production from [[galena]] smelting may have been occurring at this time as well.<ref name="Rapp-2009" />

The smelting of arsenic-copper sulphides would have produced the first bronze alloys.<ref name="Penhallurick-2008" /> The majority of bronze creation however required tin, and thus the exploitation of cassiterite, the main tin source, began.<ref name="Penhallurick-2008" /> Some 3000 years ago, the smelting of iron ores began in [[Mesopotamia]]. Iron oxide is quite abundant on the surface and forms from a variety of processes.<ref name="Rapp-2009" />

Until the 18th century gold, copper, lead, iron, silver, tin, arsenic and mercury were the only metals mined and used.<ref name="Rapp-2009" /> In recent decades, Rare Earth Elements have been increasingly exploited for various high-tech applications.<ref name="Mariano-2012">{{Cite journal |last1=Mariano |first1=A. N. |last2=Mariano |first2=A. |date=2012-10-01 |title=Rare Earth Mining and Exploration in North America |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/elements/article/8/5/369-376/137950 |journal=Elements |language=en |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=369–376 |doi=10.2113/gselements.8.5.369 |bibcode=2012Eleme...8..369M |issn=1811-5209}}</ref> This has led to an ever-growing search for REE ore and novel ways of extracting said elements.<ref name="Mariano-2012" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chakhmouradian |first1=A. R. |last2=Wall |first2=F. |date=2012-10-01 |title=Rare Earth Elements: Minerals, Mines, Magnets (and More) |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/elements/article/8/5/333-340/137928 |journal=Elements |language=en |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=333–340 |doi=10.2113/gselements.8.5.333 |bibcode=2012Eleme...8..333C |issn=1811-5209}}</ref>

== Trade ==
Ores (metals) are traded internationally and comprise a sizeable portion of international trade in [[raw material]]s both in value and volume. This is because the worldwide distribution of ores is unequal and dislocated from locations of peak demand and from smelting infrastructure.

Most base metals (copper, lead, zinc, nickel) are traded internationally on the [[London Metal Exchange]], with smaller stockpiles and metals exchanges monitored by the [[New York Mercantile Exchange|COMEX]] and [[NYMEX]] exchanges in the United States and the Shanghai Futures Exchange in China. The global Chromium market is currently dominated by the United States and China.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ren |first1=Shuai |last2=Li |first2=Huajiao |last3=Wang |first3=Yanli |last4=Guo |first4=Chen |last5=Feng |first5=Sida |last6=Wang |first6=Xingxing |date=2021-10-01 |title=Comparative study of the China and U.S. import trade structure based on the global chromium ore trade network |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301420721002129 |journal=Resources Policy |language=en |volume=73 |pages=102198 |doi=10.1016/j.resourpol.2021.102198 |bibcode=2021RePol..7302198R |issn=0301-4207}}</ref>

Iron ore is traded between customer and producer, though various benchmark prices are set quarterly between the major mining conglomerates and the major consumers, and this sets the stage for smaller participants.

Other, lesser, commodities do not have international clearing houses and benchmark prices, with most prices negotiated between suppliers and customers one-on-one. This generally makes determining the price of ores of this nature opaque and difficult. Such metals include [[lithium]], [[niobium]]-[[tantalum]], [[bismuth]], [[antimony]] and [[rare earths]]. Most of these commodities are also dominated by one or two major suppliers with >60% of the world's reserves. China is currently leading in world production of Rare Earth Elements.<ref name="Haque-2014">{{Cite journal |last1=Haque |first1=Nawshad |last2=Hughes |first2=Anthony |last3=Lim |first3=Seng |last4=Vernon |first4=Chris |date=2014-10-29 |title=Rare Earth Elements: Overview of Mining, Mineralogy, Uses, Sustainability and Environmental Impact |journal=Resources |language=en |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=614–635 |doi=10.3390/resources3040614 |issn=2079-9276|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The [[World Bank]] reports that China was the top importer of ores and metals in 2005 followed by the US and Japan.<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2006 |title=Background Paper – The Outlook for Metals Markets Prepared for G20 Deputies Meeting Sydney 2006 |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTOGMC/Resources/outlook_for_metals_market.pdf |access-date=2019-07-19 |website=WorldBank.org |place=Washington |page=4 |department=The China Growth Story}}</ref>

== Important ore minerals ==
For detailed [[Petrography|petrographic]] descriptions of ore minerals see ''Tables for the Determination of Common Opaque Minerals'' by Spry and Gedlinske (1987).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tables For The Determination of Common Opaque Minerals {{!}} PDF |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/281657856/Tables-for-the-Determination-of-Common-Opaque-Minerals |access-date=2023-02-10 |website=Scribd |language=en}}</ref> Below are the major economic ore minerals and their deposits, grouped by primary elements.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Type !! Mineral !! style=width:10em | [[Periodic table|Symbol]]/[[Chemical formula|formula]] !! Uses !! Source(s) !! style=width:15 | Ref
|-
| rowspan="28" | Metal ore minerals || [[Aluminum]] || Al || [[Alloy]]s, conductive materials, lightweight applications || [[Gibbsite]] (Al(OH)<sub>3</sub>) and [[aluminium hydroxide oxide]], which are found in [[laterite]]s. Also [[Bauxite]] and [[Barite]] || <ref name="Wills-2015" /> '
|-
| [[Antimony]] || Sb || Alloys, [[Flame retardant|flame retardation]] || [[Stibnite]] (Sb<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>) || <ref name="Wills-2015" />
|-
| [[Beryllium]] || Be || Metal alloys, in the [[nuclear industry]], in [[electronics]] || [[Beryl]] (Be<sub>3</sub>Al<sub>2</sub>Si<sub>6</sub>O<sub>18</sub>), found in granitic [[pegmatites]] || <ref name="Wills-2015" />
|-
| [[Bismuth]] || Bi || Alloys, [[pharmeceutical]]s || [[Bismuth#Occurrence and production|Native bismuth]] and [[bismuthinite]] (Bi<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>) with sulphide ores || <ref name="Wills-2015" />
|-
| [[Cesium]] || Cs || Photoelectrics, pharmaceuticals || [[Lepidolite]] (K(Li, Al)<sub>3</sub> (Si, Al)<sub>4</sub>O<sub>10</sub> (OH,F)<sub>2</sub>) from [[pegmatite]]s || <ref name="Wills-2015" />
|-
| [[Chromium]] || Cr || Alloys, [[electroplating]], colouring agents || [[Chromite]] (FeCr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>) from [[Chromite#Stratiform deposits|stratiform]] and [[Chromite#Podiform deposits|podiform]] chromitites || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref name="Mosier-2012"/><ref name="Arai-1997">{{Cite journal |last=Arai |first=Shoji |date=1997 |title=Origin of podiform chromitites |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0743954797000159 |journal=Journal of Asian Earth Sciences |language= |volume=15 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/S0743-9547(97)00015-9|bibcode=1997JAESc..15..303A }}</ref>
|-
| [[Cobalt]] || Co || Alloys, [[Catalysis|chemical catalyst]]s, [[cemented carbide]] || [[Smaltite]] (CoAs<sub>2</sub>) in veins with [[cobaltite]]; [[silver]], [[nickel]] and [[calcite]]; [[cobaltite]] (CoAsS) in veins with smaltite, silver, nickel and calcite; [[carrollite]] (CuCo<sub>2</sub>S<sub>4</sub>) and [[linnaeite]] (Co<sub>3</sub>S<sub>4</sub>) as constituents of [[copper ore]]; and [[linnaeite]] ||
|-
| [[Copper]] || Cu || Alloys, high conductivity, [[corrosion resistance]] || [[Sulphide mineral]]s, including [[chalcopyrite]] (CuFeS<sub>2</sub>; primary ore mineral) in sulphide deposits, or [[porphyry copper deposit]]s; [[covellite]] (CuS); [[chalcocite]] (Cu<sub>2</sub>S; secondary with other sulphide minerals) with [[native copper]] and [[cuprite]] deposits and [[bornite]] (Cu<sub>5</sub>FeS<sub>4</sub>; secondary with other sulphide minerals)<br>Oxidized minerals, including [[malachite]] (Cu<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>) in the oxidized zone of copper deposits; [[cuprite]] (Cu<sub>2</sub>O; secondary mineral ); and [[azurite]] (Cu<sub>3</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>; secondary) || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref name="Rapp-2009"/><ref name="Lee-2020"/><ref name="Rostoker-1975"/>
|-
| [[Gold]] || Au || Electronics, [[jewellery]], [[dentistry]] || [[Placer deposit]]s, [[quartz]] grains || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref name="Best-2015">{{Citation |last=Best |first=M.E. |title=Mineral Resources |date=2015 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780444538024002001 |work=Treatise on Geophysics |pages=525–556 |access-date=2023-03-05 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-444-53802-4.00200-1 |isbn=978-0-444-53803-1}}</ref><ref name="Jenkin-2014"/><ref>{{cite report|last1=John|first1=D.A.|last2=Vikre|first2=P.G.|last3=du Bray|first3=E.A.|last4=Blakely|first4=R.J.|last5=Fey|first5=D.L.|last6=Rockwell|first6=B.W.|last7=Mauk|first7=J.L.|last8=Anderson|first8=E.D.|last9=Graybeal|first0=F.T.|year=2018|title=Descriptive models for epithermal gold-silver deposits: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010|page=247|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|doi=10.3133/sir20105070Q|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Galley-2007">{{cite book|last1=Galley|first1=Alan|last2=Hannington|first2=M.D.|last3=Jonasson|first3=Ian|year=2007|chapter=Volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288005450|editor-last=Goodfellow|editor-first=W.D.|title=Mineral Deposits of Canada: A Synthesis of Major Deposit-Types, District Metallogeny, the Evolution of Geological Provinces, and Exploration Methods|publisher=Geological Association of Canada, Mineral Deposits Division|number=5|pages=141–162|access-date=2023-02-23}}</ref><ref name="Haldar-2013">{{Citation |last=Haldar |first=S.K. |title=Economic Mineral Deposits and Host Rocks |date=2013 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780124160057000027 |work=Mineral Exploration |pages=23–39 |access-date=2023-03-05 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-416005-7.00002-7 |isbn=978-0-12-416005-7}}</ref>
|-
| [[Iron]] || Fe || Industry use, [[construction]], [[steel]] || [[Hematite]] (Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>; primary source) in [[banded iron formation]]s, [[Vein (geology)|veins]], and [[igneous rock]]; [[magnetite]] (Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>) in igneous and [[metamorphic rock]]s; [[goethite]] (FeO(OH); secondary to hematite); [[limonite]] (FeO(OH)nH<sub>2</sub>O; secondary to hematite) || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref name="Jenkin-2014"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=James |first=Harold Lloyd |date=1954-05-01 |title=Sedimentary facies of iron-formation |url=http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/economicgeology/article/49/3/235/16333/Sedimentary-facies-of-ironformation |journal=Economic Geology |language=en |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=235–293 |doi=10.2113/gsecongeo.49.3.235 |bibcode=1954EcGeo..49..235J |issn=1554-0774}}</ref>
|-
| [[Lead]] || Pb || Alloys, [[pigmentation]], batteries, [[corrosion]] resistance, [[radiation shielding]] || [[Galena]] (PbS) in veins with other sulphide materials and in [[pegmatite]]s; [[cerussite]] (PbCO<sub>3</sub>) in oxidized lead zones along with galena || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref name="Rapp-2009"/><ref name="Leach-2001">{{Cite journal |last1=Leach |first1=David L. |last2=Bradley |first2=Dwight |last3=Lewchuk |first3=Michael T. |last4=Symons |first4=David T. |last5=de Marsily |first5=Ghislain |last6=Brannon |first6=Joyce |date=2001 |title=Mississippi Valley-type lead–zinc deposits through geological time: implications from recent age-dating research |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s001260100208 |journal=Mineralium Deposita |language= |volume=36 |issue=8 |pages=711–740 |doi=10.1007/s001260100208 |bibcode=2001MinDe..36..711L |s2cid=129009301 |issn=0026-4598}}</ref>
|-
| [[Lithium]] || Li || Metal production, batteries, [[ceramic]]s || [[Spodumene]] (LiAlSi<sub>2</sub>O<sub>6</sub>) in pegmatites || <ref name="Wills-2015" />
|-
| [[Manganese]] || Mn || Steel alloys, chemical manufacturing || [[Pyrolusite]] (MnO<sub>2</sub>) in oxidized manganese zones like [[laterite]]s and [[skarn]]s; [[manganite]] (MnO(OH)) and [[braunite]] (3Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> MnSiO<sub>3</sub>) with pyrolusite || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref name="Meinert-1992"/><ref name="Persons-1970">{{Cite book |last=Persons |first=Benjamin S. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/840289476 |title=Laterite : Genesis, Location, Use |date=1970 |publisher=Springer US |isbn=978-1-4684-7215-8 |location=Boston, MA |oclc=840289476}}</ref>
|-
| [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] || Hg || [[Scientific instrument]]s, electrical applications, [[paint]], [[solvent]], pharmeceuticals || [[Cinnabar]] (HgS) in [[Sedimentary rock|sedimentary]] fractures with other sulphide minerals || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref name="Rapp-2009"/>
|-
| [[Molybdenum]] || Mo || Alloys, electronics, industry || [[Molybdenite]] (MoS<sub>2</sub>) in [[Porphyry copper deposit|porphyry deposits]], [[powellite]] (CaMoO<sub>4</sub>) in [[Hydrothermal mineral deposit|hydrothermal deposits]] || <ref name="Wills-2015" />
|-
| [[Nickel]] || Ni || Alloys, food and pharmaceutical applications, corrosion resistance || [[Pentlandite]] (Fe,Ni)<sub>9</sub>S<sub>8</sub> with other sulphide minerals; [[garnierite]] (NiMg) with [[chromite]] and in [[laterite]]s; [[niccolite]] (NiAs) in magmatic sulphide deposits || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref name="Naldrett-2011"/>
|-
| [[Niobium]] || Nb || Alloys, corrosion resistance || [[Pyrochlore]] {{chem2|(Na,Ca)2Nb2O6(OH,F)}} and [[columbite]] ({{chem2|(Fe^{II},Mn^{II})Nb2O6|auto=yes}}) in granitic pegmatites || <ref name="Wills-2015" />
|-
| [[Platinum]] Group || Pt || Dentistry, jewelry, chemical applications, corrosion resistance, electronics || With [[chromite]] and [[copper]] ore, in [[placer deposit]]s; [[sperrylite]] (PtAs<sub>2</sub>) in sulphide deposits and gold veins || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Barkov |first1=Andrei Y. |title=New Results and Advances in PGE Mineralogy in Ni-Cu-Cr-PGE Ore Systems |last2=Zaccarini |first2=Federica |date=2019 |publisher=MDPI, Basel |language=en |doi=10.3390/books978-3-03921-717-5|isbn=978-3-03921-717-5 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
|-
| [[Rare-earth element]]s || [[Lanthanum|La]], [[Cerium|Ce]], [[Praseodymium|Pr]], [[Neodymium|Nd]], [[Promethium|Pm]], [[Samarium|Sm]], [[Europium|Eu]], [[Gadolinium|Gd]], [[Terbium|Tb]], [[Dysprosium|Dy]], [[Holmium|Ho]], [[Erbium|Er]], [[Thulium|Tm]], [[Ytterbium|Yb]], [[Lutetium|Lu]], [[Scandium|Sc]], [[Yttrium|Y]] || Permanent [[magnet]]s, batteries, glass treatment, [[petroleum industry]], [[micro-electronics]], alloys, nuclear applications, corrosion protection (La and Ce are the most widely applicable) || [[Bastnäsite]] (REECO<sub>3</sub>F; for Ce, La, Pr, Nd) in [[carbonatite]]s; [[monazite]] (REEPO<sub>4</sub>; for La, Ce, Pr, Nd) in [[placer deposit]]s; [[xenotime]] (YPO<sub>4</sub>; for Y) in [[pegmatite]]s; [[eudialyte]] (Na<sub>15</sub>Ca<sub>6</sub>(Fe,Mn)<sub>3</sub>Zr<sub>3</sub>SiO(O,OH,H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>3</sub><br>(Si<sub>3</sub>O<sub>9</sub>)<sub>2</sub>(Si<sub>9</sub>O<sub>27</sub>)<sub>2</sub>(OH,Cl)<sub>2</sub>) in igneous rocks; [[allanite]] ((REE,Ca,Y)<sub>2</sub>(Al,Fe<sup>2+</sup>,Fe<sup>3+</sup>)<sub>3</sub>(SiO4)3(OH)) in [[pegmatite]]s and carbonatites || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref name="Verplanck-2016" />'''<ref name="Mariano-2012" />'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chakhmouradian |first1=A. R. |last2=Zaitsev |first2=A. N. |date=2012-10-01 |title=Rare Earth Mineralization in Igneous Rocks: Sources and Processes |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/elements/article/8/5/347-353/137935 |journal=Elements |language=en |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=347–353 |doi=10.2113/gselements.8.5.347 |bibcode=2012Eleme...8..347C |issn=1811-5209}}</ref><ref name="Haque-2014" />
|-
| [[Rhenium]] || Re || [[Catalyst]], temperature applications || [[Molybdenite]] (MoS<sub>2</sub>) in porphyry deposits || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Engalychev |first=S. Yu. |date=2019-04-01 |title=New Data on the Mineral Composition of Unique Rhenium (U–Mo–Re) Ores of the Briketno-Zheltukhinskoe Deposit in the Moscow Basin |url=https://doi.org/10.1134/S1028334X19040019 |journal=Doklady Earth Sciences |language=en |volume=485 |issue=2 |pages=355–357 |doi=10.1134/S1028334X19040019 |bibcode=2019DokES.485..355E |s2cid=195299595 |issn=1531-8354}}</ref>
|-
| [[Silver]] || Ag || Jewellery, glass, photo-electric applications, batteries || Sulfide deposits; [[Argentite]] (Ag<sub>2</sub>S; secondary to copper, lead and zinc ores) || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Volkov |first1=A. V. |last2=Kolova |first2=E. E. |last3=Savva |first3=N. E. |last4=Sidorov |first4=A. A. |last5=Prokof’ev |first5=V. Yu. |last6=Ali |first6=A. A. |date=2016-09-01 |title=Formation conditions of high-grade gold–silver ore of epithermal Tikhoe deposit, Russian Northeast |url=https://doi.org/10.1134/S107570151605007X |journal=Geology of Ore Deposits |language=en |volume=58 |issue=5 |pages=427–441 |doi=10.1134/S107570151605007X |bibcode=2016GeoOD..58..427V |s2cid=133521801 |issn=1555-6476}}</ref>
|-
| [[Tin]] || Sn || [[Solder]], [[bronze]], [[Steel and tin cans|cans]], [[pewter]] || [[Cassiterite]] (SnO<sub>2</sub>) in placer and magmatic deposits || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref name="Penhallurick-2008"/>
|-
| [[Titanium]] || Ti || [[Aerospace]], industrial tubing || [[Ilmenite]] (FeTiO<sub>3</sub>) and [[rutile]] (TiO<sub>2</sub>) economically sourced from placer deposits with [[Rare-earth elements|REEs]] || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Charlier |first1=Bernard |last2=Namur |first2=Olivier |last3=Bolle |first3=Olivier |last4=Latypov |first4=Rais |last5=Duchesne |first5=Jean-Clair |date=2015-02-01 |title=Fe–Ti–V–P ore deposits associated with Proterozoic massif-type anorthosites and related rocks |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825214002037 |journal=Earth-Science Reviews |language=en |volume=141 |pages=56–81 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2014.11.005 |bibcode=2015ESRv..141...56C |issn=0012-8252}}</ref>
|-
| [[Tungsten]] || W || Filaments, electronics, lighting || [[Wolframite]] ((Fe,Mn)WO<sub>4</sub>) and [[scheelite]] (CaWO<sub>4</sub>) in skarns and in porphyry along with sulphide minerals || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yang |first=Xiaosheng |date=2018-08-15 |title=Beneficiation studies of tungsten ores – A review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0892687518302607 |journal=Minerals Engineering |language=en |volume=125 |pages=111–119 |doi=10.1016/j.mineng.2018.06.001 |bibcode=2018MiEng.125..111Y |s2cid=103605902 |issn=0892-6875}}</ref>
|-
| [[Uranium]] || U || [[Nuclear fuel]], [[ammunition]], radiation shielding || [[Pitchblende]] (UO<sub>2</sub>) in [[uraninite]] placer deposits; [[carnotite]] (K<sub>2</sub>(UO<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>(VO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> 3H<sub>2</sub>O) in placer deposits || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dahlkamp |first=Franz J. |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-662-02892-6 |title=Uranium Ore Deposits |year=1993 |location=Berlin |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-02892-6|isbn=978-3-642-08095-1 }}</ref>
|-
| [[Vanadium]] || V || Alloys, catalysts, glass colouring, batteries || [[Patronite]] (VS<sub>4</sub>) with sulphide minerals; [[roscoelite]] (K(V,Al,Mg)<sub>2</sub> AlSi<sub>3</sub>O<sub>10</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>) in epithermal gold deposits || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nejad |first1=Davood Ghoddocy |last2=Khanchi |first2=Ali Reza |last3=Taghizadeh |first3=Majid |date=2018-06-01 |title=Recovery of Vanadium from Magnetite Ore Using Direct Acid Leaching: Optimization of Parameters by Plackett–Burman and Response Surface Methodologies |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-018-2821-4 |journal=JOM |language=en |volume=70 |issue=6 |pages=1024–1030 |doi=10.1007/s11837-018-2821-4 |bibcode=2018JOM....70f1024N |s2cid=255395648 |issn=1543-1851}}</ref>
|-
| [[Zinc]] || Zn || Corrosion protection, alloys, various industrial compounds || [[Sphalerite]] ((Zn,Fe)S) with other sulphide minerals in vein deposits; [[smithsonite]] (ZnCO<sub>3</sub>) in oxidized zone of zinc bearing sulphide deposits || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref name="Rapp-2009"/><ref name="Leach-2001" />
|-
| [[Zirconium]] || Zr || Alloys, nuclear reactors, corrosion resistance || [[Zircon]] (ZrSiO<sub>4</sub>) in igneous rocks and in placers || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Perks |first1=Cameron |last2=Mudd |first2=Gavin |date=2019-04-01 |title=Titanium, zirconium resources and production: A state of the art literature review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169136818306073 |journal=Ore Geology Reviews |language=en |volume=107 |pages=629–646 |doi=10.1016/j.oregeorev.2019.02.025 |bibcode=2019OGRv..107..629P |s2cid=135218378 |issn=0169-1368}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="5" | Non-metal ore minerals || [[Fluorospar]] || CaF<sub>2</sub> || [[Steelmaking]], optical equipment || Hydrothermal veins and pegmatites || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hagni |first1=Richard D. |last2=Shivdasan |first2=Purnima A. |date=2000-04-01 |title=Characterizing megascopic textures in fluorospar ores at Okorusu mine |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-000-0124-y |journal=JOM |language=en |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=17–19 |doi=10.1007/s11837-000-0124-y |bibcode=2000JOM....52d..17H |s2cid=136505544 |issn=1543-1851}}</ref>
|-
| [[Graphite]] || C || [[Lubricant]], industrial molds, paint || Pegmatites and metamorphic rocks || <ref name="Wills-2015" />
|-
| [[Gypsum]] || CaSO<sub>4</sub>2H<sub>2</sub>O || [[Fertilizer]], filler, [[cement]], pharmaceuticals, [[textiles]] || [[Evaporite]]s; [[Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit|VMS]] || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Öksüzoğlu |first1=Bilge |last2=Uçurum |first2=Metin |date=2016-04-01 |title=An experimental study on the ultra-fine grinding of gypsum ore in a dry ball mill |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032591015302394 |journal=Powder Technology |language=en |volume=291 |pages=186–192 |doi=10.1016/j.powtec.2015.12.027 |issn=0032-5910}}</ref>
|-
| [[Diamond]] || C || Cutting, jewelry || [[Kimberlite]]s || <ref name="Wills-2015" /><ref name="Giuliani-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Giuliani |first1=Andrea |last2=Pearson |first2=D. Graham |date=2019-12-01 |title=Kimberlites: From Deep Earth to Diamond Mines |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/msa/elements/article/15/6/377/579743/Kimberlites-From-Deep-Earth-to-Diamond-Mines |journal=Elements |language=en |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=377–380 |doi=10.2138/gselements.15.6.377 |bibcode=2019Eleme..15..377G |s2cid=214424178 |issn=1811-5217}}</ref>
|-
| [[Feldspar]] || Fsp || Ceramics, glassmaking, glazes || [[Orthoclase]] (KAlSi<sub>3</sub>O<sub>8</sub>) and [[albite]] (NaAlSi<sub>3</sub>O<sub>8</sub>) are ubiquitous throughout [[Earth's crust]] || <ref name="Wills-2015" />
|}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Geology}}
* [[Economic geology]]
* [[Extractive metallurgy]] (ore processing)
* [[Froth flotation#Science of flotation|Froth Flotation]]
* [[Mineral resource classification]]
* [[Ore genesis]]
* [[Petrology]]
* [[Polymetallic ore]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* [http://www.hgeodill.de/Map-Chessboard-classification-scheme.htm DILL, H.G. (2010) ''The "chessboard" classification scheme of mineral deposits: Mineralogy and geology from aluminum to zirconium,'' Earth-Science Reviews, Volume 100, Issue 1–4, June 2010, Pages 1–420]

== External links ==
{{commons category-inline|Ores}}

{{ores}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Economic geology]]
[[Category:Mining]]