Examine individual changes

'[[File:Guercino Return of the prodigal son.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Prodigal Son]]]] The doctrine of [[sin]] is central to Christianity, since its [[The gospel|basic message]] is about [[redemption (theology)|redemption]] in [[Jesus in Christianity|Christ]].<ref>Rahner, p. 1588</ref> [[Christianity|Christian]] [[hamartiology]] describes sin as an act of offence against [[God in Christianity|God]] by despising his [[Trinity|persons]] and [[Biblical law in Christianity|Christian biblical law]], and by injuring others.<ref>Sabourin, p. 696</ref> In Christian views it is an [[evil]] human act, which violates the rational nature of man as well as [[Trinity|God's nature]] and his [[eternal law]]. According to the classical definition of [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine of Hippo]] sin is "a word, deed, or desire in opposition to the eternal law of God."<ref>''Contra Faustum Manichaeum'', 22,27; [[Patrologia Latina|PL]] 42,418; cf. [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Summa Theologica|STh]] I–II q71 a6.</ref><ref>Mc Guinness, p. 241</ref> Among some scholars, sin is understood mostly as legal infraction or contract violation of non-binding philosophical frameworks and perspectives of [[Christian ethics]], and so [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]] tends to be viewed in legal terms. Other Christian scholars understand sin to be fundamentally relational—a loss of love for the [[God in Christianity|Christian God]] and an elevation of [[self-love]] ("concupiscence", in this sense), as was later propounded by Augustine in his debate with the [[Pelagianism|Pelagians]].<ref>''On Grace and Free Will'' (see ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', trans. P.Holmes, vol. 5; 30–31 [14–15]).</ref> As with the legal definition of sin, this definition also affects the understanding of [[Grace in Christianity|Christian grace]] and salvation, which are thus viewed in relational terms.<ref>Christian grace is understood as God's love brought to the human soul by the [[God the Holy Spirit]] (Romans 5:5), and salvation is the establishment of that love relationship.</ref><ref>For a historical review of this understanding, see R.N.Frost, "Sin and Grace", in Paul L. Metzger, ''Trinitarian Soundings'', T&T Clark, 2005.</ref> ==Sin in the Bible== ===Old Testament=== The first reference to "sin" as a noun is of "''sin'' is crouching at your door; it desires to have you, but you must rule over it”<ref name="JSB-17">c.f. "(..) Sin couches at the door; Its urge is toward you, Yet you can be its master." {{cite book|last1=Berlin|first1=Adele|last2=Brettler|first2=Marc Zvi|title=Jewish study bible|date=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=[S.l.]|isbn=978-0199978465|pages=17|edition=2 Rev ed. (November 2014)|url=https://books.google.de/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT2&dq=The+Jewish+Study+Bible&hl=de&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj94f2G9ezLAhWMVRQKHQzTBsEQ6AEILTAA#v=onepage&q=burnt%20offering&f=false|accessdate=1 April 2016}}</ref> waiting to be mastered by [[Cain]],{{Bibleref2c|Genesis|4:7|NIV|Gen 4:7}}{{Bibleref2c|1Peter|5:8|NIV|''cf.'' 1 Pet 5:8}} a form of literary [[theriomorphism]].<ref>'' Synthesis: bulletin du Comité national de littérature comparée / Comitetul Național pentru Literatură Comparată, Institutul de Istorie și Teorie Literară "G. Călinescu." – 2002 "Sin is personified as (an animal?) which "crouches" at the door of Cain (Gen 4:7). As [[Gerhard von Rad]] (Genesis, 105) remarks, 'The comparison of sin with a beast of prey lying before the door is strange, as is the purely decorative use"</ref> The first use of the verb is God appears to [[Abimelech]] "in the dream, “Yes, I know you did this with a clear conscience, and so I have kept you from ''sinning'' against me. That is why I did not let you touch her.”" in Genesis 20:3. Isaiah announced the consequences: "But your iniquities have separated you from your God; your sins have hidden his face from you, so that he will not hear. For your hands are stained with blood, your fingers with guilt. Your lips have spoken falsely, and your tongue mutters wicked things" — a separation between God and man, and unrequited worshipping.{{Bibleref2c|Isaiah|59:2–3|NIV|Isaiah 59:2–3}} ====Original sin==== {{main|Original sin}} Original sin, also called [[ancestral sin]],<ref>Examples: * [https://books.google.com/books?id=SUjKOoQsCyUC&pg=PA119&lpg=PA119&dq=%22baptism+removes+the+ancestral+sin%22&hl=en Alexander Golitzin, ''On the Mystical Life''] by Saint Symeon (St Vladimir's Seminary Press 1995 {{ISBN|978-0-88141-144-7}}), p.119 * [https://books.google.com/books?id=ltNLs6fI73cC&pg=PA190&lpg=PA190&dq=%22far-descended+ancestral+sin%22&hl=en Adam L. Tate, ''Conservatism and Southern Intellectuals, 1789–1861''] (University of Missouri Press 2005 {{ISBN|978-0-8262-1567-3}}), p. 190 * [https://books.google.com/books?id=6ePZFD9BOB4C&pg=PA32&lpg=PA32&dq=%22cleansing+away+the+ancestral+sin%22&hl=en Marcelle Bartolo-Abel, ''God's Gift to Humanity''] (Apostolate–The Divine Heart 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-9833480-1-6}}), p. 32 * [https://books.google.com/books?id=N0e9guRLMVEC&pg=PA62&lpg=PA62&dq=%22this+ancestral+sin+is+essential%22&hl=en Ann Hassan, ''Annotations to Geoffrey Hill's Speech! Speech!''] (Punctum Books 2012 {{ISBN|978-1-4681-2984-7}}, p. 62 </ref> is the [[Christianity|Christian]] doctrine of humanity's state of [[sin]] resulting from the [[fall of man]], stemming from Adam's rebellion in [[Garden of Eden|Eden]], namely the [[Forbidden fruit|sin of disobedience in consuming from the tree of knowledge of good and evil]].{{sfn|ODCC|2005|p=Original sin}} This condition has been characterized in many ways, ranging from something as insignificant as a slight deficiency, or a tendency toward sin yet without collective guilt, referred to as a "sin nature", to something as drastic as [[total depravity]] or automatic guilt of all humans through [[Guilt (emotion)#Collective guilt|collective guilt]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Brodd|first=Jefferey|title=World Religions|publisher=Saint Mary's Press|year=2003|location=Winona, MN|isbn=978-0-88489-725-5}}</ref> The concept of original sin was first alluded to in the 2nd century by [[Irenaeus]], [[Bishop of Lyon]] in his controversy with certain [[dualistic cosmology|dualist]] [[Gnosticism|Gnostics]]. Other church fathers such as [[Augustine]] also developed the doctrine,{{sfn|ODCC|2005|p=Original sin}} seeing it as based on the [[New Testament]] teaching of [[Paul the Apostle]] ({{bibleref2|Romans|5:12–21}} and {{bibleref2|1 Corinthians|15:22}}) and the Old Testament verse of {{bibleref2|Psalm|51:5}}.<ref>Peter Nathan – [http://www.vision.org/visionmedia/article.aspx?id=227 The Original View of Original Sin] – Retrieved 14 October 2013.</ref><ref>Phil Porvaznik – [http://www.philvaz.com/apologetics/num54.htm Original Sin Explained and Defended] Evangelical Catholic Apologetics – Retrieved 14 October 2013.</ref><ref>[http://nazarene.org/ministries/administration/visitorcenter/articles/ Preamble and Articles of Faith] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020030856/http://nazarene.org/ministries/administration/visitorcenter/articles/ |date=2013-10-20 }} – V. Sin, Original and Personal – Church of the Nazarene. Retrieved 13 October 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.topicalbiblestudies.com/original-sin.php Are Babies Born with Sin?] – Topical Bible Studies. Retrieved 13 October 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.catholicnewsagency.com/resources/apologetics/salvation/original-sin/ Original Sin] – Psalm 51:5 – Catholic News Agency. Retrieved 13 October 2013.</ref> [[Tertullian]], [[Cyprian]], [[Ambrose]] and [[Ambrosiaster]] considered that humanity shares in Adam's sin, transmitted by human generation. [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine's]] formulation of original sin was popular among [[Protestant Reformation|Protestant reformers]], such as [[Martin Luther]] and [[John Calvin]], who equated original sin with [[concupiscence]], affirming that it persisted even after [[baptism]] and completely destroyed freedom.{{sfn|ODCC|2005|p=Original sin}} The [[Jansenism|Jansenist]] movement, which the Catholic Church declared to be heretical, also maintained that original sin destroyed [[Free will|freedom of will]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08285a.htm "Jansenius and Jansenism" in ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'']</ref> == Roman Catholic views == === Thomas Aquinas === [[File:Thomas Aquinas in Stained Glass crop.jpg|thumb|right|Aquinas distinguished between [[Sin of omission|sins of omission]], and sins of commission<ref name =Aquinas/><ref>{{Citation | last = | first = | title = Catholic Encyclopedia: Omission | url= http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11251b.htm | publisher= New Advent | accessdate = 28 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = | first = | title = Aquinas: Aquinas's Thoughts On Morality | url= http://library.thinkquest.org/18775/aquinas/moraq.htm | publisher=The Philosopher's Lighthouse | accessdate = 28 February 2012}}</ref>]] The way [[Thomas Aquinas]] viewed sin and vices was radically different from later approaches, especially that of 17th century [[moral theology]]. He presented sin and vices as contraries of [[virtue]]s. He discusses the subject in his [[Summa Theologica]] part Ia–IIae (''Prima secundae'') qq. 71–89.<ref>Pinckaers, pp. 220 and 225–6</ref> In one of his definitions of sin Thomas quotes [[Augustine of Hippo]]'s description of sin as "a thought, words and deed against the Eternal Law."'<ref>''Contra Faustum'', 22, 27, [[Patrologia Latina|PL]] 44,418:</ref> {{Quote| Now there are two rules of the human will: one is proximate and homogeneous, viz. the human reason; the other is the first rule, viz. the eternal law, which is God's reason, so to speak (quasi ratio Dei). Accordingly Augustine includes two things in the definition of sin; one, pertaining to the substance of a human act, and which is the matter, so to speak, of sin, when he says, word, deed, or desire; the other, pertaining to the nature of evil, and which is the form, as it were, of sin, when he says, contrary to the eternal law. (STh I–II q.71 a.6)<ref>Cf. Thomas Aquinas [[Summa Theologica]] I–II q. 71 [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0023/__P6F.HTM Of Vice and Sin Considered in Themselves]</ref>}} To recognise the possibilities of sin in man is equal to acknowledge his human nature, his control and mastery of his own actions. Sin is a motion to the goal, it is judged by the object to which it is directed. The field of sin is the same as the field of virtue. There are three major fields: relationship with God, with oneself and with the neighbour. Thomas distinguished between [[mortal sin|mortal]] and [[venial sin]]s. Mortal sin is when a person has irreparably destroyed the very principle of his/her order to the goal of life. Venial sin is when he/she has acted in a certain disordered way without destructing that principle: {{quote| Consequently it is a mortal sin generically, whether it be contrary to the love of God, e.g. blasphemy, perjury, and the like, or against the love of one's neighbour, e.g. murder, adultery, and such like: wherefore such sins are mortal by reason of their genus. Sometimes, however, the sinner's will is directed to a thing containing a certain inordinateness, but which is not contrary to the love of God and one's neighbour, e.g. an idle word, excessive laughter, and so forth: and such sins are venial by reason of their genus. (STh I–II q.72 a.5)}} According to Aquinas the gravity of sin depends also on ''some disposition of the agent'' (cf. STh I–II q. 18, aa. 4, 6). Sin, venial by reason of its object, may become mortal. It happens when person fixes his/her ultimate happiness, the last end of his/her life (Lat. ''finis ultimus'') in the object of that venial sin. When venial sin is used as a way to provoke mortal sin it becomes mortal as well, e.g. when someone uses empty conversation or a chat to seduce someone to commit adultery. Also sin, mortal by reason of its object, may become venial because of the agent's disposition when his/her evil act does not have full moral capacity, i.e. is not deliberated by reason. That may happen for instance when sudden movements of unbelief arise in the mind. (Cf. STh I–II q.72 a.5). The difference and gravity of sins may be discerned on the grounds of spirit and flesh, even mortal sins may differ in gravity. [[wikt:Carnal|Carnal]] sins like lust, adultery or fornication, gluttony and avarice, because the person who commits them is inordinately directed towards material goods that are a serious matter, are mortal sins. They may cause much shame and infamy. But spiritual sins like [[blasphemy|blaspheming]] of God or [[apostasy]] are, according to Thomas, still greater evil, as they have more of the aversion from God. They are directed against a greater object. The formal, essential element of sin is more at the centre in them. (cf. STh I–II q.72 a.2)<ref name =Aquinas>Cf. Thomas Aquinas [[Summa Theologica]] I–II q. 72 [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0023/__P6G.HTM Of the Distinction of Sins]</ref><ref>Farrell, pp. 255–272</ref> According to another formulation of the concept of sin in the ''Summa'', at the heart of sin is "the turning away from the immutable good", i.e. God, and "inordinate turning to mutable good", i.e. creatures. (STh I–IIae q.87 a.4) This cannot be understood as if in the concrete sinful deed the sinner commits two separate and independent acts. Both ''aversio'' and ''conversio'' constitute one single guilty action. At the root of the inordinate turning to the creatures is self-love which expresses itself in disordered desire (''cupiditas'') and rebellion towards God (''superbia'').<ref>{{Cite book | author = Josef Pieper | authorlink = Josef Pieper | title = The Concept of Sin | year = 2001 | pages = 60–63}}; cf. Thomas Aquinas, ''[[Summa Theologica]]'' II–IIae q34 a2; I q94 a1; II–IIae q162 a6; I–IIae q72 a2.</ref> Speaking about [[Sloth (deadly sin)|sloth]] (Lat. ''acedia'') Thomas points out that every deed which "by its very nature is contrary to charity is a mortal sin". An effect of such deed is the destruction of "spiritual life which is the effect of charity, whereby God dwells in us." Sin of a mortal character is always committed with the consent of reason: "Because the consummation of sin is in the consent of reason"'. (cf. STh II–IIae q.35 a.3) Venial and mortal sins can be compared to sickness and death. While venial sin impairs full healthy activity of a person, mortal sin destroys the principle of spiritual life in him/her.<ref>Farrell, p. 353</ref> === Catechism === [[Roman Catholic]] doctrine distinguishes between personal sin (also sometimes called "actual sin") and [[original sin]]. Personal sins are either mortal or venial. [[Mortal sin]]s are sins of grave (serious) matter, where the sinner performs the act with full knowledge and deliberate consent. (cf. [[Catechism of the Catholic Church|CCC 1857]]) The act of committing a mortal sin destroys charity, i. e. the [[Grace (Christianity)|grace]] in the heart of a Christian; it is in itself a rejection of God (CCC1855). If left un-reconciled, mortal sins may lead to eternal separation from God, traditionally called [[damnation]]. [[Venial sin]]s are sins which do not meet the conditions for mortal sins. The act of committing a venial sin does not cut off the sinner from God's grace, as the sinner has not rejected God. However, venial sins do injure the relationship between the sinner and God, and as such, must be reconciled to God, either through the [[Sacrament of Penance (Catholic Church)|Sacrament of Reconciliation]] or receiving the Eucharist (after proper contrition fulfilled). Both mortal and venial sins have a dual nature of punishment. They incur both guilt for the sin, yielding eternal punishment, and temporal punishment for the sin. Reconciliation is an act of God's mercy, and addresses the guilt and eternal punishment for sin. Purgatory and indulgences address the temporal punishment for sin, and exercise of God's justice. Roman Catholic doctrine also sees sin as being twofold: Sin is, at once, any evil or immoral ''action'' which infracts God's law and the inevitable consequences, the ''state of being'' that comes about by committing the sinful action. Sin can and does alienate a person both from God and the community. Hence, the Catholic Church's insistence on reconciliation with both God and the Church itself. The [[Roman Catholic]] view of sin has recently expanded. [[Monsignor]] [[Gianfranco Girotti]], [[Regent]] of the Catholic [[Apostolic Penitentiary]], has said that "known sins increasingly manifest themselves as behavior that damages society as a whole,"<ref name="cnnvat">{{cite news |title= Vatican lists new sinful behaviors |agency = Associated Press |year = 2008 |url = http://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/03/10/vatican.updates.sins.ap/index.html| accessdate = 2008-03-10 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080311142051/http://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/03/10/vatican.updates.sins.ap/index.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2008-03-11}}</ref> including, for example: * "certain violations of the fundamental rights of human nature, through genetic manipulations [or experiments]," * "drug [abuse], which weakens the mind and obscures intelligence," * "[[environmental pollution]]," * "abortion and pedophilia," and * the widening social and economic differences between the rich and the poor, which "''cause an unbearable social injustice''" (accumulating excessive wealth, inflicting poverty). The revision was aimed at encouraging confession or the [[Sacrament of Penance (Catholic Church)|Sacrament of Penance]]. Mortal sins, which are any severe and intentional actions that directly disobey God, are often confused with the [[seven deadly sins]], which are pride, envy, wrath, sloth, greed, gluttony, and lust. They are not, however, the same. The seven deadly sins are called "deadly" because they might lead another to commit other sins. Some forms of the seven deadly sins (i.e. debilitating one's health because of their love of food) can constitute as grave matter, while others may just be venal (i.e. over-eating). Another group of four or five sins distinguished by the Church are the [[sins that cry to heaven]]: murder, sodomy, (oppression of a people,) oppression of the weak and defrauding the laborer.<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church,'' 1997: "1867 The catechetical tradition also recalls that there are "sins that cry to heaven": the blood of Abel, the sin of the Sodomites, the cry of the people oppressed in Egypt, the cry of the foreigner, the widow, and the orphan, injustice to the wage earner."</ref> {{see also|Seven deadly sins}} == Protestant views == Many [[Protestantism|Protestants]] of a [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] orientation teach that, due to [[original sin]], humanity has lost any and all capacity to move towards reconciliation with God (Romans 3:23;6:23; Ephesians 2:1–3); in fact, this inborn sin turns humans away from God and towards themselves and their own desires (Isaiah 53:6a). Thus, humans may be brought back into a relationship with God only by way of God's rescuing the sinner from his/her hopeless condition (Galatians 5:17–21; Ephesians 2:4–10) through Jesus' [[substitutionary atonement]] (Romans 5:6–8; Colossians 2:13–15; 1 Timothy 2:5–6). According to traditional Reformed theology and classical [[Lutheranism]], Salvation is ''[[sola fide]]'' (by faith alone); ''[[sola gratia]]'' (by grace alone); and is begun and completed by God alone through [[Christ Jesus|Jesus]] (Ephesians 2:8,9). This understanding of original sin (Romans 5:12–19), is most closely associated with Calvinist doctrine (see [[total depravity]]) and Lutheranism. Calvinism allows for the relative or nominal "goodness" of humanity through God's [[common grace]] upon both those [[predestination (Calvinism)|predestined]] to salvation and those predestined to damnation, upon the [[regeneration (theology)#Calvinism and Reformed theology|regenerate]] and the unregenerate. [[Methodism|Methodist]] [[Arminianism|Arminian]] theology adapts the concept by stating that humans, entirely sinful and totally depraved, can only "do good" through God's ''[[prevenient grace]]''. This is in contrast to the Roman Catholic teaching that while sin has tarnished the original goodness of humanity prior to the Fall, it has not entirely extinguished that goodness, or at least the ''potential'' for goodness, allowing humans to reach towards God to share in the [[Redemption (religious)|Redemption]] which Jesus Christ won for them. Some Protestants and Orthodox Christians hold similar views. There is dispute about where sin originated. Some who interpret the king of Tyre in Ezekiel 28 as a symbol for [[Satan]] believe sin originated when Satan coveted the position that rightfully belongs to God. The origin of individual sins is discussed in James 1:14–15 – "¹⁴but each one is tempted when, by his own evil desire, he is dragged away and enticed. ¹⁵Then, after desire has conceived, it gives birth to sin; and sin, when it is full-grown, gives birth to death." ([[NIV]]) === Defined types of sin === Within some branches of Protestantism, there are several defined types of sin (as in Roman Catholicism): *[[Original sin]]—Most denominations of Christianity interpret the [[Garden of Eden]] account in [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] in terms of the [[fall of man]]. Adam and Eve's disobedience was the first sin man ever committed, and their ''original sin'' (or the effects of the sin) is passed on to their descendants (or has become a part of their environment). See also: [[total depravity]]. *[[Concupiscence]] *[[Venial sin]] *[[Greed]] *[[Lust]] *[[Pride]] *[[Mortal sin]] *[[Eternal sin]]—Commonly called the Unforgivable sin (mentioned in {{bibleref|Matthew|12:31}}), this is perhaps the most controversial sin, whereby someone has become an [[apostate]], forever denying themselves a life of faith and experience of [[salvation]]; the precise nature of this sin is often disputed. == Eastern Christian views == The ([[Chalcedonian Christianity|Chalcedonian]]) [[Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] as well as the ([[miaphysitism|non-Chalcedonian]]) [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] use "sin" both to refer to humanity's fallen condition and to refer to individual sinful acts. In many ways the [[Eastern Orthodox Christian theology|Orthodox Christian]] view of sin is similar to the Jewish, although neither form of Orthodoxy makes formal distinctions among "grades" of sins. The [[Eastern Catholic Churches]], which derive their theology and spirituality from same sources as the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox, tend not to adhere to the Roman Catholic distinction between [[mortal sin|mortal]] and [[venial sin]] taught by the [[Latin Church]]. Like the Orthodox Churches, however, the Eastern Catholic Churches do make a distinction between sins that are serious enough to bar one from [[Holy Communion]] (and must be [[Confession (religion)|confessed]] before receiving once again) and those which are not sufficiently serious to do so. In this respect, the [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Tradition]] is similar to the [[Western Christianity|Western]], but the Eastern Churches do not consider death in such a state to automatically mean damnation to "hell."{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}} ==Jehovah's Witnesses== [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] believe that sin is inherited, like a disease, and has been passed on from generation to generation of humans, beginning with [[Adam and Eve]], whom Witnesses believe are real historical characters.<ref>"What Does the Bible ''Really '' Teach" pp. 61–63 'Why humans die?'</ref> They believe that it began with the Devil, and then with humans wanting to decide for themselves what was "Good and Bad." They believe that at that very moment they lost perfection and began to die. Jehovah's Witnesses consider human beings to ''be'' souls, and so when a human dies due to sin, they believe that his soul dies as well.<ref>"What Does the Bible ''Really '' Teach" pp. 57–65 'Where are the Dead?'</ref> They believe that [[Jesus]] is the only human ever to have lived and died sinless.{{cn|date=September 2016}} ==Atonement== {{Main|Atonement in Christianity}} In Christianity, it is generally understood that the death of Jesus was a [[Human sacrifice|sacrifice]] that relieves believers of the burden of their sins. However, the actual meaning of this precept is very widely debated. The traditional teaching of some churches traces this idea of atonement to [[korban|blood sacrifices]] in the ancient Hebraic faith. Christian theologians have presented different interpretations of atonement: * [[Origen]] taught that the death of Christ was a ''[[Atonement (ransom view)|ransom]]'' paid to [[Satan]] in satisfaction of his claim on the souls of humanity as a result of sin. This was opposed by theologians such as St. [[Gregory Nazianzen]], who maintained that this would have made Satan a power equal to God. * [[Irenaeus of Lyons]] taught that Christ recapitulated in himself all the stages of life of sinful man, and that his perfect obedience substituted for [[Adam and Eve|Adam]]'s disobedience. * [[Athanasius of Alexandria]] taught that Christ came to overcome death and corruption, and to remake humanity in God's image again.<ref>See ''On the Incarnation'', by St. Athanasius</ref> * [[Augustine of Hippo]] said that sin was not a created thing at all, but was "privatio boni", a "taking away of good". * [[Anselm of Canterbury]] taught that Christ's death satisfied God's offended sense of justice over the sins of humanity. God rewarded Christ's obedience, which built up a storehouse of merit and a treasury of grace that believers could share by their faith in Christ. This view is known as the ''[[satisfaction theory of atonement]]'', the ''merit'' theory, or sometimes the ''commercial'' theory. Anselm's teaching is contained in his treatise ''[[Cur Deus Homo]]'' (''Why God Became Human''). Anselm's ideas were later expanded utilizing [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] philosophy into a grand theological system by [[Thomas Aquinas]] in the 13th century, particularly in his ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', which although initially inciting controversy eventually became official [[Roman Catholic]] [[doctrine]]. * [[Pierre Abélard]] developed the view that Christ's [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]] was God suffering with his creatures in order to show the greatness of his love for them, and the realization of this love in turn leads to repentance. It is often known as the ''[[moral influence theory of atonement]]'' and became central to more [[religious liberalism|liberal strands]] of Christian theology. * [[Martin Luther]] and [[John Calvin]], leaders of the [[Protestant Reformation]], owed much to Anselm's theory and taught that Christ, the only sinless person, was obedient to take upon himself the penalty for the sins that should have been visited on men and women. This view is a version of ''[[substitutionary atonement]]'' and is sometimes called the ''[[penal substitution]] view''. It is derived from the Roman Catholic ''[[satisfaction theory of atonement]]'', although it is not identical to that of Anselm. Calvin additionally advocated a doctrine of [[limited atonement]], which teaches that the atonement extends and applies only to the sins of the eternally [[predestination (Calvinism)|predestined]] [[election (Christianity)|elect]] rather than to the entire [[human race]], whereas Anselm affirmed a general redemption for all humanity and denied that Christ received punishment for sins, although he made satisfaction to God. * [[D.L. Moody]] once said, "If you are under the power of evil, and you want to get under the power of God, cry to Him to bring you over to His service; cry to Him to take you into His army. He will hear you; He will come to you, and, if need be, He will send a legion of angels to help you to fight your way up to heaven. God will take you by the right hand and lead you through this wilderness, over death, and take you right into His kingdom. That's what the Son of Man came to do. He has never deceived us; just say here; "Christ is my deliverer."" * [[Arminianism]] has traditionally taught what is known as the ''[[governmental theory of atonement]]''. Drawing primarily from the works of [[Jacobus Arminius]] and especially [[Hugo Grotius]], the governmental theory teaches that Christ suffered for humankind so that God could forgive humans while still maintaining divine justice. Unlike the traditional [[Calvinism|Reformed]] perspective, this view states that Christ was not punished by God the Father in the place of sinners, for true forgiveness would not be possible if humankind's offenses were already punished. Christ's suffering was a real and meaningful ''[[substitutionary atonement]]'' for the punishment humans deserve, but Christ was not punished on behalf of some or all of the human race. This view has prospered in traditional [[Methodism]] and all who follow the teachings of [[John Wesley]], and has been detailed by, among others, 19th century [[Methodist]] theologian [[John Miley]] in his ''Atonement in Christ'' and 20th century [[Church of the Nazarene]] theologian [[J. Kenneth Grider]] in his ''Wesleyan-Holiness Theology''. Variations of this view have also been espoused by 18th century Puritan [[Jonathan Edwards (theologian)|Jonathan Edwards]] and 19th century revival leader [[Charles Grandison Finney]]. * [[Karl Barth]] taught that Christ's death manifested God's love and his hatred for sin. * Barbara Reid, a dissenting Roman Catholic [[feminist theology|feminist]] and [[Dominican Order|Dominican nun]], argues that commonly conceived atonement theologies are harmful, especially to women and other oppressed minorities.<ref>Barbara E. Reid, ''Taking Up the Cross: New Testament Interpretations Through Latina and Feminist Eyes'' (Fortress, 2007), 17–19.</ref> Other [[religious liberalism|liberal]] and [[liberation theology|radical theologians]] have also challenged traditional views of atonement. (see [[collective salvation]]) * [[Mary Baker Eddy]], founder of the [[Christian Science]] movement, taught that atonement exemplifies our underlying spiritual unity with God, whereby we reflect divine Love (God): Christ's atonement reconciles man to God, not God to man. ==See also== *[[Heaven (Christianity)]] *[[Law of Christ]] *[[Reconciliation (theology)|Reconciliation]] *[[Sacraments (Catholic Church)]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==Bibliography== {{refbegin|30em}} * Mc Guinness, I. ''Sin (Theology of)'', in: ''New Catholic Encyclopaedia'', vol. XIII, (reprinted 1981), The Catholic University of America, Washington D.C., pp.&nbsp;241–245. * [[Karl Rahner|Rahner, Karl]], Schoonberg, Piet. "Sin", in: ''Encyclopedia of Theology: A Concise ''Sacramentum Mundi'' ''. (1986) Tunbridge Wells, Kent, UK: Burns & Oates, {{ISBN|0-86012-228-X}}, pp.&nbsp;1579–1590. * Farrell, Walter, ''A companion to the Summa'' vol. 2 – ''The Pursuit of Happiness'' (1985 /reprinted 2nd ed./) Westminster, Maryland – London: Christian Classics, Sheed & Ward, {{ISBN|0-7220-2520-3}} (UK) 0-87061-119-4 (USA), p.&nbsp;467. * [[Josef Pieper|Pieper, Josef]], ''The Concept of Sin'' (2001), translated by Edward T. Oakes SJ, South Bend, Indiana: St. Augustines Press, {{ISBN|1-890318-08-6}}, pp.&nbsp;128. * [[Servais-Théodore Pinckaers|Pinckaers, Servais]], ''The Sources of Christian Ethics'', (translated from French by M. T. Noble [[Dominican Order|O.P.]]), Washington, D.C., The Catholic University of America Press, 1995. Reprinted: Edinburgh: T&T Clark, {{ISBN|0-567-29287-8}} p.&nbsp;489 * Sabourin, Leopold [[Society of Jesus|SJ]], ''Sin'', in: ''The Oxford Companion to the Bible'' (1993). Bruce M. Metzger, Michael D. Coogan (ed.) New York – Oxford: Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-504645-5}}, pp.&nbsp;696. {{refend}} == External links == * [[Augustine of Hippo]], ''[http://www.intratext.com/X/ENG0022.HTM Confessions]'' * Augustine of Hippo, ''[http://www.intratext.com/X/ENG0137.HTM On Christian Doctrine]'' *[[Thomas Aquinas]], ''[[Summa Theologica]]'' I–II q71: [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0023/__P6F.HTM Of Vice and Sin Considered in Themselves] {{Hamartiology}} {{Seven Deadly Sins}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Christian Views Of Sin}} [[Category:Christian hamartiology]] [[Category:Sin]]'