View source for Northern bobwhite

{{Short description|Species of bird}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2021}}
{{Speciesbox
| fossil_range = {{Fossil range|Pleistocene|present}}
| image = Virginiawachtel 2007-06-16 065.jpg
| image_caption = Adult male
| image2 = Northern Bobwhite female RWD.jpg
| image2_caption = Adult female
| status = NT
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 13 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2021 |title=''Colinus virginianus'' |volume=2021 |page=e.T22728956A178045540|access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>
| status2 = G4
| status2_system = TNC
| status2_ref = <ref name="NatureServe Explorer 2.0">{{cite web |title=NatureServe Explorer 2.0 |url=https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.106280/Colinus_virginianus |website=explorer.natureserve.org |access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>
| genus = Colinus
| species = virginianus
| authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758)
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision = 23; see text
| synonyms = *''Tetrao virginianus'' {{small|Linnaeus,&nbsp;1758}}
*''Ortyx virginiana'' {{small|Jardine,&nbsp;1834}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbirdinfo.net/Pages/BirdCitationView.aspx?BirdID=32331&Source=%2FPages%2FBirdsSearch.aspx%3FBirdField%3D7%26BirdSearch%3DODONTOPHORIDAE%253ANew%2520World%2520Quails |publisher=World Bird Info |title=Northern Bobwhite |access-date=3 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801110417/http://www.worldbirdinfo.net/Pages/BirdCitationView.aspx?BirdID=32331&Source=%2FPages%2FBirdsSearch.aspx%3FBirdField%3D7%26BirdSearch%3DODONTOPHORIDAE%253ANew%2520World%2520Quails |archive-date=1 August 2013 }}</ref>
| range_map = Colinus virginianus map.svg
}}

The '''northern bobwhite''' ('''''Colinus virginianus'''''), also known as the '''Virginia quail''' or (in its home range) '''bobwhite quail''', is a ground-dwelling [[bird]] native to Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Cuba, with introduced populations elsewhere in the [[Caribbean]], [[Europe]], and [[Asia]]. It is a member of the group of species known as [[New World quail]] (Odontophoridae). They were initially placed with the Old World quail in the pheasant [[family (biology)|family]] ([[Phasianidae]]), but are not particularly closely related. The name "[[Colinus|bobwhite]]" is an [[Onomatopoeia|onomatopoeic]] derivation from its characteristic whistling call. Despite its secretive nature, the northern bobwhite is one of the most familiar quails in eastern North America, because it is frequently the only quail in its range. Habitat degradation has contributed to the northern bobwhite population in eastern North America declining by roughly 85% from 1966 to 2014.<ref>{{cite web|title=Northern Bobwhite|url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Northern_Bobwhite/lifehistory|publisher=Cornell University|access-date=2017-02-14}}</ref> This population decline is apparently range-wide and continuing.<ref>{{cite web|title=The 116th Christmas Bird Count Summary|date=21 November 2016|url=http://www.audubon.org/news/the-116th-christmas-bird-count-summary|publisher=National Audubon Society|access-date=2017-02-22|archive-date=22 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222200441/http://www.audubon.org/news/the-116th-christmas-bird-count-summary|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BBS Trend Maps - Northern Bobwhite Colinus virginianus|url=https://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/bbs/tr2015/trend2015_v3.html|publisher=Patuxent Wildlife Research Center|access-date=2018-12-06|archive-date=30 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190830134956/https://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/bbs/tr2015/trend2015_v3.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

There are 20 [[subspecies]] of northern bobwhite, many of which are hunted extensively as [[game birds]]. One subspecies, the masked bobwhite (''Colinus virginianus ridgwayi''), is listed as endangered with wild populations located in the northern Mexican state of [[Sonora]] and a reintroduced population in [[Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge]] in [[southern Arizona]].

==Taxonomy and systematics==

===Subspecies===
[[File:76 Virginian Partridge.jpg|thumb|230px|right|{{center|Plate 76 of ''[[Birds of America (book)|Birds of America]]'' by [[John James Audubon]] depicting Virginian Partridge.}}]]
There are 20 recognized [[subspecies]] in four groups. One subspecies, the Key West bobwhite (''C. v. insulanus''), is extinct. The subspecies are listed in taxonomic order:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Megapodes, guans, guineafowl, New World quail – IOC World Bird List |url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/new/bow/megapodes/ |access-date=2023-01-28 |website=www.worldbirdnames.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brennan |first1=Leonard A. |last2=Hernandez |first2=Fidel |last3=Williford |first3=Damon |date=2020 |title=Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), version 1.0 |url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/norbob/cur/introduction |journal=Birds of the World |language=en |doi=10.2173/bow.norbob.01}}</ref>

*Eastern group
**''C. v. virginianus'' <small>([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758)</small> - Virginia bobwhite - eastern [[North America]] from [[Ontario]] south to northern [[Florida]] (includes former subspecies ''marilandicus'' and ''mexicanus'')
**''C. v. floridanus'' <small>([[Elliott Coues|Coues]], 1872)</small> - Florida bobwhite - peninsular [[Florida]]
**†''C. v. insulanus'' <small>(Howe, 1904)</small> - Key West bobwhite - the [[Florida Keys]] (extinct)
**''C. v. cubanensis'' <small>([[George Robert Gray|GR Gray]], 1846)</small> - Cuban bobwhite - [[Cuba]] and [[Isla de la Juventud]]; introduced to [[Hispaniola]], [[Puerto Rico]], the [[Bahamas]], and the [[Turks and Caicos]] islands
**''C. v. taylori'' <small>(Lincoln, 1915)</small> - plains bobwhite - [[South Dakota]] to northern [[Texas]], western [[Missouri]] and northwestern [[Arkansas]]
**''C. v. texanus'' <small>([[George Newbold Lawrence|Lawrence]], 1853)</small> - Texas bobwhite - southwestern Texas to northern [[Mexico]]
**''C. v. aridus'' <small>(Lawrence, 1853)</small> - Jaumave bobwhite - west-central [[Tamaulipas]] to southeastern [[San Luis Potosí]]
**''C. v. maculatus'' <small>([[Edward William Nelson|Nelson]], 1899)</small> - spot-bellied bobwhite - central Tamaulipas to northern [[Veracruz]] and southeastern San Luis Potosí
*Grayson's group
**''C. v. graysoni'' <small>(Lawrence, 1867)</small> - Grayson's bobwhite - west-central Mexico
**''C. v. nigripectus'' <small>(Nelson, 1897)</small> - Puebla bobwhite - eastern Mexico
*Black-breasted group
**''C. v. pectoralis'' <small>([[John Gould|Gould]], 1843)</small> - black-breasted bobwhite - eastern slopes and mountains of central [[Veracruz]]
**''C. v. godmani'' <small>(Nelson, 1897)</small> - Godman's bobwhite - eastern slopes and mountains of central [[Veracruz]]
**''C. v. minor'' <small>(Nelson, 1901)</small> - least bobwhite - northeastern [[Chiapas]] and [[Tabasco]]
**''C. v. thayeri'' <small>([[Outram Bangs|Bangs]] and [[James Lee Peters|Peters]], 1928)</small> - Thayer's bobwhite - northeastern [[Oaxaca]]
*Masked group
**''C. v. ridgwayi'' <small>([[William Brewster (ornithologist)|Brewster]], 1885)</small> - masked bobwhite - north-central [[Sonora]]; reintroduced to [[Arizona]]
**''C. v. atriceps'' <small>([[William Robert Ogilvie-Grant|Ogilvie-Grant]], 1893)</small> - black-headed bobwhite - interior of western Oaxaca
**''C. v. harrisoni'' <small>(Orr and Webster, 1968)</small> - Harrison's bobwhite - southwestern Oaxaca
**''C. v. coyoleos'' <small>([[Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller|Müller, PLS]], 1776)</small> - Coyoleos bobwhite - Pacific Coast of Oaxaca and [[Chiapas]]
**''C. v. salvini'' <small>(Nelson, 1897)</small> - Salvin's bobwhite - coastal and southern Chiapas
**''C. v. insignis'' <small>(Nelson, 1897)</small> - Guatemalan bobwhite - [[Guatemala]] (Rio Chiapas Valley) and southeastern Chiapas (includes former subspecies ''nelsoni'')

The [[Type (biology)|holotype specimen]] of ''Ortyx pectoralis'' [[John Gould|Gould]] ([https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/30679944 Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1842 (1843), p.182.]) is held in the collections of the [[National Museums Liverpool]] at the [[World Museum]], with accession number D3713. The specimen died in the aviary at [[Knowsley Hall]], Lancashire and came to the Liverpool national collection via the [[13th Earl of Derby]]'s collection, which was bequeathed to the people of Liverpool in 1851.

==Description==
''C. virginianus'' is a moderately-sized [[quail]], and is the only small galliform native to eastern North America. The bobwhite can range from {{convert|24|to|28|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length with a {{convert|33|to|38|cm|in|abbr=on}} wingspan. As indicated by body mass, weights increase in birds found further north, as corresponds to [[Bergmann's rule]]. In Mexico, northern bobwhites weigh from {{convert|129|to|159|g|oz|abbr=on}} whereas in the north they average {{convert|170|to|173|g|oz|abbr=on}} and large males can attain as much as {{convert|255|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref>''Pheasants, Partridges, and Grouse : A Guide to the Pheasants, Partridges, Quails, Grouse, Guineafowl, Buttonquails, and Sandgrouse of the World (Princeton Field Guides)'' by Tami Davis Biddle. Princeton University Press (2002). {{ISBN|978-0691089089}}.</ref><ref>Nelson, A. L. and A. C. Martin. 1953. ''Gamebird weights''. J. Wildl. Manage. 17:36-42.</ref> Among standard measurements, the [[Wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] is {{convert|9.7|to|11.7|cm|in|abbr=on}}, the [[tail]] is {{convert|5|to|6.8|cm|in|abbr=on}} the [[Culmen (bird)|culmen]] is {{convert|1.3|to|1.6|cm|in|abbr=on}} and the [[Tarsus (skeleton)|tarsus]] is {{convert|2.7|to|3.3|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref>Aldrich, J. W. 1946. ''The United States races of the bob-white''. '''The Auk''' 63:493-508.</ref> It has the typical chunky, rounded shape of a quail. The bill is short, curved and brown-black in color. This species is [[Sexual dimorphism|sexually dimorphic]]. Males have a white throat and brow stripe bordered by black. The overall rufous plumage has gray mottling on the wings, white scalloped stripes on the flanks, and black scallops on the whitish underparts. The tail is gray. Females are similar but are duller overall and have a buff throat and brow without the black border. Both sexes have pale legs and feet.{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}}

==Distribution and habitat==
The northern bobwhite can be found year-round in agricultural fields, grassland, open woodland areas, roadsides and wood edges. Its range covers the southeastern quadrant of the [[United States]] from the [[Great Lakes]] and southern [[Minnesota]] east to [[New York State]] and southern [[Massachusetts]], and extending west to southern [[Nebraska]], [[Kansas]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Colorado]] front-range foothills to 7,000 feet, and all but westernmost [[Texas]].

It is absent from the southern tip of [[Florida]] (where the extinct Key West bobwhite subspecies once lived) and the highest elevations of the [[Appalachian Mountains]], but occurs in eastern [[Mexico]] and in [[Cuba]], and has been introduced to [[Hispaniola]] (both the [[Dominican Republic]] and [[Haiti]]), the [[Bahamas]], the [[Turks and Caicos]] Islands, the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]] (formerly), [[Puerto Rico]], [[France]], [[China]], [[Portugal]], and [[Italy]]. Isolated populations also have been introduced in [[Oregon]] and [[Washington (state)|Washington]]. The northern bobwhite has also been [[introduced species|introduced]] to [[New Zealand]].<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22728956/95000808|title = IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Colinus virginianus|journal = IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|date = October 2016}}</ref>

There is no self-sustaining population in [[Pennsylvania]], where the bird is considered [[extirpated]];<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pgc.pa.gov/Wildlife/WildlifeSpecies/Pages/Northern-Bobwhite-Quail.aspx|title = Northern Bobwhite Quail}}</ref> it is also considered extirpated in the states of [[New Hampshire]]<ref name=NHlist>{{cite web |url=https://nhbirdrecords.org/new-hampshire-state-bird-list/ |title=Official New Hampshire State Bird List |date=February 28, 2019 |publisher=New Hampshire Audubon |access-date=August 11, 2021 }}</ref> and [[Connecticut]].<ref name=cbc>{{cite web |url=http://www.ctbirding.org/birds-birding/checklist-of-the-birds-of-connecticut/ |title=Checklist of the Birds of Connecticut |last=Gallo |first=Frank |date=June 18, 2021 |website= |publisher=Connecticut Ornithological Association |access-date=August 1, 2021 |quote=}}</ref> Its distribution in New York has been limited to [[Suffolk County, New York|Suffolk]] and [[Nassau County, New York|Nassau Counties]] on [[Long Island]], as well as potential population pockets in [[Upstate New York]]. The bird is considered declining or extirpated throughout much of the [[Northeastern United States]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Species Assessment for Northern bobwhite |url=https://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/wildlife_pdf/sgcnnbobwhite.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/wildlife_pdf/sgcnnbobwhite.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |website=New York State Department of Environmental Conservation |access-date=23 March 2022 |date=1 November 2017}}</ref> Similarly, the bird is almost extirpated from Ontario (and [[Canada]] as a whole), with the only self-sustaining population confirmed to exist recorded on [[Walpole Island]].<ref name="NatureServe Explorer 2.0">{{cite web |title=NatureServe Explorer 2.0 |url=https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.106280/Colinus_virginianus |website=explorer.natureserve.org |access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>

==Vocalizations==
The clear whistle "bob-WHITE" or "bob-bob-WHITE" call is very recognizable. The syllables are slow and widely spaced, rising in pitch a full octave from beginning to end. Other calls include [[lisp]]s, peeps, and more rapidly whistled warning calls.

==Behavior and ecology==
[[File:Colin de Virginie MHNT.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Egg]]
Like most game birds, the northern bobwhite is shy and elusive. When threatened, it will crouch and freeze, relying on camouflage to stay undetected, but will flush into low flight if closely disturbed. It is generally solitary or paired early in the year, but family groups are common in the late summer and winter roosts may have two dozen or more birds in a single covey.<ref name=Audubon>{{cite web|url=https://www.audubon.org/field-guide/bird/northern-bobwhite|website=www.audubon.org|title=Northern bobwhite: Colonus virginialis|publisher=National Audubon Society|author=National Audubon Society|date=n.d.|access-date=21 October 2022}}</ref>

=== Breeding ===
The species was once considered monogamous, but with the advent of radio telemetry, the sexual behavior of bobwhites has better been described as ambisexual polygamy.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Beef, Brush, and Bobwhites|last=Hernandez|first=F|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|year=2012|isbn=9781603444750}}</ref> Either parent may incubate a clutch for 23 days, and the precocial young leave the nest shortly after hatching. The main source of nest failure is predation, with nest success averaging 28% across their range.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rollins|first1=D|last2=Carroll|first2=JP|date=2001|title=Impacts of Predation on Northern Bobwhite and Scaled Quail|journal=Journal of Wildlife Management|volume=29|pages=39–51}}</ref> However, the nest success of stable populations is typically much higher than this average, and the aforementioned estimate includes values for declining populations.

Brooding behavior varies in that amalgamation (kidnapping, adopting, creching, gang brooding) may occur.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Faircloth|first1=BC|last2=Palmer|first2=WE|last3=Carroll|last4=JP|date=2005|title=Post-Hatching Brood Amalgamation in Northern Bobwhites / Mezcla polluelos parvadas de Colinus virginianus|journal=Journal of Field Ornithology|volume=76|pages=175–182|doi=10.1648/0273-8570-76.2.175|s2cid=53983235}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brooks|first=JL|date=2007|title=Gang-Brooding in Northern Bobwhites in West Texas|journal=Wilson Journal of Ornithology|volume=119|pages=137–138|doi=10.1676/06-040.1|s2cid=86453173}}</ref> An incubating parent may alternatively stay with its young. A hen may re-nest up to four times until she has a successful nest. However, it is extremely rare for bobwhites to hatch more than two successful nests within one nesting season.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sisson|first=DC|date=2017|title=TRIPLE BROOD PRODUCTION BY NORTHERN BOBWHITES|journal=National Quail Symposium|volume=8|pages=238}}</ref>

===Food and feeding===
The northern bobwhite's diet consists of plant material and small invertebrates, such as [[snail]]s, [[tick]]s, [[grasshopper]]s, [[potato beetle|beetle]]s, spiders, crickets, and [[leafhopper]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Butler|first1=DA|last2=Palmer|first2=WE|last3=Cook|first3=MP|date=2012|title=The invertebrate diet of northern bobwhite chicks in Georgia, United States|journal=Animal Biodiversity and Conservation|volume=35|issue=2|pages=415–418|doi=10.32800/abc.2012.35.0415|doi-access=free}}</ref> Plant sources include seeds, wild berries, [[partridge pea]]s, and cultivated grains. It forages on the ground in open areas with some spots of taller vegetation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs143_022208.pdf|title=Northern Bobwhite|date=September 1999|publisher=Wildlife Habitat Council|pages=2–3|access-date=21 March 2018|archive-date=11 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211173437/https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs143_022208.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Optimal nutrient requirements for bobwhite vary depending on the age of bird and the time of the year. For example, the optimal protein requirement for egg laying hens (23% protein) is much higher than for males (16%).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nestler|first=RB|date=1949|title=Nutrition of Bobwhite Quail|journal=Journal of Wildlife Management|volume=13|issue=4|pages=342–358|doi=10.2307/3795628|jstor=3795628}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Case|first1=RM|last2=Robel|first2=RJ|date=1974|title=Bioenergetics of the Bobwhite|journal=Journal of Wildlife Management|volume=38|issue=4|pages=638–652|doi=10.2307/3800031|jstor=3800031}}</ref>

== Relationship to humans ==

===Introduced populations===

==== European Union ====

Northern bobwhite were introduced into [[Italy]] in 1927,<ref>Ghigi, 1968</ref> and are reported in the plains and hills in the northwest of the country. Other reports from the EU are in [[France]], [[Spain]], and the [[Balkans]] As bobwhites are highly productive and popular aviary subjects, it is reasonable to expect other introductions have been made in other parts of the EU, especially in the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]] and [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], where game-bird breeding, liberation, and naturalization are relatively common practices.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bobwhite Quail|url=http://www.browfarm.co.uk/peafowl/bobwhite-quail/%20Bobwhite%20Quail}}{{Dead link|date=April 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

==== New Zealand ====

From 1898<ref>Ayson, L.F. 1899:1.</ref> to 1902, some 1,300 birds were imported from America and released in many parts of the North and South Islands,<ref name="autogenerated1">K.E. Westerskov, MSc, PhD. ''Complete Book of New Zealand Birds''</ref> from Northland to Southland. The bird was briefly on the Nelson game shooting licence, but: "It would seem that the committee was a little too eager in placing these Quail on the licence, or the shooters of the day were over-zealous and greedy in their bag limits, for the Virginian Quail, like the Mountain Quail were soon a thing of the past."<ref>Ann.Rep. Nelson Acclimatisation Society, 1968:38</ref> The Taranaki (Acclimatisation) Society released a few in 1900 and was confidant that in a year or two they might offer good sport; two years later, broods were reported and the species was said to be ''steadily increasing''; but after another two years they seemed ''to have disappeared'' and that was the end of them. The Otago (Acclimatisation) Society imported more in 1948,<ref>Ann. Rep. Otago Acclimatisation Society, 1948</ref> but these releases did no good.<ref>Ann. Rep. North Canterbury Acclimatisation Society, 1954:21</ref><ref>''Gamekeepers for the Nation'', 1994, R.M. McDowell</ref> After 1923, no more genuinely wild birds were sighted until 1952, when a small population was found northwest of Wairoa in the Ruapapa Road area. Since then, bobwhite have been found at several localities around Waikaremoana, in farmland, open bush and along roadsides.<ref name="autogenerated1"/>

More birds have been imported into [[New Zealand]] by private individuals since the 1990s and a healthy captive population is now held by backyard aviculturists and have been found to be easily cared for and bred and are popular for their song and good looks. A larger proportion of the national captive population belong to a few game preserves and game bird breeders. Though the birds would be self-sustaining in the wild if they were protected; it is tricky to guess what the effect of an annual population subsidy and hunting has on any of the original populations from the Acclimatisation Society releases.

An [[albino]] hen was present in a [[covey]] in Bayview, Hawkes Bay for a couple of seasons sometime around 2000.<ref>J.J. Holland</ref>

===Captivity===
[[File:Domesticated quail.png|thumb|Domesticated northern bobwhite]]

==== Housing ====

Bobwhites are generally compatible with most [[parrot]]s, [[softbill]]s and [[dove]]s. This species should, however, be the only ground-dwelling species in the aviary. Most individuals will do little damage to [[finch]]es, but one should watch that nests are not being crushed when the species perches at night. Single pairs are preferred, unless the birds have been raised together as a group since they were chicks. Some fighting will occur between cocks at breeding time. One cock may be capable of breeding with several hens, but the fertility seems to be highest in the eggs from the ''preferred'' hen. Aviary style is a compromise between what is tolerated by the bird and what is best for the bird. Open parrot-style type aviaries may be used, but some birds will remain flighty and shy in this situation. In a planted aviary, this species will generally settle down to become quite tame and confiding. Parents with chicks will roost on the ground, forming a circular arrangement, with heads facing outwards. In the early morning and late afternoon, the cock will utter his call, which, although not loud, carries well and may offend noise-sensitive neighbors. Most breeding facilities keep birds in breeding groups on wire up off the ground. This keeps the birds clean and generally avoids diseases and parasites, which can devastate a covey. Cages with mesh floors for pairs and trios are also employed, but usually where there is a photo-period manipulation to keep birds breeding through winter.{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}}

==== Feeding ====

In the wild the northern bobwhite feeds on a variety of weed and grass seeds, as well as insects. These are generally collected on the ground or from low foliage. Birds in the aviary are easily catered for with a commercial small seed mix (finch, budgerigar, or small parrot mix) when supplemented with greenfeed. Live food is not usually necessary for breeding, but will be ravenously accepted. High protein foods such as chicken grower crumble are more convenient to supply and will be useful for the stimulation of breeding birds. Extra [[calcium]] is required, especially by laying hens; it can be supplied in the form of shell grit, or [[cuttlefish]] bone.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Coles |first1=Brian H. |title=Handbook of Avian Medicine |date=2009 |publisher=Saunders Ltd. |isbn=978-0-7020-2874-8 |pages=309–334 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-7020-2874-8.X0001-6 |edition=Second }}</ref>

==== Breeding ====
If a nesting site and privacy are not provided, hens will lay anywhere within an open aviary. Hens that do this may, in a season, lay upwards of 80 eggs, which can be taken for artificial incubation and the chicks hand-raised. Hens with nesting cover that do make a nest (on the ground) will build up 8–25 eggs in a clutch, with eggs being laid daily.<ref>{{cite web |last1=The Cornell Lab of Ornithology |title=Northern Bobwhite |url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Northern_Bobwhite/lifehistory |website=All About Birds.org |publisher=Cornell University |access-date=10 June 2019}}</ref>

==== Mutations and hybrids ====
{{unreferenced section|date=May 2014}}
Some captive bobwhite hybrids recorded are between [[scaled quail|blue quail]] ([[scaled quail]]),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McCabe |first=Robert A. |date=1954 |title=Hybridization between the Bob-White and Scaled Quail |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4081671 |journal=The Auk |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=293–297 |doi=10.2307/4081671 |jstor=4081671 |issn=0004-8038}}</ref> [[Gambel's quail]], [[California quail]], and [[mountain quail]]. It has long been suggested that there are [[Japanese quail]] hybrids being bred commercially; however, there is a distinct lack of photographic proof to substantiate this. Inter-subspecific hybrids have been common.

Several mutations have long been established, including Californian Jumbo, Wisconsin Jumbo, Northern Giant, Albino, Snowflake, Blonde, Fawn, Barred, Silver, and Red.

== Status ==
The northern bobwhite is rated as a [[Near-threatened species]] by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/en|title=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|website=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|access-date=2019-05-08}}</ref> The northern bobwhite is threatened across its range due to habitat loss and habitat degradation. Changing land use patterns and changing [[fire regime]]s have caused once prime habitat to become unfavorable for the bobwhite.

=== Masked bobwhite ===
The masked bobwhite subspecies, ''C. v. ridgwayi'', is listed as [[Endangered species|endangered]] in the U.S. The birds were twice declared extirpated in Arizona in the past century.  It was originally endemic to southern Arizona in the U.S., and northern Sonora in Mexico. It is considered a ''Critically Imperiled Subspecies'' by [[NatureServe]].<ref>{{cite web |title=NatureServe Explorer 2.0 |url=https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.101584/Colinus_virginianus_ridgwayi |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=explorer.natureserve.org}}</ref>

The masked bobwhite was in decline since its discovery in 1884. By 1900, the subspecies was already extinct in the U.S. Populations remained in Mexico, but their study was curtailed by political events in Mexico, including the [[Mexican Revolution]] and the last of the [[Yaqui Wars]]. A population of the masked bobwhite was finally discovered and studied in Mexico, in 1931 and 1932.<ref name=":0" />

A native population historically existed in Sonora, but by 2017, its population appeared to be declining, or possibly extinct.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Brown|first1=David|last2=Clark|first2=Kevin|date=2017-11-08|title=The Saga of the Masked Bobwhite: Lessons Learned and Unlearned|url=https://trace.tennessee.edu/nqsp/vol8/iss1/102|journal=National Quail Symposium Proceedings|volume=8|issue=1|doi=10.7290/nqsp08z7kl |issn=2573-5667}}</ref> A 2017 study recorded no wild sightings of the bird in Sonora.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=García-Solórzano|first1=David|last2=López-González|first2=Edgardo|last3=Islas|first3=Carlos|date=2017-11-08|title=Conservation Status of the Masked Bobwhite in Sonora, Mexico|url=https://trace.tennessee.edu/nqsp/vol8/iss1/101|journal=National Quail Symposium Proceedings|volume=8|issue=1|doi=10.7290/nqsp08rzji |issn=2573-5667}}</ref> Decline of the species has been attributed to intense livestock grazing in an ecosystem that does not rejuvenate quickly.

A captive flock was established in Arizona in the 1970s. The George Miksch Sutton Avian Research Center (Sutton Center) became involved with conservation efforts in 2017 to establish a breeding population at the Sutton Center in Oklahoma, in order to reintroduce birds to [[Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge| Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge (BANWR)]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.suttoncenter.org/conservation/saving-species/masked-bobwhite/|title=Masked Bobwhite – Sutton Center|publisher=George Miksch Sutton Avian Research Center|website=suttoncenter.org|access-date=19 July 2020}}</ref> In 2019, biologists from the Sutton Center transported 1,000 chicks by road vehicle to [[Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge]].  In 2020, a projected total of 1,200 birds will be transported by airplanes to BANWR.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bostian |first1=Kelly |title=Tiny birds, big wings - volunteer flights helping to prop up endangered quail population |url=https://tulsaworld.com/news/local/tiny-birds-big-wings-volunteer-flights-help-to-prop-up-endangered-quail-population/article_9a944686-d809-52a6-ab17-405884988ec0.html |website=Tulsaworld.com |date=19 July 2020 |publisher=Tulsa World |access-date=19 July 2020}}</ref> These recent actions are supplemental, and in addition to other conservation efforts in the past, seem to aid the subspecies' future conservation efforts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fws.gov/southwest/es/Documents/R2ES/MaskedBobwhiteQuail_5-yr_Review_Mar2014.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.fws.gov/southwest/es/Documents/R2ES/MaskedBobwhiteQuail_5-yr_Review_Mar2014.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Masked Bobwhite {{!}} 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation|date=March 2014|publisher=US Fish and Wildlife Service}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Carpenter|first1=James W.|last2=Gabel|first2=Robert R.|last3=Goodwin|first3=John G.|date=1991|title=Captive breeding and reintroduction of the endangered masked bobwhite|journal=Zoo Biology|language=en|volume=10|issue=6|pages=439–449|doi=10.1002/zoo.1430100602|issn=1098-2361}}</ref>

== In popular culture ==
In 2023, the masked bobwhite subspecies will be featured on a [[United States Postal Service]] [[Forever stamp]] as part of the ''Endangered Species'' set, based on a photograph from [[Joel Sartore]]'s [[The Photo Ark|''Photo Ark'']]. The stamp will be dedicated at a ceremony at the [[National Grasslands Visitor Center]] in [[Wall, South Dakota]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=April 19, 2023 |title=Postal Service Spotlights Endangered Species |work=United States Postal Service |url=https://about.usps.com/newsroom/national-releases/2023/0419ma-postal-service-spotlights-endangered-species.htm |access-date=May 11, 2023}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Quail hunting]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Colinus virginianus|Northern Bobwhite}}
{{Wikispecies|Colinus virginianus}}
{{Collier's poster|Virginian Quail}}
* [http://www.seattleaudubon.org/birdweb/bird_details.aspx?id=127 Northern Bobwhite at BirdWeb (seattleaudubon.org)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719080937/http://www.seattleaudubon.org/birdweb/bird_details.aspx?id=127 |date=19 July 2011 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111113232036/http://birding.about.com/od/birdprofiles/p/Northern-Bobwhite.htm Northern Bobwhite info] at About.com
* [http://bringbackbobwhites.org/ National Bobwhite Conservation Initiative]
* {{InternetBirdCollection|northern-bobwhite-colinus-virginianus|Northern Bobwhite}}
* {{VIREO|Northern+Bobwhite|Northern Bobwhite}}
* {{IUCN_Map|22728956|Colinus virginianus}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q142651}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Colinus|northern bobwhite]]
[[Category:Birds of the United States]]
[[Category:Birds of Canada]]
[[Category:Birds of Mexico]]
[[Category:Birds of Cuba]]
[[Category:Birds of the Dominican Republic]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1758|northern bobwhite]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus|northern bobwhite]]
[[Category:Game birds]]
[[Category:Extant Pleistocene first appearances]]
[[Category:Birds of the Sierra Madre Oriental]]
[[Category:Birds of the Sierra Madre del Sur]]
[[Category:Birds of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt]]