View source for Antimicrobial

{{short description|Drug used to kill microorganisms or stop their growth}}
{{Redirect|Microbicide|microbicides that target STDs|Microbicides for sexually transmitted diseases}}
An '''antimicrobial''' is an agent that kills [[microorganism]]s ('''microbicide''') or stops their growth ('''[[bacteriostatic agent]]''').<ref name="urlAntimicrobial – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary">{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Antimicrobial |title=Antimicrobial |work=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |access-date=2009-05-02| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090424210931/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/antimicrobial| archive-date= 24 April 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref> Antimicrobial medicines can be grouped according to the microorganisms they act primarily against. For example, [[antibiotic]]s are used against [[bacteria]], and [[antifungals]] are used against [[fungi]]. They can also be classified according to their function. The use of antimicrobial medicines to treat infection is known as [[antimicrobial chemotherapy]], while the use of antimicrobial medicines to prevent infection is known as [[antibiotic prophylaxis|antimicrobial prophylaxis]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Leekha |first1=Surbhi |last2=Terrell |first2=Christine L. |last3=Edson |first3=Randall S. |date=February 2011 |title=General Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy |journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings |language=en |volume=86 |issue=2 |pages=156–167 |doi=10.4065/mcp.2010.0639 |pmc=3031442 |pmid=21282489}}</ref>

The main classes of antimicrobial agents are [[disinfectant]]s (non-selective agents, such as [[bleach]]), which kill a wide range of microbes on non-living surfaces to prevent the spread of illness, [[antiseptic]]s (which are applied to living tissue and help reduce infection during surgery), and antibiotics (which destroy microorganisms within the body). The term ''antibiotic'' originally described only those formulations derived from living microorganisms but is now also applied to [[Chemical synthesis|synthetic]] agents, such as [[sulfonamide (medicine)|sulfonamides]] or [[fluoroquinolone]]s. Though the term used to be restricted to antibacterials (and is often used as a synonym for them by medical professionals and in medical literature), its context has broadened to include all antimicrobials. Antibacterial agents can be further subdivided into [[bactericidal]] agents, which kill bacteria, and [[bacteriostatic agent]]s, which slow down or stall bacterial growth. In response, further advancements in antimicrobial technologies have resulted in solutions that can go beyond simply inhibiting microbial growth. Instead, certain types of porous media have been developed to kill microbes on contact.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.porex.com/technologies/applications/antimicrobial/|title=Antimicrobial Porous Media {{!}} Microbicidal Technology {{!}} Porex Barrier Technology|website=www.porex.com|access-date=2017-02-16|archive-date=2017-03-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170303065501/http://www.porex.com/technologies/applications/antimicrobial/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The misuse and overuse of antimicrobials in humans, animals and plants are the main drivers in the development of drug-resistant pathogens.<ref name="WHOantimicrobialresistance">{{cite web|title=Antimicrobial resistance|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/antimicrobial-resistance|website=who.int|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|date=21 November 2023|access-date=11 October 2024}}</ref> It is estimated that bacterial [[antimicrobial resistance]] (AMR) was directly responsible for 1.27 million global deaths in 2019 and contributed to 4.95 million deaths.<ref name="WHOantimicrobialresistance"/>
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==History==
Antimicrobial use has been common practice for at least 2000 years. [[Ancient Egyptian medicine|Ancient Egyptians]] and [[Ancient Greek medicine|ancient Greeks]] used specific [[Mold (fungus)|mold]]s and plant extracts to treat infection.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wainwright M |title=Moulds in ancient and more recent medicine |journal=Mycologist |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=21–23 |year=1989 |doi=10.1016/S0269-915X(89)80010-2 }}</ref>

In the 19th century, microbiologists such as [[Louis Pasteur]] and Jules Francois Joubert observed antagonism between some bacteria and discussed the merits of controlling these interactions in medicine.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kingston W | title = Irish contributions to the origins of antibiotics | journal = Irish Journal of Medical Science | volume = 177 | issue = 2 | pages = 87–92 | date = June 2008 | pmid = 18347757 | doi = 10.1007/s11845-008-0139-x | s2cid = 32847260 }}</ref> Louis Pasteur's work in fermentation and spontaneous generation led to the distinction between anaerobic and aerobic bacteria. The information garnered by Pasteur led [[Joseph Lister]] to incorporate antiseptic methods, such as sterilizing surgical tools and debriding wounds into surgical procedures. The implementation of these antiseptic techniques drastically reduced the number of infections and subsequent deaths associated with surgical procedures. Louis Pasteur's work in microbiology also led to the development of many vaccines for life-threatening diseases such as [[anthrax]] and [[rabies]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ullmann |first1=Agnes | name-list-style = vanc |title=Louis Pasteur {{!}} Biography, Inventions, Achievements, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Louis-Pasteur |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica, inc. |access-date=24 February 2020 |language=en |date=23 Dec 2019}}</ref> On September 3, 1928, [[Alexander Fleming]] returned from a vacation and discovered that a Petri dish filled with ''[[Staphylococcus]]'' was separated into colonies due to the antimicrobial fungus ''[[Penicillium rubens]]''. Fleming and his associates struggled to isolate the antimicrobial but referenced its therapeutic potential in 1929 in the ''British Journal of Experimental Pathology''.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fleming A |title=On the Antibacterial Action of Cultures of a Penicillium, with Special Reference to their use in the Isolation of B. influenzae |journal=The British Journal of Experimental Pathology |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=226–236 |year=1929}}</ref> In 1942, [[Howard Florey]], [[Ernst Chain]], and [[Edward Abraham]] used Fleming's work to purify and extract [[penicillin]] for medicinal uses earning them the 1945 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize in Medicine]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1945/summary/| title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1945 | publisher= The Nobel Prize Organization}}</ref>

==Chemical==
[[File:Selman Waksman NYWTS.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Selman Waksman]], who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine for developing 22 antibiotics—most notably [[Streptomycin]]]]

===Antibacterials===
{{Main|Antibiotic}}

Antibacterials are used to treat [[bacterial infections]]. Antibiotics are classified generally as [[beta-lactam]]s, [[macrolide]]s, quinolones, [[tetracycline antibiotics|tetracyclines]] or [[aminoglycoside]]s. Their classification within these categories depends on their antimicrobial spectra, pharmacodynamics, and chemical composition.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book |title=Sanford Guide to Antimicrobial Therapy |date=2018 |isbn=978-1944272067 |edition=48th|last1=Gilbert |first1=David N. |last2=Saag |first2=Michael S.|publisher=Antimicrobial Therapy Incorporated | name-list-style = vanc  }}</ref> Prolonged use of certain antibacterials can decrease the number of [[human gastrointestinal microbiota|enteric bacteria]], which may have a negative impact on [[health]]. Consumption of [[probiotics]] and reasonable eating may help to replace destroyed gut [[flora]]. [[Fecal bacteriotherapy|Stool transplants]] may be considered for patients who are having difficulty recovering from prolonged antibiotic treatment, as for recurrent [[Clostridioides difficile infection|''Clostridioides difficile'' infection]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brandt LJ | title = American Journal of Gastroenterology Lecture: Intestinal microbiota and the role of fecal microbiota transplant (FMT) in treatment of C. difficile infection | journal = The American Journal of Gastroenterology | volume = 108 | issue = 2 | pages = 177–85 | date = February 2013 | pmid = 23318479 | doi = 10.1038/ajg.2012.450 | s2cid = 5843938 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kellermayer R | title = Prospects and challenges for intestinal microbiome therapy in pediatric gastrointestinal disorders | journal = World Journal of Gastrointestinal Pathophysiology | volume = 4 | issue = 4 | pages = 91–3 | date = November 2013 | pmid = 24244876 | pmc = 3829459 | doi = 10.4291/wjgp.v4.i4.91 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

The discovery, development and use of antibacterials during the 20th century have reduced mortality from bacterial infections. The antibiotic era began with the therapeutic application of sulfonamide drugs in 1936, followed by a "golden" period of discovery from about 1945 to 1970, when a number of structurally diverse and highly effective agents were discovered and developed. Since 1980, the introduction of new antimicrobial agents for clinical use has declined, in part because of the enormous expense of developing and testing new drugs.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ventola CL | title = The antibiotic resistance crisis: part 1: causes and threats | journal = P & T | volume = 40 | issue = 4 | pages = 277–83 | date = April 2015 | pmid = 25859123 | pmc = 4378521 }}</ref> In parallel, there has been an alarming increase in [[antimicrobial resistance]] of bacteria, fungi, parasites and some viruses to multiple existing agents.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tanwar J, Das S, Fatima Z, Hameed S | title = Multidrug resistance: an emerging crisis | journal = Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases | volume = 2014 | pages = 541340 | date = Jul 16, 2014 | pmid = 25140175 | pmc = 4124702 | doi = 10.1155/2014/541340 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Antibacterials are among the most commonly used drugs and among the drugs commonly misused by physicians, for example, in viral [[respiratory tract infection]]s.  As a consequence of widespread and injudicious use of antibacterials, there has been an accelerated emergence of antibiotic-resistant pathogens, resulting in a serious threat to global public health. The resistance problem demands that a renewed effort be made to seek antibacterial agents effective against pathogenic bacteria resistant to current antibacterials.  Possible strategies towards this objective include increased sampling from diverse environments and application of [[metagenomics]] to identify bioactive compounds produced by currently unknown and uncultured microorganisms as well as the development of small-molecule libraries customized for bacterial targets.<ref>{{cite book |year=2006 |publisher=National Academies Press |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK19843/ |author=Committee on New Directions in the Study of Antimicrobial Therapeutics |title=Challenges for the Development of New Antibiotics — Rethinking the Approaches |chapter=Challenges for the Development of New Antimicrobials— Rethinking the Approaches |id=NBK19843 }}</ref>

===Antifungals===
{{main|Fungicide}}

Antifungals are used to kill or prevent further growth of [[fungi]]. In medicine, they are used as a treatment for infections such as [[athlete's foot]], [[ringworm]] and [[candidiasis|thrush]] and work by exploiting differences between mammalian and fungal cells. Unlike bacteria, both fungi and humans are [[eukaryote]]s. Thus, fungal and human [[cell (biology)|cell]]s are similar at the molecular level, making it more difficult to find a target for an antifungal drug to attack that does not also exist in the host organism. Consequently, there are often [[Adverse effect (medicine)|side effects]] to some of these drugs.  Some of these side effects can be life-threatening if the drug is not used properly.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Houšť |first1=Jiří |last2=Spížek |first2=Jaroslav |last3=Havlíček |first3=Vladimír |date=2020-03-12 |title=Antifungal Drugs |journal=Metabolites |language=en |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=106 |doi=10.3390/metabo10030106 |issn=2218-1989 |pmc=7143493 |pmid=32178468 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

As well as their use in medicine, antifungals are frequently sought after to control [[indoor mold]] in damp or wet home materials. [[Sodium bicarbonate]] (baking soda) blasted on to surfaces acts as an antifungal. Another antifungal solution applied after or without blasting by soda is a mix of [[hydrogen peroxide]] and a thin surface coating that neutralizes mold and encapsulates the surface to prevent spore release. Some paints are also manufactured with an added antifungal agent for use in high humidity areas such as bathrooms or kitchens. Other antifungal surface treatments typically contain variants of metals known to suppress mold growth e.g. pigments or solutions containing [[copper]], [[silver]] or [[zinc]]. These solutions are not usually available to the general public because of their toxicity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Malandrakis |first1=Anastasios A. |last2=Kavroulakis |first2=Nektarios |last3=Chrysikopoulos |first3=Constantinos V. |date=June 2019 |title=Use of copper, silver and zinc nanoparticles against foliar and soil-borne plant pathogens |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0048969719311994 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=670 |pages=292–299 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.210|pmid=30903901 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.670..292M |s2cid=85460203 }}</ref>

===Antivirals===
{{main|Antiviral drug}}

Antiviral drugs are a class of medication used specifically for treating [[virus|viral]] infections.  Like antibiotics, specific antivirals are used for specific viruses. They should be distinguished from [[viricide]]s, which actively deactivate virus particles outside the body.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Arakawa |first1=Tsutomu |last2=Yamasaki |first2=Hisashi |last3=Ikeda |first3=Keiko |last4=Ejima |first4=Daisuke |last5=Naito |first5=Takeshi |last6=Koyama |first6=A. Hajime |title=Antiviral and Virucidal Activities of Natural Products |url=https://www.eurekaselect.com/article/14502 |journal=Current Medicinal Chemistry |date=2009 |language=en |volume=16 |issue=20 |pages=2485–2497 |doi=10.2174/092986709788682065|pmid=19601794 }}</ref>

Many antiviral drugs are designed to treat infections by [[retroviruses]], including [[HIV]].  Important [[antiretroviral drug]]s include the class of [[protease inhibitor (pharmacology)|protease inhibitor]]s. [[Herpesviridae|Herpes viruses]], best known for causing [[cold sore]]s and [[genital herpes]], are usually treated with the [[nucleoside analogue]] [[acyclovir]]. [[Viral hepatitis]] is caused by five unrelated hepatotropic viruses (A-E) and may be treated with antiviral drugs depending on the type of infection. Some [[influenzavirus A|influenza A]] and [[influenzavirus B|B]] viruses have become resistant to [[neuraminidase inhibitor]]s such as [[oseltamivir]], and the search for new substances continues.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lampejo |first=Temi |date=July 2020 |title=Influenza and antiviral resistance: an overview |journal=European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases |language=en |volume=39 |issue=7 |pages=1201–1208 |doi=10.1007/s10096-020-03840-9 |issn=0934-9723 |pmc=7223162 |pmid=32056049}}</ref>

===Antiparasitics===
{{main|Antiparasitic}}

Antiparasitics are a class of medications indicated for the treatment of infectious diseases such as [[leishmaniasis]], [[malaria]] and [[Chagas disease]], which are caused by [[human parasites|parasites]] such as [[nematodes]], [[cestode]]s, [[trematode]]s and infectious [[protozoa]]. Antiparasitic medications include [[metronidazole]], [[iodoquinol]] and [[albendazole]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Like all therapeutic antimicrobials, they must kill the infecting organism without serious damage to the host.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pink |first1=Richard |last2=Hudson |first2=Alan |last3=Mouriès |first3=Marie-Annick |last4=Bendig |first4=Mary |date=September 2005 |title=Opportunities and Challenges in Antiparasitic Drug Discovery |journal=Nature Reviews Drug Discovery |language=en |volume=4 |issue=9 |pages=727–740 |doi=10.1038/nrd1824 |pmid=16138106 |s2cid=19379800 |issn=1474-1784|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Broad-spectrum therapeutics ===
{{Main|Broad-spectrum therapeutic}}
Broad-spectrum therapeutics are active against multiple classes of pathogens. Such therapeutics have been suggested as potential emergency treatments for [[pandemic]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2021-01-01|title=Broad-spectrum therapeutics: A new antimicrobial class|journal=Current Research in Pharmacology and Drug Discovery|language=en|volume=2|pages=100011|doi=10.1016/j.crphar.2020.100011|issn=2590-2571|doi-access=free|last1=Firth|first1=Anton|last2=Prathapan|first2=Praveen|pmid=34870144|pmc=8035643}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=August 2022}}

===Non-pharmaceutical===
{{Globalize|section|USA|2name=the United States|date=January 2018}}
A wide range of chemical and natural compounds are used as antimicrobials. [[Organic acids]] and their salts are used widely in food products, e.g. [[lactic acid]], [[citric acid]], [[acetic acid]], either as ingredients or as disinfectants. For example, beef carcasses often are sprayed with acids, and then rinsed or steamed, to reduce the prevalence of ''[[Escherichia coli]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Castillo |first1=A. |last2=Lucia |first2=L.M. |last3=Roberson |first3=D.B. |last4=Stevenson |first4=T.H. |last5=Mercado |first5=I. |last6=Acuff |first6=G.R. |date=January 2001 |title=Lactic Acid Sprays Reduce Bacterial Pathogens on Cold Beef Carcass Surfaces and in Subsequently Produced Ground Beef |journal=Journal of Food Protection |language=en |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=58–62 |doi=10.4315/0362-028X-64.1.58|pmid=11198442 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Heavy metal cations such as [[mercury (element)|Hg<sup>2+</sup>]] and [[lead|Pb<sup>2+</sup>]] have antimicrobial activities, but can be toxic. In recent years, the antimicrobial activity of coordination compounds has been investigated.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ratia |first1=Carlos |last2=Soengas |first2=Raquel G. |last3=Soto |first3=Sara M. |date=2022 |title=Gold-Derived Molecules as New Antimicrobial Agents |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=13 |page=846959 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2022.846959 |pmid=35401486 |pmc=8984462 |issn=1664-302X|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pintus |first1=Anna |last2=Aragoni |first2=M. Carla |last3=Cinellu |first3=Maria A. |last4=Maiore |first4=Laura |last5=Isaia |first5=Francesco |last6=Lippolis |first6=Vito |last7=Orrù |first7=Germano |last8=Tuveri |first8=Enrica |last9=Zucca |first9=Antonio |last10=Arca |first10=Massimiliano |date=May 2017 |title=[Au(pyb-H)(mnt)]: A novel gold(III) 1,2-dithiolene cyclometalated complex with antimicrobial activity (pyb-H=C-deprotonated 2-benzylpyridine; mnt=1,2-dicyanoethene-1,2-dithiolate) |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28260677/ |journal=Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry |volume=170 |pages=188–194 |doi=10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2017.02.015 |issn=1873-3344 |pmid=28260677}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marques |first1=Fernanda |last2=Sousa |first2=Sílvia A. |last3=Leitão |first3=Jorge H. |last4=Morais |first4=Tânia S. |last5=Le Gal |first5=Yann |last6=Lorcy |first6=Dominique |date=2021-04-01 |title=Gold(III) bisdithiolate complexes: molecular conductors that also exhibit anticancer and antimicrobial activities |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/07853890.2021.1896913 |journal=Annals of Medicine |volume=53 |issue=sup1 |pages=S29–S30 |doi=10.1080/07853890.2021.1896913 |issn=0785-3890 |pmc=8480714}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Podda |first1=Enrico |last2=Arca |first2=Massimiliano |last3=Atzeni |first3=Giulia |last4=Coles |first4=Simon J. |last5=Ibba |first5=Antonella |last6=Isaia |first6=Francesco |last7=Lippolis |first7=Vito |last8=Orrù |first8=Germano |last9=Orton |first9=James B. |last10=Pintus |first10=Anna |last11=Tuveri |first11=Enrica |date=2020-04-28 |title=Antibacterial Activity of Amidodithiophosphonato Nickel(II) Complexes: An Experimental and Theoretical Approach |journal=Molecules |volume=25 |issue=9 |pages=2052 |doi=10.3390/molecules25092052 |issn=1420-3049 |pmc=7248947 |pmid=32354035|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Traditional herbalists used plants to treat infectious disease. Many of these plants have been investigated scientifically for antimicrobial activity, and some plant products have been shown to inhibit the growth of pathogenic microorganisms.<ref name=tb>{{cite journal | vauthors = Berida T, Adekunle Y, Dada-Adegbola H, Kdimy A, Roy S, Sarker S | title = Plant antibacterials: The challenges and opportunities | journal = Heliyon | volume = 10 | issue = 10 | pages = e31145 | date = May 2024 | doi = 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31145 | doi-access = free | pmid = 38803958 | pmc = 11128932 | bibcode = 2024Heliy..1031145B }}</ref> A number of these agents appear to have structures and modes of action that are distinct from those of the antibiotics in current use, suggesting that [[cross-resistance]] with agents already in use may be minimal.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mollazadeh Moghaddam K, Arfan M, Rafique J, Rezaee S, Jafari Fesharaki P, Gohari AR, Shahverdi AR | title = The antifungal activity of Sarcococca saligna ethanol extract and its combination effect with fluconazole against different resistant Aspergillus species | journal = Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology | volume = 162 | issue = 1 | pages = 127–33 | date = September 2010 | pmid = 19685213 | doi = 10.1007/s12010-009-8737-2 | s2cid = 8211327 }}</ref>

====Copper====
{{Main|Antimicrobial properties of copper|Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces}}
Copper-alloy surfaces have natural intrinsic antimicrobial properties and can kill microorganisms such as  ''E. coli'' and ''Staphylococcus''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://coppertouchsurfaces.org/antimicrobial/bacteria/index.html |title=Copper Touch Surfaces |access-date=2011-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723235812/http://www.coppertouchsurfaces.org/antimicrobial/bacteria/index.html |archive-date=2012-07-23 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Morrison2020">{{Cite magazine |last=Morrison |first=Jim |date=14 April 2020 |title=Copper's Virus-Killing Powers Were Known Even to the Ancients |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/copper-virus-kill-180974655/ |magazine=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en |access-date=2 April 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320055837/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/copper-virus-kill-180974655/ |archive-date=20 March 2023}}</ref> The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] approved the registration of [[antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces|antimicrobial copper alloy surfaces]] for use in addition to regular cleaning and disinfection to control infections.<ref name="Morrison2020"/><ref name="EPA2021">{{Cite press release |title=EPA Registers Copper Surfaces for Residual Use Against Coronavirus |date=10 February 2021 |publisher=EPA Press Office |location=Washington, DC |url=https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-registers-copper-surfaces-residual-use-against-coronavirus |access-date=2 April 2023 |author=<!--Not stated--> |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322184404/https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-registers-copper-surfaces-residual-use-against-coronavirus |archive-date=22 March 2023}}</ref> Antimicrobial copper alloys are being installed in some healthcare facilities and subway transit systems as a public hygienic measure.<ref name="Morrison2020"/> Copper [[nanoparticle]]s are attracting interest for the intrinsic antimicrobial behaviors.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ermini|first1=Maria Laura|last2=Voliani|first2=Valerio|date=2021-04-01|title=Antimicrobial Nano-Agents: The Copper Age|journal=ACS Nano|volume=15|issue=4|pages=6008–6029|doi=10.1021/acsnano.0c10756|pmid=33792292|pmc=8155324|issn=1936-0851|doi-access=free}}</ref>

====Essential oils====
Many [[essential oil]]s included in [[herbal medicine|herbal]] [[pharmacopoeia]]s are claimed to possess antimicrobial activity, with the oils of [[Pimenta racemosa|bay]], [[cinnamon]], [[oil of clove|clove]] and [[thyme]] reported to be the most potent in studies with [[Foodborne illness#Bacteria|foodborne bacterial pathogens]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Smith-Palmer A, Stewart J, Fyfe L | title = Antimicrobial properties of plant essential oils and essences against five important food-borne pathogens | journal = Letters in Applied Microbiology | volume = 26 | issue = 2 | pages = 118–22 | date = February 1998 | pmid = 9569693 | doi = 10.1046/j.1472-765x.1998.00303.x | s2cid = 39803630 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kalemba D, Kunicka A | title = Antibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oils | journal = Current Medicinal Chemistry | volume = 10 | issue = 10 | pages = 813–29 | date = May 2003 | pmid = 12678685 | doi = 10.2174/0929867033457719 }}</ref> [[Coconut oil]] is also known for its antimicrobial properties.<ref>{{cite magazine|author=Blimie Wassertheil|date=Feb 5, 2018|title=Beyond the Bowl of Chicken Soup|magazine=[[Binah (magazine)|Binah]]|pages=46–50}}</ref> Active constituents include [[terpenoid]]s and [[secondary metabolite]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schnitzler|first=Paul|date=2019|title=Essential Oils for the Treatment of Herpes Simplex Virus Infections|url=https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/501062|journal=Chemotherapy|language=en|volume=64|issue=1|pages=1–7|doi=10.1159/000501062|pmid=31234166|s2cid=195356798|issn=0009-3157}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Astani|first1=Akram|last2=Reichling|first2=Jürgen|last3=Schnitzler|first3=Paul|date=May 2010|title=Comparative study on the antiviral activity of selected monoterpenes derived from essential oils: Antiviral Activity of Monoterpenes Derived FromEssential Oils|journal=Phytotherapy Research|language=en|volume=24|issue=5|pages=673–679|doi=10.1002/ptr.2955|pmid=19653195|pmc=7167768}}</ref> Despite their prevalent use in [[alternative medicine]], essential oils have seen limited use in mainstream medicine. While 25 to 50% of pharmaceutical compounds are plant-derived, none are used as antimicrobials, though there has been increased research in this direction.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cowan MM | title = Plant products as antimicrobial agents | journal = Clinical Microbiology Reviews | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 564–82 | date = October 1999 | pmid = 10515903 | pmc = 88925 | doi = 10.1128/CMR.12.4.564 }}</ref> Barriers to increased usage in mainstream medicine include poor regulatory oversight and quality control, mislabeled or misidentified products, and limited modes of delivery.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chouhan |first1=Sonam |last2=Sharma |first2=Kanika |last3=Guleria |first3=Sanjay |date=2017-08-08 |title=Antimicrobial Activity of Some Essential Oils—Present Status and Future Perspectives |journal=Medicines |language=en |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=58 |doi=10.3390/medicines4030058 |issn=2305-6320 |pmc=5622393 |pmid=28930272 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=tb/>

====Antimicrobial pesticides====
According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and defined by the [[Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act]], antimicrobial pesticides are used to control growth of microbes through disinfection, sanitation, or reduction of development and to protect inanimate objects, industrial processes or systems, surfaces, water, or other chemical substances from contamination, fouling, or deterioration caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, algae, or slime.<ref name="epa.gov">{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/oppad001/ad_info.htm |title=What Are Antimicrobial Pesticides? |date=2000 |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=2013-05-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520134604/http://www.epa.gov/oppad001/ad_info.htm |archive-date=2013-05-20 }}</ref> The EPA monitors products, such as disinfectants/sanitizers for use in hospitals or homes, to ascertain efficacy.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sanders FT |year=2003 |title=The Role of the EPA in the Regulation of Antimicrobial Pesticides in the United States |journal=Pesticide Outlook |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=251–255|doi=10.1039/b314854h }}</ref> Products that are meant for public health are therefore under this monitoring system, including products used for drinking water, swimming pools, food sanitation, and other environmental surfaces. These pesticide products are registered under the premise that, when used properly, they do not demonstrate unreasonable side effects to humans or the environment. Even once certain products are on the market, the EPA continues to monitor and evaluate them to make sure they maintain efficacy in protecting public health.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sanders |first=Frank T. |date=2003-02-05 |title=The role of the EPA in the regulation of antimicrobial pesticides in the United States |url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2003/po/b314854h |journal=Pesticide Outlook |language=en |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=251–255 |doi=10.1039/B314854H |issn=1465-8933}}</ref>

Public health products regulated by the EPA are divided into three categories:<ref name="epa.gov"/>
* Disinfectants: Destroy or inactivate microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses,) but may not act as sporicides (as those are the most difficult form to destroy). According to efficacy data, the EPA will classify a disinfectant as limited, general/broad spectrum, or as a hospital disinfectant.
* Sanitizers: Reduce the number of microorganisms, but may not kill or eliminate all of them.
* Sterilizers (Sporicides): Eliminate all bacteria, fungi, spores, and viruses.

=====Antimicrobial pesticide safety=====
Antimicrobial pesticides have the potential to be a major factor in drug resistance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Taneja |first1=Neelam |last2=Sharma |first2=Megha |date=2019 |title=Antimicrobial resistance in the environment: The Indian scenario|journal=Indian Journal of Medical Research |volume=149 |issue=2 |pages=119{{hyphen}}120 |doi=10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_331_18 |pmid=31219076 |pmc=6563737 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Organizations such as the [[World Health Organization]] call for significant reduction in their use globally to combat this.<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--not stated--> |date=2021-08-24 |title=World leaders and experts call for significant reduction in the use of antimicrobial drugs in global food systems|url=https://www.who.int/news/item/24-08-2021-world-leaders-and-experts-call-for-significant-reduction-in-the-use-of-antimicrobial-drugs-in-global-food-systems |work=WHO Departmental News |location=Geneva, Nairobi, Paris, Rome |access-date=2022-04-18}}</ref> According to a 2010 [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] report, health-care workers can take steps to improve their safety measures against antimicrobial pesticide exposure. Workers are advised to minimize exposure to these agents by wearing [[personal protective equipment]] such as gloves and safety glasses. Additionally, it is important to follow the handling instructions properly, as that is how the EPA has deemed them as safe to use. Employees should be educated about the health hazards and encouraged to seek medical care if exposure occurs.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Acute antimicrobial pesticide-related illnesses among workers in health-care facilities – California, Louisiana, Michigan, and Texas, 2002–2007 | journal = MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report | volume = 59 | issue = 18 | pages = 551–6 | date = May 2010 | pmid = 20467413 | url = https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5918a2.htm | author1 = Centers for Disease Control Prevention (CDC) }}</ref>

===Ozone===
{{main|Ozone#Applications 2|l1=Ozone Applications}}

Ozone can kill microorganisms in air, water and process equipment and has been used in settings such as kitchen exhaust ventilation, garbage rooms, grease traps, [[biogas plants]], [[wastewater treatment]] plants, textile production, [[breweries]], [[dairies]], food and hygiene production, [[pharmaceutical industries]], bottling plants, zoos, municipal drinking-water systems, [[swimming pool]]s and spas, and in the laundering of clothes and treatment of in–house mold and odors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Habibi Najafi |first1=Mohammad B. |last2=Haddad Khodaparast |first2=M. H. |date=2009-01-01 |title=Efficacy of ozone to reduce microbial populations in date fruits |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095671350800039X |journal=Food Control |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=27–30 |doi=10.1016/j.foodcont.2008.01.010 |issn=0956-7135}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Chih-Shan |last2=Wang |first2=Yu-Chun |date=July 2003 |title=Surface Germicidal Effects of Ozone for Microorganisms |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15428110308984851 |journal=AIHA Journal |language=en |volume=64 |issue=4 |pages=533–537 |doi=10.1080/15428110308984851 |pmid=12908871 |issn=1542-8117}}</ref>

===Antimicrobial scrubs===
Antimicrobial [[scrubs (clothing)|scrubs]] can reduce the accumulation of odors and stains on scrubs, which in turn improves their longevity. These scrubs also come in a variety of colors and styles. As antimicrobial technology develops at a rapid pace, these scrubs are readily available, with more advanced versions hitting the market every year.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Prestinaci F, Pezzotti P, Pantosti A | title = Antimicrobial resistance: a global multifaceted phenomenon | journal = Pathogens and Global Health | volume = 109 | issue = 7 | pages = 309–18 | date = October 2015 | pmid = 26343252 | pmc = 4768623 | doi = 10.1179/2047773215Y.0000000030 }}</ref> These bacteria could then be spread to office desks, break rooms, computers, and other shared technology. This can lead to outbreaks and infections like MRSA, treatments for which cost the healthcare industry $20&nbsp;billion a year.

=== Halogens ===
Elements such as chlorine, iodine, fluorine, and bromine are nonmetallic in nature and constitute the halogen family. Each of these halogens have a different antimicrobial effect that is influenced by various factors such as pH, temperature, contact time, and type of microorganism. Chlorine and iodine are the two most commonly used antimicrobials. Chlorine is extensively used as a disinfectant in the water treatment plants, drug, and food industries. In wastewater treatment plants, chlorine is widely used as a disinfectant. It oxidizes soluble contaminants and kills bacteria and viruses. It is also highly effective against bacterial spores. The mode of action is by breaking the bonds present in these microorganisms. When a bacterial enzyme comes in contact with a compound containing chlorine, the hydrogen atom in that molecule gets displaced and is replaced with chlorine. This thus changes the enzyme function which in turn leads to the death of the bacterium. Iodine is most commonly used for sterilization and wound cleaning. The three major antimicrobial compounds containing iodine are alcohol-iodine solution, an aqueous solution of iodine, and iodophors. Iodophors are more bactericidal and are used as antiseptics as they are less irritating when applied to the skin. Bacterial spores on the other hand cannot be killed by iodine, but they can be inhibited by iodophors. The growth of microorganisms is inhibited when iodine penetrates into the cells and oxidizes proteins, genetic material, and fatty acids. Bromine is also an effective antimicrobial that is used in water treatment plants. When mixed with chlorine it is highly effective against bacterial spores such as ''S. faecalis.''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Odlaug |first=Theron E. |date=August 1981 |title=Antimicrobial Activity of Halogens |journal=Journal of Food Protection |language=en |volume=44 |issue=8 |pages=608–613 |doi=10.4315/0362-028X-44.8.608|pmid=30836538 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Alcohols ===
Alcohols are commonly used as disinfectants and antiseptics. Alcohols kill vegetative bacteria, most viruses and fungi. Ethyl alcohol, n-propanol and isopropyl alcohol are the most commonly used antimicrobial agents.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Antiseptics and Disinfectants: Activity, Action, and Resistance|year=1999|pmc=88911|last1=McDonnell|first1=G.|last2=Russell|first2=A. D.|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=12|issue=1|pages=147–179|doi=10.1128/CMR.12.1.147|pmid=9880479}}</ref> Methanol is also a disinfecting agent but is not generally used as it is highly poisonous. ''Escherichia coli'', ''Salmonella'', and ''Staphylococcus aureus'' are a few bacteria whose growth can be inhibited by alcohols. Alcohols have a high efficiency against enveloped viruses (60–70% ethyl alcohol) 70% isopropyl alcohol or ethanol are highly effective as an antimicrobial agent. In the presence of water, 70% alcohol causes coagulation of the proteins thus inhibiting microbial growth. Alcohols are not quite efficient when it comes to spores. The mode of action is by denaturing the proteins. Alcohols interfere with the hydrogen bonds present in the protein structure. Alcohols also dissolve the lipid membranes that are present in microorganisms.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Saritha |first1=Kongari |last2=Rajesh |first2=Angireddy |last3=Manjulatha |first3=Khanapur |last4=Setty |first4=Oruganti H. |last5=Yenugu |first5=Suresh |date=2015-06-09 |title=Mechanism of antibacterial action of the alcoholic extracts of Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. ex Schult, Leucas aspera (Wild.), Plumbago zeylanica L., and Tridax procumbens (L.) R. Br. ex Schult |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=6 |page=577 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2015.00577 |issn=1664-302X |pmc=4460426 |pmid=26106379 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ingólfsson |first1=Helgi |last2=Andersen |first2=Olaf |date=August 2011 |title=Alcohol's Effects on Lipid Bilayer Properties |journal=Biophysical Journal |language=English |volume=101 |issue=4 |pages=847–855 |doi=10.1016/j.bpj.2011.07.013 |pmc=3175087 |pmid=21843475|bibcode=2011BpJ...101..847I }}</ref> Disruption of the cell membrane is another property of alcohols that aid in cell death. Alcohols are cheap and effective antimicrobials. They are widely used in the pharmaceutical industry.  Alcohols are commonly used in hand sanitizers, antiseptics, and disinfectants.

=== Phenol and Phenolic compounds ===
Phenol also known as carbolic acid was one of the first chemicals which was used as an antimicrobial agent. It has high antiseptic properties. It is bacteriostatic at concentrations of 0.1%–1% and is bactericidal/fungicidal at 1%–2%. A 5% solution kills anthrax spores in 48 hr.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.merckvetmanual.com/pharmacology/antiseptics-and-disinfectants/phenols-and-related-compounds | title=Phenols and Related Compounds – Pharmacology }}</ref> Phenols are most commonly used in oral mouth washes and household cleaning agents. They are active against a wide range of bacteria, fungi and viruses.  Today phenol derivatives such as thymol and cresol are used because they are less toxic compared to phenol. These phenolic compounds have a benzene ring along with the –OH group incorporated into their structures. They have a higher antimicrobial activity. These compounds inhibit microbial growth by precipitating proteins which lead to their denaturation and by penetrating into the cell membrane of microorganisms and disrupting it. Phenolic compounds can also deactivate enzymes and damage the amino acids in microbial cells. Phenolics such as fentichlore, an antibacterial and antifungal agent are used as an oral treatment for fungal infections. Trischlosan is highly effective against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Hexachlorophene (Bisphenol) is used as a surfactant. It is widely used in soaps, handwashes, and skin products because of its antiseptic properties. It is also used as a sterilizing agent. Cresol is an effective antimicrobial and is widely used in mouthwashes and cough drops. Phenolics have high antimicrobial activity against bacteria such as ''Staphylococcus epidermidis'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa.''<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Walsh |first1=Danica J. |last2=Livinghouse |first2=Tom |last3=Goeres |first3=Darla M. |last4=Mettler |first4=Madelyn |last5=Stewart |first5=Philip S. |date=2019-10-01 |title=Antimicrobial Activity of Naturally Occurring Phenols and Derivatives Against Biofilm and Planktonic Bacteria |journal=Frontiers in Chemistry |volume=7 |page=653 |doi=10.3389/fchem.2019.00653 |issn=2296-2646 |pmc=6779693 |pmid=31632948 |bibcode=2019FrCh....7..653W |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[2-Phenylphenol]]-water solutions are used in immersion treatments of [[fruit]] for packing. (It is not used on the [[packing material]]s however.) Ihloff and Kalitzki 1961 find a small but measurable amount [[residue (disambiguation)|remains in the skin]] of fruits processed in this manner.<ref name="Luck-1997">{{cite book | last=Lück | first=Erich | title=Antimicrobial Food Additives : Characteristics · Uses · Effects | publisher=[[Springer Berlin Heidelberg]] | publication-place=[[Berlin]], [[Heidelberg]] | year=1997 | isbn=978-3-642-59202-7 | oclc=851702956 | language=en | pages=XXIIX+260}}</ref>{{rp|193}}

=== Aldehydes ===
They are highly effective against bacteria, fungi, and viruses.  Aldehydes inhibit bacterial growth by disrupting the outer membrane. They are used in the disinfection and sterilization of surgical instruments. Being highly toxic they are not used in antiseptics. Currently, only three aldehyde compounds are of widespread practical use as disinfectant biocides, namely glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde, and ortho-phthalaldehyde (OPA) despite the demonstration that many other aldehydes possess good antimicrobial activity.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://basicmedicalkey.com/aldehydes/ | title=Aldehydes | newspaper=Basicmedical Key | date=9 May 2021 }}</ref> However, due to its long contact time other disinfectants are commonly preferred.

==Physical==

===Heat===
{{Main|Dry heat sterilization|Moist heat sterilization}}

Microorganisms have a minimum temperature, an optimum, and a maximum temperature for growth.<ref name="Pawel">{{Cite web |last=Pawel |date=21 November 2011 |title=Physical Agents to Control Microorganisms |url=https://www.umed.wroc.pl/sites/default/files/mikrobiologia/files/edSTERILIZATION_and_DISINFECTION.pdf |access-date=13 November 2022 |publisher=Uniwersytet Medyczny we Wrocławiu}}</ref> High temperature as well as low temperatures are used as physical agents of control. Different organisms show different degrees of resistance or susceptibility to heat or temperature, some organisms such as bacterial endospore are more resistant while vegetative cells are less resistant and are easily killed at lower temperatures.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/physical-agents-control-microorganisms/ | title=Physical agents to control microorganisms | date=4 August 2017 }}</ref> Another method that involves the use of heat to kill microorganisms is fractional sterilization. This process involves the exposure to a temperature of 100 degrees Celsius for an hour, on each for several days.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/fractional+sterilization | title=Fractional sterilization }}</ref> Fractional sterilization is also called tyndallization. Bacterial endospores can be killed using this method. Both dry and moist heat are effective in eliminating microbial life. For example, jars used to store preserves such as [[Fruit preserves|jam]] can be sterilized by heating them in a [[conventional oven]]. Heat is also used in [[pasteurization]], a method for slowing the spoilage of foods such as milk, cheese, juices, wines and vinegar. Such products are heated to a certain temperature for a set period of time, which greatly reduces the number of harmful microorganisms. Low temperature is also used to inhibit microbial activity by slowing down microbial metabolism.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://cleaning.lovetoknow.com/how-kill-household-germs/how-cold-does-temperature-need-be-kill-germs | title=How Cold Does the Temperature Need to be to Kill Germs? }}</ref>

===Radiation===
Foods are often [[Food irradiation|irradiated]] to kill harmful [[Food-borne illness#Causes|pathogens]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/radiation/sources/food_irrad.html |title=20467413 |access-date=28 October 2014 |publisher=US EPA}}</ref> There are two types of radiations that are used to inhibit the growth of microorganisms – ionizing and non-ionizing radiations.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Physical agents to control microorganisms|date=4 August 2017|url=https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/physical-agents-control-microorganisms/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170819093545/http://www.onlinebiologynotes.com:80/physical-agents-control-microorganisms/ |archive-date=2017-08-19 }}</ref> Common sources of radiation used in food sterilization include [[cobalt-60]] (a [[gamma emitter]]), [[electron beams]] and {{Nowrap|[[X-ray]]s}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/nczved/divisions/dfbmd/diseases/irradiation_food/#process |access-date=17 April 2016 |publisher=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |title=Irradiation of Food FAQ: What is the actual process of irradiation? |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420004615/http://www.cdc.gov/nczved/divisions/dfbmd/diseases/irradiation_food/#process |archive-date=20 April 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Ultraviolet#Biology-related uses|Ultraviolet light]] is also used to disinfect drinking water, both in small-scale personal-use systems and larger-scale community water purification systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.water-research.net/index.php/water-treatment/water-disinfection/uv-disinfection |access-date=18 April 2016 |title=UV Disinfection Drinking Water |publisher=Water Research Center}}</ref>

=== Desiccation ===
Desiccation is also known as dehydration.  It is the state of extreme dryness or the process of extreme drying. Some microorganisms like bacteria, yeasts and molds require water for their growth. Desiccation dries up the water content thus inhibiting microbial growth. On the availability of water, the bacteria resume their growth, thus desiccation does not completely inhibit bacterial growth. The instrument used to carry out this process is called a desiccator. This process is widely used in the food industry and is an efficient method for food preservation. Desiccation is also largely used in the pharmaceutical industry to store vaccines and other products.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ghaemmaghamian |first1=Zahra |last2=Zarghami |first2=Reza |last3=Walker |first3=Gavin |last4=O’Reilly |first4=Emmet |last5=Ziaee |first5=Ahmad |date=2022-08-01 |title=Stabilizing vaccines via drying: Quality by design considerations |journal=Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews |volume=187 |pages=114313 |doi=10.1016/j.addr.2022.114313 |pmid=35597307 |s2cid=248934971 |issn=0169-409X|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Antimicrobial surfaces ===
Antimicrobial surfaces are designed to either inhibit the ability of microorganisms to grow or damaging them by chemical ([[Antimicrobial properties of copper|copper toxicity]]) or physical processes (micro/nano-pillars to rupture cell walls). These surfaces are especially important for the healthcare industry.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2016-01-01|title=Antimicrobial surfaces to prevent healthcare-associated infections: a systematic review|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195670115003667|journal=Journal of Hospital Infection|language=en|volume=92|issue=1|pages=7–13|doi=10.1016/j.jhin.2015.09.008|issn=0195-6701|last1=Muller|first1=M.P.|last2=MacDougall|first2=C.|last3=Lim|first3=M.|last4=Armstrong|first4=I.|last5=Bialachowski|first5=A.|last6=Callery|first6=S.|last7=Ciccotelli|first7=W.|last8=Cividino|first8=M.|last9=Dennis|first9=J.|last10=Hota|first10=S.|last11=Garber|first11=G.|last12=Johnstone|first12=J.|last13=Katz|first13=K.|last14=McGeer|first14=A.|last15=Nankoosingh|first15=V.|last16=Richard|first16=C.|last17=Vearncombe|first17=M.|pmid=26601608}}</ref> Designing effective antimicrobial surfaces demands an in-depth understanding of the initial microbe-surface adhesion mechanisms. Molecular dynamics simulation and time-lapse imaging are typically used to investigate these mechanisms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sibilo|first1=Rafaël|last2=Mannelli|first2=Ilaria|last3=Reigada|first3=Ramon|last4=Manzo|first4=Carlo|last5=Noyan|first5=Mehmet A.|last6=Mazumder|first6=Prantik|last7=Pruneri|first7=Valerio|date=2020-05-19|title=Direct and Fast Assessment of Antimicrobial Surface Activity Using Molecular Dynamics Simulation and Time-Lapse Imaging|journal=Analytical Chemistry|volume=92|issue=10|pages=6795–6800|doi=10.1021/acs.analchem.0c00367|pmid=32295344|issn=0003-2700|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Osmotic pressure ===
Osmotic pressure is the pressure required to prevent a solvent from passing from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration through a semipermeable membrane.  When the concentration of dissolved materials or solute is higher inside the cell than it is outside, the cell is said to be in a hypotonic environment and water will flow into the cell.<ref name="Pawel"/>When the bacteria is placed in hypertonic solution, it causes plasmolysis or cell shrinking, similarly in hypotonic solution, bacteria undergoes plasmotysis or turgid state. This plasmolysis and plasmotysis kills bacteria because it causes change in osmotic pressure.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/physical-agents-control-microorganisms/|title = Physical agents to control microorganisms|date = 4 August 2017}}</ref>

== Antimicrobial resistance ==
{{{Main|Antimicrobial resistance}}}
The misuse and overuse of antimicrobials in humans, animals and plants are the main drivers in the development of drug-resistant pathogens.<ref name="WHOantimicrobialresistance">{{cite web|title=Antimicrobial resistance|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/antimicrobial-resistance|website=who.int|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|date=21 November 2023|access-date=11 October 2024}}</ref> It is estimated that bacterial [[antimicrobial resistance]] (AMR) was directly responsible for 1.27 million global deaths in 2019 and contributed to 4.95 million deaths.<ref name="WHOantimicrobialresistance"/>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Biology}}
* [[Biocide]]
* [[Antiviral drug]]

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* [https://archive.today/20070701212012/http://www.eu-burden.info/burden/pages/home.php BURDEN of Resistance and Disease in European Nations – An EU-Project to estimate the financial burden of antibiotic resistance in European Hospitals]
* [[Cochrane (organisation)|Cochrane]] Wounds list of antimicrobials ([https://wounds.cochrane.org/sites/wounds.cochrane.org/files/public/uploads/antimicrobials_list.pdf PDF])
* [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiology/chapter/using-physical-methods-to-control-microorganisms/ https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiology/chapter/using-physical-methods-to-control-microorganis]
* [http://npic.orst.edu/ National Pesticide Information Center]
* [http://www.bpf.co.uk/Plastipedia/Additives/Antimicrobials_Biostabilisers.aspx Overview of the use of Antimicrobials in plastic applications]
* [http://antibiotics.toku-e.com/antimicrobial The Antimicrobial Index – A continuously updated list of antimicrobial agents found in scientific literature (includes plant extracts and peptides)]
{{Antibiotics social and layman issues}}
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[[Category:Antimicrobials| ]]
[[Category:Biocides]]