Examine individual changes

'{{Other uses}} {{Redirect|Electronic musician|the magazine|Electronic Musician}} {{Electronic music top}} [[File:A Guy Called Gerald Live South Manchester 2015.JPG|thumb|250px|[[Electronic musical instrument]]s]] '''Electronic music''' is music that employs [[electronic musical instrument]]s and [[electronics|electronic]] [[music technology]] in its production, an '''electronic musician''' being a musician who composes and/or performs such music. In general a distinction can be made between sound produced using electromechanical means and that produced using electronic technology.<ref name="holmes3">"The stuff of electronic music is electrically produced or modified sounds. ... two basic definitions will help put some of the historical discussion in its place: purely electronic music versus [[electroacoustic music]]" ({{harvnb|Holmes|2002|p=6}}).</ref> Examples of electromechanical sound producing devices include the [[telharmonium]], [[Hammond organ]], and the [[electric guitar]]. Purely electronic sound production can be achieved using devices such as the [[theremin]], [[synthesizer|sound synthesizer]], and [[computer music|computer]].<ref name="holmes1">"Electroacoustic music uses electronics to modify sounds from the natural world. The entire spectrum of worldly sounds provides the source material for this music. This is the domain of microphones, tape recorders and digital samplers … can be associated with live or recorded music. During live performances, natural sounds are modified in real time using electronics. The source of the sound can be anything from ambient noise to live musicians playing conventional instruments." ({{harvnb|Holmes|2002|p=8}}).</ref> The first electronic devices for performing music were developed at the end of the 19th century, and shortly afterward Italian [[Futurism|Futurists]] explored sounds that had previously not been considered musical. During the 1920s and 1930s, electronic instruments were introduced and the first compositions for electronic instruments were composed. By the 1940s, magnetic audio tape allowed musicians to tape sounds and then modify them by changing the tape speed or direction, leading to the development of [[electroacoustic music|electroacoustic]] [[tape music]] in the 1940s, in Egypt and France. [[Musique concrète]], created in Paris in 1948, was based on editing together recorded fragments of natural and industrial sounds. Music produced solely from electronic generators was first produced in Germany in 1953. Electronic music was also created in Japan and the United States beginning in the 1950s. An important new development was the advent of computers for the purpose of composing music. [[Algorithm]]ic composition was first demonstrated in Australia in 1951. In America and Europe, live electronics were pioneered in the early 1960s. During the 1970s to early 1980s, the [[Monophonic synthesizer|monophonic]] [[Minimoog]] became once the most widely used synthesizer at that time in both popular and electronic art music. In the 1970s, electronic music began having a significant influence on [[popular music]], with the adoption of [[polyphonic synthesizer]]s, [[electronic drums]], and [[drum machine]]s, through the emergence of genres such as [[krautrock]], [[disco]], [[New wave music|new wave]] and [[synthpop]]. In the 1980s, electronic music became more dominant in popular music, with a greater reliance on synthesizers, and the adoption of programmable drum machines, and [[bass synthesizer]]s. In the early 1980s, [[digital technology|digital technologies]] for synthesizers including [[digital synthesizer]]s have been popularized, and a group of musicians and music merchants developed the Musical Instrument Digital Interface ([[MIDI]]). Electronically produced music became prevalent in the popular domain by the 1990s, because of the advent of affordable music technology.<ref>"Electronically produced music is part of the mainstream of popular culture. Musical concepts that were once considered radical&mdash;the use of environmental sounds, ambient music, turntable music, digital sampling, computer music, the electronic modification of acoustic sounds, and music made from fragments of speech-have now been subsumed by many kinds of popular music. Record store genres including new age, rap, hip-hop, electronica, techno, jazz, and popular song all rely heavily on production values and techniques that originated with classic electronic music" ({{harvnb|Holmes|2002|p=1}}). "By the 1990s, electronic music had penetrated every corner of musical life. It extended from ethereal sound-waves played by esoteric experimenters to the thumping syncopation that accompanies every pop record" ({{harvnb|Lebrecht|1996|p=106}}).</ref> <!-- following paragraph and citation questionable: Today, the term electronic music serves to differentiate music that uses electronics as its focal point or inspiration, from music that uses electronics mainly in service of creating an intended production that may have some electronic elements in the sound but does not focus upon them.<ref name="holmes2">"Purely electronic music is created through the generation of sound waves by electrical means. This is done without the use of traditional musical instruments or of sounds found in nature, and is the domain of computers, synthesizers and other technologies" {{harv|Holmes|2002|loc=6}}.</ref> --> Contemporary electronic music includes many varieties and ranges from [[Experimental music|experimental art music]] to popular forms such as [[electronic dance music]]. Today, pop electronic music is most recognizable in its 4/4 form and vastly more connected with the mainstream culture as opposed to its preceding forms which were specialized to niche markets.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Pleasure Beats: Rhythm and the Aesthetics of Current Electronic Music|url = http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/096112102762295052|journal = Leonardo Music Journal|pages = 3–6|volume = 12|doi = 10.1162/096112102762295052|first = Ben|last = Neill}}</ref> ==Origins: late 19th century to early 20th century== [[File:Telharmonium - Scientific American 1907 (zoomed 400%, brightened).jpg|thumb|The front page of [[Scientific American]] in 1907, demonstrating the size, operation, and popularity of the [[Telharmonium]].]] At the turn of the 20th century, experimentation with [[Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering|emerging electronics]] led to the first [[electronic musical instruments]].<ref name="holmes_41">{{harvnb|Holmes|2002|p=41}}</ref> These initial inventions were not sold, but were instead used in demonstrations and public performances. The audiences were presented with reproductions of existing music instead of new compositions for the instruments.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Swezey|first1=Kenneth M.|title=The Encyclopedia Americana — International Edition Vol. 13|date=1995|publisher=Grolier Incorporated|location=Danbury, Connecticut|page=211}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Weidenaar|1995|p=82}}</ref> While some were considered novelties and produced simple tones, the [[Telharmonium]] accurately [[synthesizer|synthesized]] the sound of orchestral instruments. It achieved viable public interest and made commercial progress into [[music streaming|streaming music]] through [[telephone network]]s.<ref name="holmes_47">{{harvnb|Holmes|2002|p=47}}</ref> Critics of musical conventions at the time saw promise in these developments. [[Ferruccio Busoni]] encouraged the composition of [[microtonal music]] allowed for by electronic instruments. He predicted the use of machines in future music, writing the influential ''Sketch of a New Esthetic of Music''.<ref>{{harvnb|Busoni|1962|p=95}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Russcol|1972|pp=35&ndash;36}}.</ref> [[Futurism (music)|Futurists]] such as [[Francesco Balilla Pratella]] and [[Luigi Russolo]] began composing [[noise music|music with acoustic noise]] to evoke the sound of [[machinery]]. They predicted expansions in [[timbre]] allowed for by electronics in the influential manifesto [[The Art of Noises]].<ref>"To present the musical soul of the masses, of the great factories, of the railways, of the transatlantic liners, of the battleships, of the automobiles and airplanes. To add to the great central themes of the musical poem the domain of the machine and the victorious kingdom of Electricity." Quoted in {{harvnb|Russcol|1972|p=40}}.</ref><ref name="tvnpyt">{{harvnb|Russcol|1972|p=68}}.</ref> === Early compositions === [[File:Lev Termen playing - cropped.jpg|left|thumb|255x255px|[[Léon Theremin]] demonstrating the [[theremin]] in 1927]] Developments of the [[vacuum tube]] led to electronic instruments that were smaller, [[amplifier|amplified]], and more practical for performance.<ref name="holmes_18">{{harvnb|Holmes|4th Edition|p=18}}</ref> In particular, the [[theremin]], [[ondes Martenot]] and [[trautonium]] were commercially produced by the early 1930s.<ref name="holmes_21">{{harvnb|Holmes|4th Edition|p=21}}</ref><ref name="holmes_33">{{harvnb|Holmes|4th Edition|p=33}}</ref><ref>{{citation |author=Lee De Forest |year=1950 |title=Father of radio: the autobiography of Lee de Forest |publisher=Wilcox & Follett |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?hl=ja&id=AoVRAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Audion+Piano%22&redir_esc=y#search_anchor 306–307] }}</ref> From the late 1920s, the increased practicality of electronic instruments influenced composers such as [[Joseph Schillinger]] to adopt them. They were typically used within [[orchestra]]s, and most composers wrote parts for the theremin that could otherwise be performed with [[string instrument]]s.<ref name="holmes_21"/> [[Avant-garde music|Avant-garde composers]] criticized the predominant use of electronic instruments for conventional purposes.<ref name="holmes_21"/> The instruments offered expansions in pitch resources<ref name="roads_204">{{harvnb|Roads|2015|p=204}}</ref> that were exploited by advocates of microtonal music such as [[Charles Ives]], [[Dimitrios Levidis]], [[Olivier Messiaen]] and [[Edgard Varese]].<ref name="holmes_24">{{harvnb|Holmes|4th Edition|p=24}}</ref><ref name="holmes_26">{{harvnb|Holmes|4th Edition|p=26}}</ref><ref name="holmes_28">{{harvnb|Holmes|4th Edition|p=28}}</ref> Further, [[Percy Grainger]] used the theremin to abandon fixed tonation entirely,<ref name="toop_00">{{harvnb|Toop|2016|p="Free lines"}}</ref> while Russian composers such as [[Gavriil Popov (composer)|Gavriil Popov]] treated it as a source of noise in otherwise-acoustic [[noise music]].<ref name="smirnov_00">{{harvnb|Smirnov|2014|p="Russian Electroacoustic Music from the 1930s-2000s"}}</ref> === Recording experiments === Developments in early [[Sound recording and reproduction|recording technology]] paralleled that of electronic instruments. The first means of recording and reproducing audio was invented in the late 19th century with the mechanical [[phonograph]].<ref name="holmes_34">{{harvnb|Holmes|4th Edition|p=34}}</ref> Record players became a common household item, and by the 1920s composers were using them to play short recordings in performances.<ref name="holmes_45">{{harvnb|Holmes|4th Edition|p=45}}</ref> The introduction of electronic recording in 1925 was followed by increased experimentation with record players. [[Paul Hindemith]] and [[Ernst Toch]] composed several pieces in 1930 by layering recordings of instruments and vocals at adjusted speeds. Influenced by these techniques, [[John Cage]] composed "[[Imaginary Landscape No. 1]]" in 1939 by adjusting the speeds of recorded tones.<ref name="holmes_46">{{harvnb|Holmes|4th Edition|p=46}}</ref> Concurrently, composers began to experiment with newly-developed [[sound-on-film]] technology. Recordings could be spliced together to create [[sound collage]]s, such as those by [[Tristan Tzara]], [[Kurt Schwitters]], [[Filippo Tommaso Marinetti]], [[Walter Ruttmann]] and [[Dziga Vertov]]. Further, the technology allowed sound to be [[graphical sound|graphically created and modified]]. These techniques were used to compose soundtracks for several films in Germany and Russia, in addition to the popular ''[[Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]'' in the United States. Experiments with graphical sound were continued by [[Norman McLaren]] from the late 1930s. ==Development: 1940s to 1950s== === Electroacoustic tape music === {{Further|Electroacoustic music|Sound recording and reproduction}} The first practical audio [[tape recorder]] was unveiled in 1935.<ref>{{harvnb|Anonymous|2006}}.</ref> Improvements to the technology were made using the [[AC bias]]ing technique, which significantly improved recording fidelity.<ref name="engel-weber">{{harvnb|Engel|2006|pp=4 and 7}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Krause|2002}} [http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=11304 abstract].</ref> As early as 1942, test recordings were being made in [[stereo]].<ref>{{harvnb|Engel|Hammar|2006|p=6}}.</ref> Although these developments were initially confined to Germany, recorders and tapes were brought to the United States following the end of World War II.<ref>{{harvnb|Snell|2006}}, [http://www.scu.edu/scm/summer2006/sound.cfm].</ref> These were the basis for the first commercially-produced tape recorder in 1948.<ref>{{harvnb|Angus|1984}}.</ref> Magnetic audio tape opened up a vast new range of sonic possibilities to musicians, composers, producers and engineers. Audio tape was relatively cheap and very reliable, and its fidelity of reproduction was better than any audio medium to date. Most importantly, unlike discs, it offered the same plasticity of use as film. Tape can be slowed down, sped up or even run backwards during recording or playback, with often startling effect. It can be physically edited in much the same way as film, allowing for unwanted sections of a recording to be seamlessly removed or replaced; likewise, segments of tape from other sources can be edited in. Tape can also be joined to form endless [[loop (music)|loops]] that continually play repeated patterns of pre-recorded material. Audio amplification and mixing equipment further expanded tape's capabilities as a production medium, allowing multiple pre-taped recordings (and/or live sounds, speech or music) to be mixed together and simultaneously recorded onto another tape with relatively little loss of fidelity. Another unforeseen windfall was that tape recorders can be relatively easily modified to become [[echo machine]]s that produce complex, controllable, high-quality [[Echo (phenomenon)|echo]] and [[reverberation]] effects (most of which would be practically impossible to achieve by mechanical means). The spread of tape recorders eventually led to the development of [[electroacoustic music|electroacoustic]] tape music. The first known example was composed in 1944 by [[Halim El-Dabh]], a student at Cairo, Egypt.<ref name="wire_2007">{{harvnb|Young|2007|p=24}}.</ref> He recorded the sounds of an ancient ''[[Zār|zaar]]'' ceremony using a cumbersome [[Wire recording|wire recorder]] and at the Middle East Radio studios processed the material using reverberation, echo, voltage controls, and re-recording. The resulting work was entitled ''The Expression of Zaar'' and it was presented in 1944 at an art gallery event in Cairo. While his initial experiments in tape based composition were not widely known outside of Egypt at the time, El-Dabh is also notable for his later work in electronic music at the [[Computer Music Center|Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center]] in the late 1950s.<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|pp=156&ndash;57}}.</ref> === Musique concrète === {{main article|Musique concrète}} {{See also|Acousmatic music}} {{multiple image |direction=horizontal | image1 = Phonogene.jpg|width1=126 | caption1 = [[Musique concrète#The phonogene|Phonogene]] (1953), a tape machine for modifying the sound structure, developed by [[Pierre Schaeffer]] et al. <!-- and Jacques Poullin --> at GRMC. | image2 = Psconcer.jpg |width2=220 | caption2 = [[Pierre Schaeffer]] presenting the [[Acousmonium]] (1974) that was consisted of 80 loudspeakers for tape playback, at [[Groupe de Recherches Musicales|GRM]]. }} It wasn't long{{When|date=October 2012}}<!--The immediately preceding paragraph refers to "the late 1950s", but later in this paragraph the year 1948 in mentioned. It is not clear, though, whether the tape recorder was added to the techniques of musique concrète a decade or so after the genre cameinto existence.--> before composers in Paris also began using the tape recorder to develop a new technique for composition called ''musique concrète''. This technique involved editing together recorded fragments of natural and industrial sounds.<ref name="lebrecht1">"Musique Concrete was created in Paris in 1948 from edited collages of everyday noise" ({{harvnb|Lebrecht|1996|p=107}}).</ref> The first pieces of ''musique concrète'' in Paris were assembled by [[Pierre Schaeffer]], who went on to collaborate with [[Pierre Henry]]. On 5 October 1948, [[Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française|Radiodiffusion Française]] (RDF) broadcast composer [[Pierre Schaeffer]]'s ''Etude aux chemins de fer''. This was the first "[[movement (music)|movement]]" of ''Cinq études de bruits'', and marked the beginning of studio realizations<ref>NB: To the pioneers, an electronic work did not exist until it was "realized" in a real-time performance ({{harvnb|Holmes|2008|p=122}}).</ref> and musique concrète (or acousmatic art). Schaeffer employed a disk-cutting [[lathe]], four turntables, a four-channel mixer, filters, an echo chamber, and a mobile recording unit. Not long after this, Henry began collaborating with Schaeffer, a partnership that would have profound and lasting effects on the direction of electronic music. Another associate of Schaeffer, [[Edgard Varèse]], began work on ''[[Déserts]]'', a work for chamber orchestra and tape. The tape parts were created at Pierre Schaeffer's studio, and were later revised at Columbia University. In 1950, Schaeffer gave the first public (non-broadcast) concert of musique concrète at the [[École Normale de Musique de Paris]]. "Schaeffer used a [[Public address system|PA system]], several turntables, and mixers. The performance did not go well, as creating live montages with turntables had never been done before."<ref>{{harvnb|Snyder|n.d.}}</ref> Later that same year, Pierre Henry collaborated with Schaeffer on ''Symphonie pour un homme seul'' (1950) the first major work of musique concrete. In Paris in 1951, in what was to become an important worldwide trend, RTF established the first studio for the production of electronic music. Also in 1951, Schaeffer and Henry produced an opera, ''Orpheus'', for concrete sounds and voices. ===Elektronische Musik=== [[File:Stockhausen 1991 Studio.jpg|thumb|Karlheinz Stockhausen in the Electronic Music Studio of WDR, Cologne, in 1991]] [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]] worked briefly in Schaeffer's studio in 1952, and afterward for many years at the [[Westdeutscher Rundfunk|WDR]] Cologne's [[Studio for Electronic Music (WDR)|Studio for Electronic Music]]. In Cologne, what would become the most famous electronic music studio in the world was officially opened at the radio studios of the [[NWDR]] in 1953, though it had been in the planning stages as early as 1950 and early compositions were made and broadcast in 1951.<ref>{{harvnb|Eimert|1972|p=349}}.</ref> The brain child of [[Werner Meyer-Eppler]], Robert Beyer, and [[Herbert Eimert]] (who became its first director), the studio was soon joined by [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]] and [[Gottfried Michael Koenig]]. In his 1949 thesis ''Elektronische Klangerzeugung: Elektronische Musik und Synthetische Sprache'', Meyer-Eppler conceived the idea to synthesize music entirely from electronically produced signals; in this way, ''elektronische Musik'' was sharply differentiated from French ''musique concrète'', which used sounds recorded from acoustical sources.<ref>{{harvnb|Eimert|1958|p=2}}; {{harvnb|Ungeheuer|1992|p=117}}.</ref> "With Stockhausen and [[Mauricio Kagel]] in residence, it became a year-round hive of charismatic avante-gardism {{sic}}"<ref>({{harvnb|Lebrecht|1996|p=75}}). "... at Northwest German Radio in Cologne (1953), where the term 'electronic music' was coined to distinguish their pure experiments from musique concrete..." (Lebrecht 1996, 107).</ref> on two occasions combining electronically generated sounds with relatively conventional [[orchestra]]s&mdash;in ''[[Mixtur]]'' (1964) and ''[[Hymnen|Hymnen, dritte Region mit Orchester]]'' (1967).<ref>{{harvnb|Stockhausen|1978|pp=73&ndash;76, 78&ndash;79}}</ref> Stockhausen stated that his listeners had told him his electronic music gave them an experience of "outer space," sensations of flying, or being in a "fantastic dream world".<ref>"In 1967, just following the world premiere of ''[[Hymnen]]'', Stockhausen said about the electronic music experience: '... Many listeners have projected that strange new music which they experienced&mdash;especially in the realm of electronic music&mdash;into extraterrestrial space. Even though they are not familiar with it through human experience, they identify it with the fantastic dream world. Several have commented that my electronic music sounds "like on a different star," or "like in outer space." Many have said that when hearing this music, they have sensations as if flying at an infinitely high speed, and then again, as if immobile in an immense space. Thus, extreme words are employed to describe such experience, which are not "objectively" communicable in the sense of an object description, but rather which exist in the subjective fantasy and which are projected into the extraterrestrial space'" ({{harvnb|Holmes|2002|p=145}}).</ref> More recently, Stockhausen turned to producing electronic music in his own studio in [[Kürten]], his last work in the medium being ''[[Cosmic Pulses]]'' (2007). ===Japanese electronic music=== {{Confusing section|date=March 2012}} {{multiple image |direction=horizontal |align=right | image1 = Yamaha Magna Organ (1935) Console.jpg |width1=114 | image2 = Yamaha Magna Organ (1935) Tone Cabinet.jpg |width2=102 | footer = Yamaha Magna Organ & designated tone cabinet (1935)<ref name=Yamaha1935/> }} [[Japan]]ese composers such as Minao Shibata were aware of early developments in [[electronic musical instrument]]s, and the electronic [[List of Yamaha products#Magna Organ|Yamaha Magna Organ]] was built in 1935.<ref name=Yamaha1935>Before the WWII in Japan, already several "electric" instruments seems to be developed (''see [[:ja:電子音楽#黎明期]]''), and in 1935 a kind of "''electronic''" musical instrument, [[List of Yamaha products#Magna Organ|Yamaha Magna Organ]] was developed. It seems to be a multi-timbral keyboard instrument based on electrically-blown [[free reed]]s with [[Pickup (music technology)|pickup]]s, possibly similar to the [[electrostatic reed organ]]s developed by Frederick Albert Hoschke in 1934 then manufactured by [[Everett Piano Company|Everett]] and [[Rudolph Wurlitzer Company|Wurlitzer]] until 1961.{{unordered list |{{cite news | script-title=ja:一時代を画する新楽器完成 浜松の青年技師山下氏 | trans_title = An epoch new musical instrument was developed by a young engineer Mr.Yamashita in Hamamatsu | url =http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/das/jsp/ja/ContentViewM.jsp?METAID=00078861&TYPE=PRINT_FILE&POS=1 | language = Japanese | newspaper = [[Hochi Shimbun]] | date = 1935-06-08}} |{{cite book | script-title=ja:新電氣樂器　マグナオルガンの御紹介 | trans_title = New Electric Musical Instrument — Introduction of Magna Organ | url = http://blog.goo.ne.jp/1971913/e/42d486d769c1ce9c2c5a426e00f18b68 | language = Japanese | publication-date = October 1935 | publisher = 日本樂器製造株式會社 ([[Yamaha Corporation|Yamaha]]) | location = Hamamatsu | quote = ''特許第一〇八六六四号, 同　第一一〇〇六八号, 同　第一一一二一六号''}} }}</ref> By the late 1940s, Japanese composers began experimenting with electronic music, and institutional sponsorship enabled them to experiment with cutting-edge equipment. Their [[Fusion (music)|infusion]] of [[Music of Asia|Asian music]] into the emerging genre would eventually support Japan's domination in the development of music technology several decades later.<ref name="holmes_106">{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|p=106}}.</ref> Following the foundation of electronics company [[Sony]] in 1946, composers [[Toru Takemitsu]] and Minao Shibata independently conceived possible uses for electronic technology to produce music.<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|p=106 & 115}}.</ref> Takemitsu had ideas similar to that of [[musique concrète]], which he was initially unaware of, while Shibata foresaw the development of [[synthesizer]]s and predicted a drastic change in music.<ref>{{harvnb|Fujii|2004|pp=64&ndash;66}}.</ref> Sony began producing popular [[magnetic tape]] recorders for government and public use.<ref name="holmes_106"/><ref name="fujii_66">{{harvnb|Fujii|2004|p=66}}.</ref> The avant-garde collective Jikken Kōbō (Experimental Workshop), founded in 1950, was offered access to emerging audio technology by Sony. The company hired Toru Takemitsu to demonstrate their tape recorders with compositions and performances of electronic tape music.<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|pp=106&ndash;7}}.</ref> The first electronic tape pieces by the group were "Toraware no Onna" ("Imprisoned Woman") and "Piece B", composed in 1951 by Kuniharu Akiyama.<ref name="holmes_107">{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|p=107}}.</ref> Many of the [[Electroacoustic music|electroacoustic]] tape pieces they produced were used as incidental music for [[radio]], [[film]], and [[theatre]]. They also held concerts employing a [[slide show]] synchronized with a recorded soundtrack.<ref>{{harvnb|Fujii|2004|pp=66&ndash;67}}.</ref> Composers outside of the the Jikken Kōbō, such as [[Yasushi Akutagawa]], [[Saburo Tominaga]] and [[Shirō Fukai]], were also experimenting with [[radiophonic]] tape music between 1952 and 1953.<ref name="fujii_66" /> Musique concrète was introduced to Japan by [[Toshiro Mayuzumi]], who was influenced by a Pierre Schaeffer concert. From 1952, he composed tape music pieces for a comedy film, a radio broadcast, and a radio drama.<ref name="holmes_107" /><ref name="holmes_107" /><ref name="fujii_64">{{harvnb|Fujii|2004|p=64}}.</ref><ref name="fujii_64" /> However, Schaeffer's concept of ''[[sound object]]'' was not influential among Japanese composers, who were mainly interested in overcoming the restrictions of human performance.<ref name="fujii_65">{{harvnb|Fujii|2004|p=65}}.</ref> This led to several Japanese [[electroacoustic music]]ians making use of [[serialism]] and [[twelve-tone technique]]s,<ref name="fujii_65" /> evident in [[Yoshirō Irino]]'s 1951 [[dodecaphonic]] piece "Concerto da Camera",<ref name="fujii_64" /> in the organization of electronic sounds in Mayuzumi's "X, Y, Z for Musique Concrète", and later in Shibata's electronic music by 1956.<ref name="holmes_108">{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|p=108}}.</ref> Modelling the NWDR studio in Cologne, [[NHK]] established an electronic music studio in Tokyo in 1955, which became one of the world's leading electronic music facilities. The NHK Studio was equipped with technologies such as tone-generating and audio processing equipment, recording and radiophonic equipment, ondes Martenot, [[Monochord]] and [[Melochord]], sine-wave [[oscillator]]s, tape recorders, [[ring modulator]]s, [[band-pass filter]]s, and four- and eight-channel [[Mixing console|mixer]]s. Musicians associated with the studio included Toshiro Mayuzumi, Minao Shibata, Joji Yuasa, [[Toshi Ichiyanagi]], and Toru Takemitsu. The studio's first electronic compositions were completed in 1955, including Mayuzumi's five-minute pieces "Studie I: Music for Sine Wave by Proportion of Prime Number", "Music for Modulated Wave by Proportion of Prime Number" and "Invention for Square Wave and Sawtooth Wave" produced using the studio's various tone-generating capabilities, and Shibata's 20-minute [[Stereophonic sound|stereo]] piece "Musique Concrète for Stereophonic Broadcast".<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|pp=108 & 114&ndash;5}}.</ref><ref name="loubet_11">{{harvnb|Loubet|1997|p=11}}</ref> ===American electronic music=== In the United States, electronic music was being created as early as 1939, when John Cage published ''[[Imaginary Landscape, No. 1]]'', using two variable-speed turntables, frequency recordings, muted piano, and cymbal, but no electronic means of production. Cage composed five more "Imaginary Landscapes" between 1942 and 1952 (one withdrawn), mostly for percussion ensemble, though No. 4 is for twelve radios and No. 5, written in 1952, uses 42 recordings and is to be realized as a magnetic tape. According to Otto Luening, Cage also performed a ''William {{sic}} Mix'' at Donaueschingen in 1954, using eight loudspeakers, three years after his alleged collaboration.{{Clarify|date=October 2014}}<!--Three years before 1954 is 1951. Feldman here is said vaguely to have collaborated with Cage "later" than 1951. In fact, Feldman was associated with Cage mainly from 1949 to 1953. So what exactly is this "alleged collaboration"?--> ''[[Williams Mix]]'' was a success at the [[Donaueschingen Festival]], where it made a "strong impression".<ref>{{harvnb|Luening|1968|p=136}}</ref> The Music for Magnetic Tape Project was formed by members of the [[New York School (art)|New York School]] ([[John Cage]], [[Earle Brown]], [[Christian Wolff (composer)|Christian Wolff]], [[David Tudor]], and [[Morton Feldman]]),<ref name="NYschool2">{{harvnb|Johnson|2002|p=2}}.</ref> and lasted three years until 1954. Cage wrote of this collaboration: "In this social darkness, therefore, the work of Earle Brown, Morton Feldman, and Christian Wolff continues to present a brilliant light, for the reason that at the several points of notation, performance, and audition, action is provocative."<ref name="NYschool3">{{harvnb|Johnson|2002|p=4}}.</ref> Cage completed ''Williams Mix'' in 1953 while working with the Music for Magnetic Tape Project.<ref name="NYschool1">"Carolyn Brown [Earle Brown's wife] was to dance in Cunningham's company, while Brown himself was to participate in Cage's 'Project for Music for Magnetic Tape.'... funded by Paul Williams (dedicatee of the 1953 ''Williams Mix''), who&mdash;like [[Robert Rauschenberg]]&mdash;was a former student of Black Mountain College, which Cage and Cunnigham had first visited in the summer of 1948" ({{harvnb|Johnson|2002|p=20}}).</ref> The group had no permanent facility, and had to rely on borrowed time in commercial sound studios, including the studio of [[Louis and Bebe Barron]]. ===Columbia-Princeton Center=== {{Further|Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center}} {{See also|Vladimir Ussachevsky|RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer}} In the same year [[Columbia University]] purchased its first tape recorder&mdash;a professional [[Ampex]] machine&mdash;for the purpose of recording concerts. [[Vladimir Ussachevsky]], who was on the music faculty of Columbia University, was placed in charge of the device, and almost immediately began experimenting with it. Herbert Russcol writes: "Soon he was intrigued with the new sonorities he could achieve by recording musical instruments and then superimposing them on one another."<ref name="nwclfn">{{harvnb|Russcol|1972|p=92}}.</ref> Ussachevsky said later: "I suddenly realized that the tape recorder could be treated as an instrument of sound transformation."<ref name="nwclfn" /> On Thursday, May 8, 1952, Ussachevsky presented several demonstrations of tape music/effects that he created at his Composers Forum, in the McMillin Theatre at Columbia University. These included ''Transposition, Reverberation, Experiment, Composition'', and ''Underwater Valse''. In an interview, he stated: "I presented a few examples of my discovery in a public concert in New York together with other compositions I had written for conventional instruments."<ref name="nwclfn" /> [[Otto Luening]], who had attended this concert, remarked: "The equipment at his disposal consisted of an Ampex tape recorder . . . and a simple box-like device designed by the brilliant young engineer, Peter Mauzey, to create feedback, a form of mechanical reverberation. Other equipment was borrowed or purchased with personal funds."<ref name="urajla">{{harvnb|Luening|1968|p=48}}.</ref> Just three months later, in August 1952, Ussachevsky traveled to Bennington, Vermont at Luening's invitation to present his experiments. There, the two collaborated on various pieces. Luening described the event: "Equipped with earphones and a flute, I began developing my first tape-recorder composition. Both of us were fluent improvisors and the medium fired our imaginations."<ref name="urajla" /> They played some early pieces informally at a party, where "a number of composers almost solemnly congratulated us saying, 'This is it' ('it' meaning the music of the future)."<ref name="urajla" /> Word quickly reached New York City. Oliver Daniel telephoned and invited the pair to "produce a group of short compositions for the October concert sponsored by the American Composers Alliance and Broadcast Music, Inc., under the direction of [[Leopold Stokowski]] at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. After some hesitation, we agreed. . . . [[Henry Cowell]] placed his home and studio in Woodstock, New York, at our disposal. With the borrowed equipment in the back of Ussachevsky's car, we left Bennington for Woodstock and stayed two weeks. . . . In late September, 1952, the travelling laboratory reached Ussachevsky's living room in New York, where we eventually completed the compositions."<ref name="urajla" /> Two months later, on October 28, Vladimir Ussachevsky and Otto Luening presented the first Tape Music concert in the United States. The concert included Luening's ''Fantasy in Space'' (1952)&mdash;"an impressionistic [[virtuoso]] piece"<ref name="urajla" /> using manipulated recordings of flute&mdash;and ''Low Speed'' (1952), an "exotic composition that took the flute far below its natural range."<ref name="urajla" /> Both pieces were created at the home of Henry Cowell in Woodstock, NY. After several concerts caused a sensation in New York City, Ussachevsky and Luening were invited onto a live broadcast of NBC's Today Show to do an interview demonstration&mdash;the first televised electroacoustic performance. Luening described the event: "I improvised some [flute] sequences for the tape recorder. Ussachevsky then and there put them through electronic transformations."<ref>{{harvnb|Luening|1968|p=49}}.</ref> 1954 saw the advent of what would now be considered authentic electric plus acoustic compositions&mdash;acoustic instrumentation augmented/accompanied by recordings of manipulated and/or electronically generated sound. Three major works were premiered that year: Varèse's ''Déserts'', for chamber ensemble and tape sounds, and two works by Luening and Ussachevsky: ''Rhapsodic Variations for the Louisville Symphony'' and ''A Poem in Cycles and Bells'', both for orchestra and tape. Because he had been working at Schaeffer's studio, the tape part for Varèse's work contains much more concrete sounds than electronic. "A group made up of wind instruments, percussion and piano alternates with the mutated sounds of factory noises and ship sirens and motors, coming from two loudspeakers."<ref name="qtrckp">{{harvnb|Kurtz|1992|pp=75&ndash;76}}.</ref> At the German premiere of ''Déserts'' in [[Hamburg]], which was conducted by [[Bruno Maderna]], the tape controls were operated by [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]].<ref name="qtrckp" /> The title ''Déserts'', suggested to Varèse not only, "all physical deserts (of sand, sea, snow, of outer space, of empty streets), but also the deserts in the mind of man; not only those stripped aspects of nature that suggest bareness, aloofness, timelessness, but also that remote inner space no telescope can reach, where man is alone, a world of mystery and essential loneliness."<ref>{{harvnb|Anonymous|1972}}.</ref> [[File:RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer.jpg|thumb|[[RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer]]]] In 1958, Columbia-Princeton developed the [[RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer]], the first programmable [[synthesizer]].<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|pp=145&ndash;46}}.</ref> This device was actually a special-purpose, digitally controlled analogue computer, it was the first electronic music synthesizer in which a large range of sounds could not only be produced and sequenced but also be programmed by the user. This programming feature had a profound influence on the nature of Babbitt's electronic music.{{Citation needed|date=October 2015}}<!--None of the preceding material is verified on p. 64 of Rhea 1980.--> Prominent composers such as Vladimir Ussachevsky, Otto Luening, [[Milton Babbitt]], [[Charles Wuorinen]], Halim El-Dabh, [[Bülent Arel]] and [[Mario Davidovsky]] used the RCA Synthesizer extensively in various compositions.<ref>{{harvnb|Rhea|1980|p=64}}.</ref> One of the most influential composers associated with the early years of the studio was Egypt's [[Halim El-Dabh]] who,<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|p=153}}.</ref> after having developed the earliest known electronic tape music in 1944,<ref name="wire_2007"/> became more famous for ''Leiyla and the Poet'', a 1959 series of electronic compositions that stood out for its immersion and seamless [[Fusion (music)|fusion]] of electronic and [[folk music]], in contrast to the more mathematical approach used by [[Serialism|serial]] composers of the time such as Babbitt. El-Dabh's ''Leiyla and the Poet'', released as part of the album ''[[Columbia–Princeton Electronic Music Center (album)|Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center]]'' in 1961, would be cited as a strong influence by a number of musicians, ranging from [[Neil Rolnick]], [[Charles Amirkhanian]] and [[Alice Shields]] to [[rock music]]ians [[Frank Zappa]] and [[The West Coast Pop Art Experimental Band]].<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|pp=153&ndash;54 & 157}}</ref> ===Stochastic music=== {{importance section|date=October 2012|reason=not about the stated subject of this article: electronic sound production}} {{Main article|Iannis Xenakis|Stochastic music}} An important new development was the advent of computers for the purpose of composing music, as opposed to manipulating or creating sounds. [[Iannis Xenakis]] began what is called ''musique stochastique,'' or ''[[stochastic music]],'' which is a composing method that uses mathematical probability systems. Different probability algorithms were used to create a piece under a set of parameters. Xenakis used computers to compose pieces like ''ST/4'' for string quartet and ''ST/48'' for orchestra (both 1962),<ref>{{harvnb|Xenakis|1992|pp=}}{{Page needed|date=October 2012}}</ref> ''Morsima-Amorsima'', ''ST/10'', and ''Atrées''. He developed the computer system [[UPIC]] for translating graphical images into musical results and composed ''Mycènes Alpha'' (1978) with it. ===Mid-to-late 1950s=== [[File:CSIRAC.jpg|thumb|CSIRAC, Australia's first digital computer, displayed at the [[Melbourne Museum]]]] In 1954, Stockhausen composed his ''[[Studie II|Elektronische Studie II]]''&mdash;the first electronic piece to be published as a score. In 1955, more experimental and electronic studios began to appear. Notable were the creation of the [[Studio di fonologia musicale di Radio Milano]], a studio at the [[NHK]] in [[Tokyo]] founded by [[Toshiro Mayuzumi]], and the Philips studio at [[Eindhoven]], the [[Netherlands]], which moved to the [[University of Utrecht]] as the [[Institute of Sonology]] in 1960. The score for ''[[Forbidden Planet]]'', by [[Louis and Bebe Barron]],<ref name="norman2">"From at least Louis and Bebbe Barron's soundtrack for 'The Forbidden Planet" onwards, electronic music—in particular synthetic timbre—has impersonated alien worlds in film" ({{harvnb|Norman|2004|p=32}}).</ref> was entirely composed using custom built electronic circuits and tape recorders in 1956. The world's first computer to play music was [[CSIRAC]], which was designed and built by [[Trevor Pearcey]] and Maston Beard. Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIRAC to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s. In 1951 it publicly played the [[Colonel Bogey March]], of which no known recordings exist.<ref>{{harvnb|Doornbusch|2005}} {{Page needed|date=November 2009}}.</ref> However, [[CSIRAC]] played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice. CSIRAC was never recorded, but the music played was accurately reconstructed. The oldest known recordings of computer-generated music were played by the [[Ferranti Mark 1]] computer, a commercial version of the [[Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine|Baby]] Machine from the [[Victoria University of Manchester|University of Manchester]] in the autumn of 1951. The music program was written by [[Christopher Strachey]]. The impact of computers continued in 1956. [[Lejaren Hiller]] and Leonard Isaacson composed ''[[Illiac Suite]]'' for [[string quartet]], the first complete work of computer-assisted composition using [[algorithm]]ic composition. "... Hiller postulated that a computer could be taught the rules of a particular style and then called on to compose accordingly."<ref>{{harvnb|Schwartz|1975|p=347}}.</ref> Later developments included the work of [[Max Mathews]] at [[Bell Laboratories]], who developed the influential [[MUSIC-N|MUSIC I]] program in 1957, one of the first computer programs to play electronic music. [[Vocoder]] technology was also a major development in this early era. In 1956, Stockhausen composed ''[[Gesang der Jünglinge]]'', the first major work of the [[Cologne]] studio, based on a text from the ''[[Book of Daniel]]''. An important technological development of that year was the invention of the [[Clavivox]] [[synthesizer]] by [[Raymond Scott]] with subassembly by [[Robert Moog]]. Also in 1957, Kid Baltan ([[Dick Raaymakers]]) and [[Tom Dissevelt]] released their debut album, ''Song Of The Second Moon'', recorded at the Philips studio.<ref>{{harvnb|Harris|n.d.}}</ref> The public remained interested in the new sounds being created around the world, as can be deduced by the inclusion of Varèse's ''[[Poème électronique]]'', which was played over four hundred loudspeakers at the Philips Pavilion of the 1958 [[Expo 58|Brussels World Fair]]. That same year, [[Mauricio Kagel]], an [[Argentina|Argentine]] composer, composed ''Transición II''. The work was realized at the WDR studio in Cologne. Two musicians performed on a piano, one in the traditional manner, the other playing on the strings, frame, and case. Two other performers used tape to unite the presentation of live sounds with the future of prerecorded materials from later on and its past of recordings made earlier in the performance. ==Expansion: 1960s== [[File:Dick Mills, BBC Radiophonic Workshop at the Roundhouse, 2009-05-17.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Dick Mills]], <br/>[[BBC Radiophonic Workshop]] (2009)]] {{See also|Synthesizer|Harald Bode|Modular synthesizer|Buchla|Moog Music}} These were fertile years for electronic music&mdash;not just for academia, but for independent artists as [[synthesizer]] technology became more accessible. By this time, a strong community of composers and musicians working with new sounds and instruments was established and growing. 1960 witnessed the composition of Luening's ''[[Gargoyle]]s'' for violin and tape as well as the premiere of Stockhausen's ''[[Kontakte (Stockhausen)|Kontakte]]'' for electronic sounds, piano, and percussion. This piece existed in two versions&mdash;one for 4-channel tape, and the other for tape with human performers. "In ''Kontakte'', Stockhausen abandoned traditional musical form based on linear development and dramatic climax. This new approach, which he termed 'moment form,' resembles the 'cinematic splice' techniques in early twentieth century film."<ref>{{harvnb|Kurtz|1992|p=1}}.</ref> The [[theremin]] had been in use since the 1920s but it attained a degree of popular recognition through its use in science-fiction film [[soundtrack]] music in the 1950s (e.g., [[Bernard Herrmann]]'s classic score for ''[[The Day the Earth Stood Still]]'').<ref>{{harvnb|Glinsky|2000|p=286}}.</ref> In the UK in this period, the [[BBC Radiophonic Workshop]] (established in 1958) came to prominence, thanks in large measure to their work on the BBC science-fiction series ''[[Doctor Who]]''. One of the most influential British electronic artists in this period<ref>{{cite web|url=http://delia-derbyshire.net|title=Delia Derbyshire Audiological Chronology|publisher=}}</ref> was Workshop staffer [[Delia Derbyshire]], who is now famous for her 1963 electronic realisation of the iconic [[Doctor Who theme music|''Doctor Who'' theme]], composed by [[Ron Grainer]]. [[File:Josef Tal at the Electronic Music Studio.jpg|thumb|Israeli composer Josef Tal at the Electronic Music Studio in Jerusalem (c.&nbsp;1965); On the right, Hugh Le Caine's sound synthesizer the Special Purpose Tape Recorder]] In 1961 [[Josef Tal]] established the ''Centre for Electronic Music in Israel'' at The [[Hebrew University]], and in 1962 [[Hugh Le Caine]] arrived in Jerusalem to install his ''Creative Tape Recorder'' in the centre.<ref>{{harvnb|Gluck|2005}}{{Page needed|date=June 2011}}.</ref> In the 1990s Tal conducted, together with Dr Shlomo Markel, in cooperation with the [[Technion &ndash; Israel Institute of Technology]], and VolkswagenStiftung a research project (Talmark) aimed at the development of a novel musical notation system for electronic music.<ref>{{harvnb|Tal|Markel|2002|pp=55&ndash;62}}.</ref> Milton Babbitt composed his first electronic work using the synthesizer&mdash;his ''Composition for Synthesizer'' (1961)&mdash;which he created using the RCA synthesizer at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center. {{quote|For Babbitt, the RCA synthesizer was a dream come true for three reasons. First, the ability to pinpoint and control every musical element precisely. Second, the time needed to realize his elaborate serial structures were brought within practical reach. Third, the question was no longer "What are the limits of the human performer?" but rather "What are the limits of human hearing?"<ref>{{harvnb|Schwartz|1975|p=124}}.</ref>}} The collaborations also occurred across oceans and continents. In 1961, Ussachevsky invited Varèse to the Columbia-Princeton Studio (CPEMC). Upon arrival, Varese embarked upon a revision of ''Déserts''. He was assisted by [[Mario Davidovsky]] and [[Bülent Arel]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bayly|1982&ndash;83|p=150}}.</ref> The intense activity occurring at CPEMC and elsewhere inspired the establishment of the [[San Francisco Tape Music Center]] in 1963 by [[Morton Subotnick]], with additional members [[Pauline Oliveros]], [[Ramon Sender]], Anthony Martin, and [[Terry Riley]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2015}}<!--Source for the link between CPEMC and the founding of SFTMC needed.--> Later, the Center moved to [[Mills College]], directed by [[Pauline Oliveros]], where it is today known as the Center for Contemporary Music.<ref name="oliveros1">"A central figure in post-war electronic art music, [[Pauline Oliveros]] [b. 1932] is one of the original members of the San Francisco Tape Music Center (along with Morton Subotnick, Ramon Sender, Terry Riley, and Anthony Martin), which was the resource on the U.S. west coast for electronic music during the 1960s. The Center later moved to Mills College, where she was its first director, and is now called the Center for Contemporary Music." from CD liner notes, "Accordion & Voice," Pauline Oliveros, Record Label: Important, Catalog number IMPREC140: 793447514024.</ref> Simultaneously in San Francisco, composer Stan Shaff and equipment designer Doug McEachern, presented the first “Audium” concert at San Francisco State College (1962), followed by a work at the [[San Francisco Museum of Modern Art]] (1963), conceived of as in time, controlled movement of sound in space. Twelve speakers surrounded the audience, four speakers were mounted on a rotating, mobile-like construction above.<ref name="frankenstein1964">{{harvnb|Frankenstein|1964}}.</ref> In an SFMOMA performance the following year (1964), ''San Francisco Chronicle'' music critic Alfred Frankenstein commented, "the possibilities of the space-sound continuum have seldom been so extensively explored".<ref name="frankenstein1964" /> In 1967, the first [[Audium (theater)|Audium]], a "sound-space continuum" opened, holding weekly performances through 1970. In 1975, enabled by seed money from the [[National Endowment for the Arts]], a new Audium opened, designed floor to ceiling for spatial sound composition and performance.<ref>{{harvnb|Loy|1985|pp=41&ndash;48}}.</ref> “In contrast, there are composers who manipulated sound space by locating multiple speakers at various locations in a performance space and then switching or panning the sound between the sources. In this approach, the composition of spatial manipulation is dependent on the location of the speakers and usually exploits the acoustical properties of the enclosure. Examples include Varese's ''Poeme Electronique'' (tape music performed in the Philips Pavilion of the 1958 World Fair, Brussels) and Stanley Schaff's {{sic}} ''Audium'' installation, currently active in San Francisco”<ref>{{harvnb|Begault|1994|p=208}}, [http://www.cse.yorku.ca/course_archive/2005-06/W/6335/feb20/Begault_2000_3d_Sound_Multimedia.pdf online reprint].</ref> Through weekly programs (over 4,500 in 40 years), Shaff “sculpts” sound, performing now-digitized spatial works live through 176 speakers.<ref>{{harvnb|Hertelendy|2008}}.</ref> A well-known example of the use of Moog's full-sized [[Moog modular synthesizer]] is the ''[[Switched-On Bach]]'' album by [[Wendy Carlos]], which triggered a craze for synthesizer music. Along with the Moog modular synthesizer, other makes of this period included ARP and Buchla. [[Pietro Grossi]] was an Italian pioneer of computer composition and tape music, who first experimented with electronic techniques in the early sixties. Grossi was a cellist and composer, born in Venice in 1917. He founded the S 2F M (Studio de Fonologia Musicale di Firenze) in 1963 in order to experiment with electronic sound and composition. ===Computer music=== {{Main article|Computer music}} {{See also|Music-N|Algorithmic composition}} [[CSIRAC]], the first computer to play music, did so publicly in August 1951.<ref>{{harvnb|Doornbusch|2005}} {{Page needed|date=June 2011}}.</ref> One of the first large-scale public demonstrations of [[computer music]] was a pre-recorded national radio broadcast on the [[NBC]] [[radio network]] program [[Monitor (NBC Radio)|Monitor]] on February 10, 1962. In 1961, [[LaFarr Stuart]] programmed [[Iowa State University]]'s [[CYCLONE]] computer (a derivative of the [[Illiac]]) to play simple, recognizable tunes through an amplified speaker that had been attached to the system originally for administrative and diagnostic purposes. An interview with Mr. Stuart accompanied his computer music. [[Laurie Spiegel]] is also notable for her development of "[[Music Mouse]]—an Intelligent Instrument" (1986) for [[Macintosh]], [[Amiga]], and [[Atari]] computers. The intelligent-instrument name refers to the program's built-in knowledge of chord and scale convention and stylistic constraints. She continued to update the program through Macintosh OS 9, and {{as of|2012|lc=y}}, it remained available for purchase or demo download from her Web site. The late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s also saw the development of large mainframe computer synthesis. Starting in 1957, Max Mathews of Bell Labs developed the MUSIC programs, culminating in [[MUSIC-N|MUSIC V]], a direct digital synthesis language<ref>{{harvnb|Mattis|2001}}.</ref> ===Live electronics=== {{Main article|Live electronic music}} {{See also|List of electronic music festivals}} In Europe in 1964, Karlheinz Stockhausen composed ''[[Mikrophonie (Stockhausen)|Mikrophonie I]]'' for [[tam-tam]], hand-held microphones, filters, and potentiometers, and ''Mixtur'' for orchestra, four [[sine wave|sine-wave]] generators, and four [[ring modulator]]s. In 1965 he composed ''[[Mikrophonie (Stockhausen)|Mikrophonie II]]'' for choir, Hammond organ, and ring modulators.<ref>{{harvnb|Stockhausen|1971|pp=51, 57, 66}}.</ref> In 1966&ndash;67, [[Reed Ghazala]] discovered and began to teach "[[circuit bending]]"&mdash;the application of the creative short circuit, a process of chance short-circuiting, creating experimental electronic instruments, exploring sonic elements mainly of timbre and with less regard to pitch or rhythm, and influenced by [[John Cage]]’s [[aleatoric music]] {{sic}}<!--Following the link will show why this term is being misused in reference to Cage.--> concept.<ref name="circuit">"This element of embracing errors is at the centre of Circuit Bending, it is about creating sounds that are not supposed to happen and not supposed to be heard ({{harvnb|Gard|2004}}). In terms of musicality, as with electronic art music, it is primarily concerned with timbre and takes little regard of pitch and rhythm in a classical sense. ... . In a similar vein to Cage’s aleatoric music, the art of Bending is dependent on chance, when a person prepares to bend they have no idea of the final outcome" ({{harvnb|Yabsley|2007}}).</ref> ==Popularization: 1970s to early 1980s== [[File:Minimoog.JPG|thumb|Mini-Moog synthesizer]] ===Synthesizers=== {{See also|Modular synthesizer|Buchla|Electronic Music Studios|Korg}} Released in 1970 by [[Moog Music]], the [[Minimoog|Mini-Moog]] was among the first widely available, portable and relatively affordable synthesizers. It became once the most widely used synthesizer at that time in both popular and electronic art music.<ref name="Montanaro2004-minimoog"> "In 1969, a portable version of the studio Moog, called the Minimoog Model D, became the most widely used synthesizer in both popular music and electronic art music" {{harvnb|Montanaro|2004}} {{Page needed|date=November 2009}}. <br/>'''Note''': Thereafter, at least the total shipments record have been overwritten by [[Yamaha DX7]] (over 200,000 units between 1983 and 1989) and [[Korg M1]] (250,000 units between 1988 and 1995). For details, see [[Yamaha DX7#Footnote|Yamaha DX7&thinsp;§&thinsp;Footnote]].</ref> [[Patrick Gleeson]], playing live with [[Herbie Hancock]] in the beginning of the 1970s, pioneered the use of synthesizers in a touring context, where they were subject to stresses the early machines were not designed for.<ref name=zussman>{{harvnb|Zussman|1982|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MjAEAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA1&dq=patrick%20gleeson%20synthesizer&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q=patrick%20gleeson%20synthesizer&f=false 1, 5]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Sofer|Lynner|1977|p=[http://www.cyndustries.com/synapse/synapse.cfm?pc=39&folder=jan1977&pic=23 23]}} "Yes, I used [ Moog modular equipment ] until I went with Herbie (Hancock) in 1970. Then I used a [ [[ARP synthesizers|ARP]] ] 2600 because I couldn't use the Moog on stage. It was too big and cranky; every time we transported it, we would have to pull a module out, and I knew I couldn't do that on the road, so I started using ARP's."</ref> In 1974, the [[Studio for Electronic Music (WDR)|WDR]] studio in Cologne acquired an [[EMS Synthi 100]] synthesizer, which a number of composers used to produce notable electronic works&mdash;including [[Rolf Gehlhaar]]'s ''Fünf deutsche Tänze'' (1975), Karlheinz Stockhausen's ''[[Sirius (Stockhausen)|Sirius]]'' (1975&ndash;76), and [[John McGuire (composer)|John McGuire]]'s ''Pulse Music III'' (1978).<ref>{{harvnb|Morawska-Büngeler|1988|pp=52, 55, 107&ndash;108}}</ref> The early 1980s saw the rise of [[bass synthesizer]]s, the most influential being the [[Roland TB-303]], a bass synthesizer and [[Music sequencer|sequencer]] released in late 1981 that later became a fixture in [[electronic dance music]],<ref>{{harvnb|Vine|2011}}.</ref> particularly [[acid house]].<ref name="guardian_2011"/> One of the first to use it was [[Charanjit Singh (musician)|Charanjit Singh]] in 1982, though it wouldn't be popularized until [[Phuture]]'s "[[Acid Tracks]]" in 1987.<ref name="guardian_2011">{{harvnb|Aitken|2011}}.</ref> ===IRCAM, STEIM, and Elektronmusikstudion=== [[File:L'été à Paris (9276072323).jpg|thumb|IRCAM at the Place Igor Stravinsky, Paris]] {{Main article|IRCAM}} [[IRCAM]] in Paris became a major center for computer music research and realization and development of the [[Sogitec 4X]] computer system,<ref name=Schutterhoef2007>{{harvnb|Schutterhoef|2007}} [http://knorretje.hku.nl/wiki/Sogitec_4X].</ref> featuring then revolutionary real-time digital signal processing. [[Pierre Boulez]]'s ''[[Répons]]'' (1981) for 24 musicians and 6 soloists used the 4X to transform and route soloists to a loudspeaker system. {{Main article|STEIM}} [[STEIM]] is a center for [[experimental musical instrument|research and development of new musical instruments]] in the electronic performing arts, located in [[Amsterdam]], [[Netherlands]]. STEIM has existed since 1969. It was founded by [[Misha Mengelberg]], [[Louis Andriessen]], [[Peter Schat]], [[Dick Raaymakers]], [[:nl:Jan van Vlijmen|Jan van Vlijmen]], [[Reinbert de Leeuw]], and [[Konrad Boehmer]]. This group of Dutch composers had fought for the reformation of Amsterdam's feudal music structures; they insisted on Bruno Maderna's appointment as musical director of the Concertgebouw Orchestra and enforced the first public fundings for experimental and improvised electronic music in The Netherlands. {{Main article|Elektronmusikstudion}} [[Elektronmusikstudion]] (EMS), formerly known as Electroacoustic Music in Sweden, is the [[Sweden|Swedish]] national centre for electronic music and [[sound art]]. The research organisation started in 1964 and is based in [[Stockholm]]. ===Rise of popular electronic music=== {{Main article|Electronic rock|Synthpop|Electro music|House music}} {{See also|Progressive rock|Berlin School of electronic music|Krautrock|Space rock}} [[File:Keith Emerson StPetersburg Aug08.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Keith Emerson]] performing in St. Petersburg in 2008]] In the late 1960s, [[Pop music|pop]] and [[rock music]]ians, including [[The Beach Boys]] and [[The Beatles]], began to use electronic instruments, like the [[theremin]] and [[Mellotron]], to supplement and define their sound. By the end of the decade, the [[Moog synthesizer]] took a leading place in the sound of emerging [[progressive rock]] with bands including [[Pink Floyd]], [[Yes (band)|Yes]], [[Emerson, Lake & Palmer]], and [[Genesis (band)|Genesis]] making them part of their sound. Instrumental prog rock was particularly significant in continental Europe, allowing bands like [[Kraftwerk]], [[Tangerine Dream]], [[Can (band)|Can]], and [[Faust (band)|Faust]] to circumvent the language barrier.<ref>{{harvnb|Bussy|2004|pp=15&ndash;17}}.</ref> Their synthesiser-heavy "[[krautrock]]", along with the work of [[Brian Eno]] (for a time the keyboard player with [[Roxy Music]]), would be a major influence on subsequent [[electronic rock]].<ref name=Bogdanov2002Prog>{{harvnb|Unterberger|2002|pp=1330&ndash;1}}.</ref> Electronic rock was also produced by several Japanese musicians, including [[Isao Tomita]]'s ''Electric Samurai: Switched on Rock'' (1972), which featured Moog synthesizer renditions of contemporary pop and rock songs,<ref name="jenkins_2007"/> and [[Osamu Kitajima]]'s progressive rock album ''Benzaiten'' (1974).<ref name="Benzaiten">{{Discogs release|1303605|Osamu Kitajima &ndash; Benzaiten}}</ref> The mid-1970s saw the rise of electronic art music musicians such as [[Jean Michel Jarre]], [[Vangelis]], and [[Isao Tomita|Tomita]], who with Brian Eno were a significant influence on the development of [[new-age music]].<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|p=403}}.</ref> After the arrival of [[punk rock]], a form of basic electronic rock emerged, increasingly using new digital technology to replace other instruments. Pioneering bands included [[Ultravox]] with their 1977 single "[[Hiroshima Mon Amour]]",<ref name="Maginnis">{{harvnb|Maginnis|n.d.}}</ref> [[Yellow Magic Orchestra]] from Japan, [[Gary Numan]], [[Depeche Mode]], and [[The Human League]].<ref name="synthpop">{{harvnb|Anonymous|n.d.(2)}}.</ref> Yellow Magic Orchestra in particular helped pioneer [[synthpop]] with their [[Yellow Magic Orchestra (album)|self-titled album]] (1978) and ''[[Solid State Survivor]]'' (1979). The definition of [[MIDI]] and the development of [[digital audio]] made the development of purely electronic sounds much easier.<ref>{{harvnb|Russ|2004|p=66}}.{{Verify source|date=June 2011}}<!--The item added to the list of references is the third edition of 2009; the second edition was published in 2004, almost certainly with different pagination. Which is this meant to cite, and is the page number the correct one?--></ref> These developments led to the growth of [[synthpop]], which after it was adopted by the [[New Romanticism|New Romantic]] movement, allowed synthesizers to dominate the pop and rock music of the early 80s. Key acts included [[Duran Duran]], [[Spandau Ballet]], [[A Flock of Seagulls]], [[Culture Club]], [[Talk Talk]], [[Japan (band)|Japan]], and [[Eurythmics]]. Synthpop sometimes used synthesizers to replace all other instruments, until the style began to fall from popularity in the mid-1980s.<ref name=synthpop/> ===Sequencers and drum machines=== {{Main article|Music sequencer|Drum machine}} {{Disputed|section|date=December 2011}} [[Music sequencer]]s began being used around the mid 20th century, and Tomita's albums in mid-1970s being later examples.<ref name="jenkins_2007">{{harvnb|Jenkins|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=c3EHIpo0DKwC&pg=PA133 133&ndash;34]}}</ref> In 1978, Yellow Magic Orchestra were using [[computer]]-based technology in conjunction with a synthesiser to produce popular music,<ref name="billboard_1979">{{harvnb|Anonymous|1979}}.</ref> making their early use of the [[microprocessor]]-based [[Roland MC-8 Microcomposer]] sequencer.<ref name="discogs_ymo_lp">{{Discogs release|453067|Yellow Magic Orchestra &ndash; Yellow Magic Orchestra}}</ref><ref>{{citation |year=1981 |title=Sound International |journal=[[Sound International]] |issue=33&ndash;40 |page=147 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sj5LAAAAYAAJ |accessdate=21 June 2011}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=December 2011}}<!--None of the following terms produce any result at the linked item: "yellow", ""magic", "orchestra", "MC-8", "microcomposer", "sequencer", "1978".--> [[Drum machine]]s, also known as rhythm machines, also began being used around the late-1950s, with a later example being [[Osamu Kitajima]]'s progressive rock album ''Benzaiten'' (1974), which used a rhythm machine along with [[electronic drum]]s and a synthesizer.<ref name="Benzaiten"/> In 1977, [[Ultravox]]'s "[[Hiroshima Mon Amour]]" was one of the first singles to use the [[metronome]]-like [[percussion]] of a [[Roland TR-77]] drum machine.<ref name="Maginnis"/> In 1980, [[Roland Corporation]] released the [[Roland TR-808|TR-808]], one of the first and most popular programmable [[drum machine]]s. The first band to use it was Yellow Magic Orchestra in 1980, and it would later gain widespread popularity with the release of [[Marvin Gaye]]'s "[[Sexual Healing]]" and [[Afrika Bambaataa]]'s "[[Planet Rock (song)|Planet Rock]]" in 1982.<ref>{{harvnb|Anderson|2008}}.</ref> The TR-808 was a fundamental tool in the later Detroit techno scene of the late 1980s, and was the drum machine of choice for [[Derrick May (musician)|Derrick May]] and [[Juan Atkins]].<ref name="Blashill">{{harvnb|Blashill|2004|p={{Page needed|date=April 2014}}}}</ref> ===Birth of MIDI=== {{Main article|MIDI}} In 1980, a group of musicians and music merchants met to standardize an interface that new instruments could use to communicate control instructions with other instruments and computers. This standard was dubbed Musical Instrument Digital Interface ([[MIDI]]) and resulted from a collaboration between leading manufacturers, initially [[Sequential Circuits]], [[Oberheim Electronics|Oberheim]], [[Roland Corporation|Roland]]—and later, other participants that included [[Yamaha Corporation|Yamaha]], [[Korg]], and [[Kawai (company)|Kawai]].<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|p=227}}.</ref> A paper was authored by [[Dave Smith (engineer)|Dave Smith]] of Sequential Circuits and proposed to the [[Audio Engineering Society]] in 1981. Then, in August 1983, the MIDI Specification 1.0 was finalized. MIDI technology allows a single keystroke, control wheel motion, pedal movement, or command from a microcomputer to activate every device in the studio remotely and in synchrony, with each device responding according to conditions predetermined by the composer. MIDI instruments and software made powerful control of sophisticated instruments easily affordable by many studios and individuals. Acoustic sounds became reintegrated into studios via [[sampling (music)|sampling]] and sampled-ROM-based instruments. [[Miller Puckette]] developed graphic signal-processing software for [[Sogitec 4X|4X]] called [[Max (software)|Max]] (after [[Max Mathews]]) and later ported it to [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] (with Dave Zicarelli extending it for [[Opcode Systems|Opcode]])<ref>{{harvnb|Ozab|2000}} [http://www.atpm.com/6.05/barline.shtml].</ref> for real-time MIDI control, bringing algorithmic composition availability to most composers with modest computer programming background. ===Digital synthesis=== {{See also|Digital synthesizer|Sampling (music)|Additive synthesis#Implementations|Bell Labs Digital Synthesizer|Synclavier}} In 1975, the Japanese company [[Yamaha Corporation|Yamaha]] licensed the algorithms for [[frequency modulation synthesis]] (FM synthesis) from [[John Chowning]], who had experimented with it at [[Stanford University]] since 1971.<ref name="holmes_257">{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|p=257}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Chowning|1973}}.</ref> Yamaha's engineers began adapting Chowning's algorithm for use in a digital synthesizer, adding improvements such as the "key scaling" method to avoid the introduction of distortion that normally occurred in analog systems during [[frequency modulation]].<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|pp=257&ndash;8}}.</ref> However, the first commercial digital synthesizer to be released would be the Australian [[Fairlight (company)|Fairlight]] company's [[Fairlight CMI]] (Computer Musical Instrument) in 1979, as the first practical polyphonic digital synthesizer/sampler system. In 1980, Yamaha eventually released the first FM digital synthesizer, the Yamaha GS-1, but at an expensive price.<ref>{{harvnb|Roads|1996|p=226}}.</ref> In 1983, Yamaha introduced the first stand-alone digital synthesizer, the [[DX-7]], which also used FM synthesis and would become one of the best-selling synthesizers of all time.<ref name="holmes_257"/> The DX-7 was known for its recognizable bright tonalities that was partly due to an [[Oversampling|overachieving]] [[sampling rate]] of 57&nbsp;kHz.<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2008|pp=258&ndash;9}}.</ref> [[Image:IRCAM 4X.jpg|thumb|[[Sogitec 4X]] <br/>at IRCAM machine room in 1989]] [[Barry Vercoe]] describes one of his experiences with early computer sounds: {{quote|At IRCAM in Paris in 1982, flutist [[Larry Beauregard]] had connected his flute to DiGiugno's [[Sogitec 4X|4X]] audio processor, enabling real-time pitch-following. On a [[Guggenheim Fellowship|Guggenheim]] at the time, I extended this concept to real-time score-following with automatic synchronized accompaniment, and over the next two years Larry and I gave numerous demonstrations of the computer as a chamber musician, playing [[Handel]] flute sonatas, [[Boulez]]'s ''Sonatine'' for flute and piano and by 1984 my own ''Synapse II'' for flute and computer&mdash;the first piece ever composed expressly for such a setup. A major challenge was finding the right software constructs to support highly sensitive and responsive accompaniment. All of this was pre-MIDI, but the results were impressive even though heavy doses of tempo rubato would continually surprise my '''Synthetic Performer'''. In 1985 we solved the tempo rubato problem by incorporating ''learning from rehearsals'' (each time you played this way the machine would get better). We were also now tracking violin, since our brilliant, young flautist had contracted a fatal cancer. Moreover, this version used a new standard called MIDI, and here I was ably assisted by former student Miller Puckette, whose initial concepts for this task he later expanded into a program called '''[[Max (software)|MAX]]'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Vercoe|2000|pp=xxviii&ndash;xxix}}.</ref>}} ===Chiptunes=== {{main article|Chiptune}} {{see also|Video game music}} The characteristic lo-fi sound of chip music was initially the result of early sound cards' technical limitations; however, the sound has since become sought after in its own right. ==Late 1980s to 1990s== === Rise of dance music === {{Main article|Electronic dance music}} {{See also|Italo disco}} The trend has continued to the present day with modern nightclubs worldwide regularly playing electronic dance music (EDM). Nowadays, electronic dance music has radio stations,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.siriusxm.com/electricarea|title=Electric Area|work=SiriusXM}}</ref> websites,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dancingastronaut.com/|title=Dancing Astronaut - EDM, trap, techno, deep house, dubstep|work=Dancing Astronaut}}</ref> and publications like ''[[Mixmag]]'' dedicated solely to the genre. Moreover, the genre has found commercial and cultural significance in the United States and North America, thanks to the wildly popular [[big room house]]/EDM sound that has been incorporated into U.S. [[pop music]]<ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/08/11/house-music-pop-music_n_922912.html "House Music: How It Sneaked Its Way Into Mainstream Pop"] by Kia Makarechi, ''[[The Huffington Post]]'', August 11, 2011</ref> and the rise of large scale commercial [[rave]]s such as [[Electric Daisy Carnival]], [[Tomorrowland (festival)]] and [[Ultra Music Festival]]. ===Advancements=== Other recent developments included the [[Tod Machover]] (MIT and IRCAM) composition ''Begin Again Again'' for "[[Tod Machover#Hypercello|hypercello]]", an interactive system of sensors measuring physical movements of the cellist. Max Mathews developed the "Conductor" program for real-time tempo, dynamic and timbre control of a pre-input electronic score. [[Morton Subotnick]] released a multimedia CD-ROM ''All My Hummingbirds Have Alibis''. ==2000s and 2010s== [[File:Qlimax 2008-11-22.JPG|thumb|[[Qlimax]], a large electronic music event that occurs each year in the Netherlands, celebrating the [[Hardstyle]] subgenre of electronic music]] In recent years, as computer technology has become more accessible and [[music software]] has advanced, interacting with music production technology is now possible using means that bear no relationship to traditional [[performance|musical performance]] practices:<ref>{{harvnb|Emmerson|2007|pp=111&ndash;13}}.</ref> for instance, [[laptop computer|laptop]] performance (''[[laptronica]]''),<ref>{{harvnb|Emmerson|2007|pp=80&ndash;81}}.</ref> [[live coding]]<ref>{{harvnb|Emmerson|2007|p=115}}; {{harvnb|Collins|2003}}</ref> and [[Algorave]]. In general, the term [[Live PA]] refers to any live performance of electronic music, whether with laptops, synthesizers, or other devices. In the last decade, a number of software-based virtual studio environments have emerged, with products such as Propellerhead's [[Reason (software)|Reason]] and [[Ableton Live]] finding popular appeal.<ref>{{harvnb|Anonymous|2009}}&mdash;Best Audio Editing Software of the Year—1st Abelton Live, 4th Reason. Best Audio DJ Software of the Year—Abelton Live.</ref> Such tools provide viable and cost-effective alternatives to typical hardware-based production studios, and thanks to advances in [[microprocessor]] technology, it is now possible to create high quality music using little more than a single laptop computer. Such advances have democratized music creation,<ref>{{harvnb|Chadabe|2004|pp=5&ndash;6}}.</ref> leading to a massive increase in the amount of home-produced electronic music available to the general public via the internet. Artists can now also individuate their production practice by creating personalized software synthesizers, effects modules, and various composition environments. Devices that once existed exclusively in the hardware domain can easily have virtual counterparts. Some of the more popular software tools for achieving such ends are commercial releases such as [[Max/Msp]] and [[Reaktor]] and [[open source]] packages such as [[Csound]], [[Pure Data]], [[SuperCollider]], and [[ChucK]]. ===Circuit bending=== [[File:Bending.jpg|thumb|Probing for "bends" using a jeweler's screwdriver and alligator clips]] {{main article|Circuit bending}} {{See also|#Live electronics}}<!-- A prior section which mentioned beginning of "Circuit bending" --> [[Circuit bending]] is the creative customization of the circuits within electronic devices such as low [[voltage]], battery-powered [[guitar effects]], children's [[toy]]s and small digital [[synthesizer]]s to create new musical or visual instruments and sound generators. Emphasizing spontaneity and randomness, the techniques of circuit bending have been commonly associated with [[noise music]], though many more conventional contemporary musicians and musical groups have been known to experiment with "bent" instruments. Circuit bending usually involves dismantling the machine and adding components such as switches and [[potentiometer]]s that alter the circuit. With the revived interest for analogue synthesizers, circuit bending became a cheap solution for many experimental musicians to create their own individual analogue sound generators. Nowadays many schematics can be found to build noise generators such as the [[Atari Punk Console]] or the Dub Siren as well as simple modifications for children toys such as the famous [[Speak & Spell (toy)|Speak & Spell]]s that are often modified by circuit benders. Reed Ghazala has explored circuit bending with the Speak & Spell toy, and has held apprenticeships and workshops on circuit bending.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anti-theory.com/ |title=Reed Ghazala's Anti-Theory Workshop |publisher=Anti-theory.com |date= |accessdate=2014-04-24}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=August 2015|reason=self-published site does describes Ghazala as "The Father of Circuit-Bending", but does not say why he is called this; there are ads for workshops and apprenticeships, but no mention of how long these have been offered; "Speak & Spell" is nowhere mentioned on the site.}} ==See also== {{Portal|Electronic music}} * [[Beaver & Krause]] * [[Clavioline]] * [[Electronic Sackbut]] * [[List of electronic music genres]] * [[New Interfaces for Musical Expression]] * [[Ondioline]] * [[Sound sculpture]] * [[Spectral music]] * [[Tracker music]] * [[Timeline of electronic music genres]] ;Live electronic music *[[List of electronic music festivals]] *[[Live electronic music]] * [[Sound installation]] * [[Audium (theater)]] ==Footnotes== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==References== {{div col|colwidth=40em}} * {{citation |last=Aitken |first=Stuart |title=Charanjit Singh on How He Invented Acid House … by Mistake |newspaper=The Guardian |issue=10 May |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2011/may/10/charanjit-singh-acid-house-ten-ragas |location=London |date=10 May 2011}} * {{citation |last=Anderson |first=Jason |title=''"Slaves to the Rhythm: Kanye West Is the Latest to Pay Tribute to a Classic Drum Machine"'' |publisher=CBC News website |issue=28 November |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/arts/music/story/2008/11/27/f-history-of-the-808.html |accessdate=5 June 2011 |date=2008}} * {{citation |last=Angus |first=Robert |year=1984 |title=History of Magnetic Recording, Part One |journal=Audio Magazine |issue=August |pages=27&ndash;33}} * {{citation |last=Ankeny |first=Jason |year=n.d. |title=''"Yellow Magic Orchestra: Biography"'' |publisher=Allmusic.com |url={{Allmusic|class=artist|id=p5886|tab=biography|pure_url=yes|accessdate=5 June 2011}}}} * {{citation |last=Ankeny |first=Jason |year=2010 |title=''"Kraftwerk: Biography"'' |publisher=Allmusic.com |url={{Allmusic|class=artist|id=p4706|tab=|pure_url=yes|accessdate=5 June 2011}}}}. * {{citation |author=Anonymous |year=n.d.(1) |title=''"Inventing the Wire Recorder"'' |publisher=Recording History: The History of Recording Technology (www.recording-history.org) |url=http://www.recording-history.org/HTML/wire2.php |accessdate=5 June 2011}}. * {{citation |author=Anonymous |year=n.d.(2) |title=Synthpop |journal=Allmusic |date= |url={{Allmusic|class=explore|id=style/d18|pure_url=yes}}}}. 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In any case, place, publisher, and year are needed, especially when using author-date citations.--> <nowiki>?</nowiki>ISBN 978-0-07-141748-8; <nowiki>?</nowiki>ISBN 9781408276747.}} * {{citation |last=Holmes |first=Thomas B |year=2002 |title=Electronic and Experimental Music: Pioneers in Technology and Composition |edition=Second |location=London |publisher=Routledge Music/Songbooks |id=(cloth) (pbk) |isbn=0-415-93643-8}} * {{citation |last=Holmes |first=Thom |year=2008 |title=Electronic and Experimental Music: Technology, Music, and Culture |edition=third |location=London and New York |publisher=Routledge |id=(cloth); (pbk); ISBN 0-203-92959-4 (ebook) |isbn=0-415-95781-8}}. * {{citation |last=Johnson |first=Steven |year=2002 |title=The New York Schools of Music and Visual Arts: John Cage, Morton Feldman |location=New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-415-93694-2}} * {{citation |last=Krause |first=Manfred |year=2002 |title=The Legendary 'Magnetophon' of AEG |publisher=[[Audio Engineering Society]] E-Library. |contribution=AES Convention 112 (April) |id=paper number 5605.}} [http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=11304 Abstract]. * {{citation |last=Kurtz |first=Michael |year=1992 |title=Stockhausen: A Biography |others=translated by Richard Toop. |location=London |publisher=Faber and Faber |isbn=0-571-14323-7}} * {{citation |last=Jenkins |first=Mark |year=2007 |authorlink=Mark Jenkins (musician) |title=Analog Synthesizers: Understanding, Performing, Buying: From the Legacy of Moog to Software Synthesis |location=Amsterdam |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |isbn=978-0-240-52072-8}}. * {{citation |last=Lebrecht |first=Norman |year=1996 |authorlink=Norman Lebrecht |title=The Companion to 20th-Century Music |publisher=Da Capo Press. |id=(pbk) |isbn=0-306-80734-3}} * {{citation |last=Loubet |first=Emmanuelle|year=1997|title=The Beginnings of Electronic Music in Japan, with a Focus on the NHK Studio: The 1950s and 1960s|others=translated by Brigitte Robindoré and Curtis Roads|journal=Computer Music Journal|volume=21|issue=4|pp=11–22|doi=10.2307/3681132}} * {{citation |last=Loy |first=Gareth |year=1985 |title=About Audium—A Conversation with Stanley Shaff |journal=Computer Music Journal |volume=9 |issue=2 (Summer) |pages=41&ndash;48 |url=http://www.audium.org/omhpp.cgi?src=article.cmj.hpp |doi=10.2307/3679656}}. * {{citation |last=Luening |first=Otto |year=1964 |authorlink=Otto Luening |title=Some Random Remarks About Electronic Music |journal=Journal of Music Theory |volume=8 |issue=1 (Spring) |pages=89&ndash;98 |doi=10.2307/842974}}. * {{citation |last=Luening |first=Otto |year=1968 |title=An Unfinished History of Electronic Music |journal=Music Educators Journal |volume=55 |issue=3 (November) |pages=42&ndash;49, 135&ndash;42, 145 |doi=10.2307/3392376}}. * {{citation |last=Maginnis |first=Tom |year=n.d. |title=The Man Who Dies Every Day: Ultravox: Song Review |publisher=Allmusic.com |url={{Allmusic|song|t258253|pure_url=yes|accessdate=30 December 2011}}}}. 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English version as {{citation |chapter=The Art of Noise: Futurist Manifesto 1913 |others=translated by Robert Filliou |title=A Great Bear Pamphlet 18 |location=New York |publisher=Something Else Press |issue=1967}}. 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DuMont Dokumente. |location=Cologne |publisher=DuMont Buchverlag |isbn=3-7701-0493-5}} * {{citation |last=Stockhausen |first=Karlheinz |year=1978 |title=Texte zur Musik, 1970–1977 |volume=4 |others=edited by Christoph von Blumröder. DuMont Dokumente. |location=Cologne |publisher=DuMont Buchverlag |isbn=3-7701-1078-1}} * {{citation |last1=Tal |first1=Josef |last2=and Shlomo Markel |first2= |year=2002 |title=Musica Nova in the Third Millennium |location=Tel-Aviv |publisher=Israel Music Institute |isbn=965-90565-0-8}}. Also published in German, as {{citation |title=Musica Nova im dritten Millenium |location=Tel-Aviv |publisher=Israel Music Institute. |isbn=965-90565-0-8}} * {{citation |last=Toop |first=David |year=2016 |authorlink=David Toop |title=Into the Maelstrom: Music, Improvisation and the Dream of Freedom |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=9781501314513}} * {{citation |last=Tyson |first=Jeff |year=n.d. |title=''"How Movie Sound Works"'' |publisher=Entertainment.howstuffworks.com |url=http://entertainment.howstuffworks.com/movie-sound1.htm |accessdate=28 March 2010 }} * {{citation |last=Ungeheuer |first=Elena |year=1992 |title=Wie die elektronische Musik "erfunden" wurde...: Quellenstudie zu Werner Meyer-Epplers musikalischem Entwurf zwischen 1949 und 1953 |series=Kölner Schriften zur neuen Musik 2. |volume= |location=Mainz and New York |publisher=Schott |isbn=3-7957-1891-0}}. * {{citation |last=Unterberger |first=R |year=2002 |chapter=Progressive rock |others=in V. Bogdanov, C. Woodstra and S. T. Erlewine, eds, |title=All Music Guide to Rock: the Definitive Guide to Rock, Pop, and Soul |edition=3rd |location=Milwaukee, WI |publisher=Backbeat Books |isbn=0-87930-653-X}}. * {{citation |last=Verboven|first=Jos |year=2014 |title=The Music Sequencer: What Is It and What Can It Do?|url=http://brainvoyagermusic.com/sequencer/|website=Electronic Music of Brainvoyager|publisher=[[Brainvoyager]]|accessdate=17 April 2016}} * {{citation |last=Vercoe |first=Barry |year=2000 |authorlink=Barry Vercoe |chapter=Forward |title=The Csound Book: Perspectives in Software Synthesis, Sound Design, Signal Processing, and Programming |others=edited by [[Richard Boulanger]] |pages=xxvii&ndash;xxx |location=Cambridge, Mass. |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=0-262-52261-6 |chapterurl=http://www.csounds.com/vercoe/index.html#HISTORY }}. * {{citation |last=Vine |first=Richard |title=Tadao Kikumoto Invents the Roland TB-303 |newspaper=The Guardian |issue=14 June |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2011/jun/15/tadao-kikumoto-roland |accessdate=23 December 2011 |location=London |date=15 June 2011}} * {{citation |last=Watson |first=Scott |year=2005 |title=A Return to Modernism |journal=Music Education Technology Magazine |issue=February |url=http://metmagazine.com/mag/return_modernism}}. * {{citation |last=Weidenaar |first=Reynold |year=1995 |title=Magic Music from the Telharmonium: The Story of the First Music Synthesizer |location=Metuchen, NJ |publisher=Scarecrow Press, Inc. |isbn=0-8108-2692-5}}. * {{citation |last=Xenakis |first=Iannis |authorlink=Iannis Xenakis |title=Formalized Music: Thought and Mathematics in Composition |edition=revised, expanded |series=Harmonologia Series, No 6|year=1992|ISBN=978-1576470794|location=Stuyvesant, NY |publisher=Pendragon Press}} * {{citation|last=Yabsley|first=Alex|year=2007|title=Back to the 8 Bit: A Study of Electronic Music Counter-Culture|publisher=Gamemusic4all.com |issue=February 3|url=http://www.gamemusic4all.com/backto8bit%204.html|accessdate=5 June 2011}} *{{citation |last=Young |first=Rob |year=2007 |title=Once Upon a Time: In Cairo |journal=[[The Wire (magazine)|The Wire]] |volume=277 |issue=March 2007 |page=24 |url=http://www.thewire.co.uk/issues/277/?show=full|accessdate=2011-12-30}}.<!-- [https://books.google.com/books?id=lvo4AQAAIAAJ The Wire, Volumes 275&ndash;280], 2007, p. 24 (Accessd 2011-06-05) --> * {{citation |last=Zimmer |first=Dave |year=2000 |title=Crosby, Stills and Nash: The Authorized Biography |others=Photography by Henry Diltz |location=New York |publisher=Da Capo Press. |isbn=0-306-80974-5}} * {{citation |last=Zussman |first=John Unger |year=1982 |title=Jazzing It Up at the NCC: Hancock and Apple II Make Music Together |journal=InfoWorld |volume=4 |issue=26 (5 July) |pages=1, 5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MjAEAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA1&dq=patrick%20gleeson%20synthesizer&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q=patrick%20gleeson%20synthesizer&f=false}} {{div col end}} ==Further reading== {{div col|colwidth=40em}} * {{citation |last1=Bogdanov |first1=Vladimir |editor=Chris Woodstra |editor2=Stephen Thomas Erlewine |editor3=John Bush <!-- (editors) --> |year=2001 |title=The All Music Guide to Electronica: The Definitive Guide to Electronic Music |series=AMG Allmusic Series |location=San Francisco |publisher=Backbeat Books |isbn=0-87930-628-9}} * [http://www.eurock.com/Podcasts/EurockLive.html Best of Electronic Music Podcasts]/[http://www.podcast-directory.co.uk/podcastarchive/eurock-live-best-of-electronic-music-242184.html Eurock Live] * [http://www.eurock.com/Display.aspx?Content=ChekalinMusic.aspx A. Patterson Light & Sound by Mikhail Chekalin], [https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/eurock-live!-best-electronic/id259843945 itunes.apple.com Best of Electronic Music] * {{citation |author=[[James Cummins (author)|Cummins, James]] |year=2008 |title=Ambrosia: About a Culture—An Investigation of Electronica Music and Party Culture |location=Toronto, ON |publisher=Clark-Nova Books |isbn=978-0-9784892-1-2}} * Dorschel, Andreas, Gerhard Eckel, and Deniz Peters (eds.) (2012). ''Bodily Expression in Electronic Music: Perspectives on Reclaiming Performativity''. Routledge Research in Music 2. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-89080-9. * {{citation |editor1-last=Heifetz |editor1-first=Robin J. <!-- (ed.) --> |year=1989 |title=On The Wires of Our Nerves: The Art of Electroacoustic Music |location=Cranbury, NJ |publisher=Associated University Presses |isbn=0-8387-5155-5}} * {{citation |last=Kahn |first=Douglas |year=1999 |authorlink=Douglas Kahn |title=Noise, Water, Meat: A History of Sound in the Arts |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=MIT Press |id=New edition 2001, |isbn=0-262-11243-4}} * {{citation |last=Kettlewell |first=Ben |year=2001 |title=Electronic Music Pioneers |location=[N.p.] |publisher=Course Technology, Inc. |isbn=1-931140-17-0}} * {{citation |editor1-last=Licata |editor1-first=Thomas <!-- (ed.) --> |year=2002 |title=Electroacoustic Music: Analytical Perspectives |location=Westport, CT |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=0-313-31420-9}} * {{citation |last=Macan |first=Edward L |year=1997 |title=Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture |location=Oxford and New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-509887-0}}. * {{citation |last=Manning |first=Peter |year=2004 |title=Electronic and Computer Music |edition=Revised and expanded |location=Oxford and New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |id=(cloth) (pbk) |isbn=0-19-514484-8}} * {{citation |last=Prendergast |first=Mark |year=2001 |title=The Ambient Century: From Mahler to Trance: The Evolution of Sound in the Electronic Age |location=New York |others=Forward {{sic}} by Brian Eno. |publisher=Bloomsbury |id=(hardcover eds.) ISBN 1-58234-323-3 (paper) |isbn=9780747542131}}. * {{citation |last=Reynolds |first=Simon |year=1998 |title=Energy Flash: A Journey Through Rave Music and Dance Culture |location=London |publisher=Pan Macmillan |isbn=0-330-35056-0}} (US title, {{citation |title=Generation Ecstasy: Into the World of Techno and Rave Culture |others=Boston: Little, Brown, 1998 ISBN 0-316-74111-6; New York: Routledge, 1999 ISBN 0-415-92373-5}}) * {{citation |last=Schaefer |first=John |year=1987 |title=New Sounds: A Listener's Guide to New Music |location=New York |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=0-06-097081-2}} * {{citation |last=Shanken |first=Edward A. |year=2009 |authorlink=Edward A. Shanken |title=Art and Electronic Media |location=London |publisher=Phaidon |isbn=978-0-7148-4782-5}} * {{citation |editor1-last=Shapiro |editor1-first=Peter <!-- (editor) --> |year=2000 |title=Modulations: a History of Electronic Music: Throbbing Words on Sound |location=New York |publisher=Caipirinha Productions |isbn=1-891024-06-X}} * {{citation |last=Sicko |first=Dan |year=1999 |title=Techno Rebels: The Renegades of Electronic Funk |location=New York |publisher=Billboard Books |isbn=0-8230-8428-0}} * Strange, Allen (1983), ''Electronic Music: Systems, Technics, and Controls'', second ed. Dubuque, Iowa: W.C. Brown Co. ISBN 978-0-697-03602-5. <!-- * United Kingdom. Parliament. [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1994/Ukpga_19940033_en_6.htm#mdiv63 Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, c. 33] context not yet stated, relates to rave culture--> * {{citation |last=Wells |first=Thomas |year=1981 |authorlink=Thomas Wells (composer) |title=The Technique of Electronic Music |publisher=New York: Schirmer Books; London: Collier Macmillan |isbn=978-0-02-872830-8}} {{div col end}} ==External links== {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|wikititle=electronic music}} {{Commons category|Electronic music}} {{Wikiquote|Electronic music}} <!-- ****** Note on adding links: ****** Please add only links relevant to **Electronic Music**, not subgenres. ****** Do not use this space for advertising your site ****** Add your link on the bottom of this list --> <!--======================== {{No more links}} ============================ | PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia | | is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. | | | | Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. | | See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. | | | | If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or | | replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link | | to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) | | and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. | ======================= {{No more links}} =============================--> *[http://www.music.psu.edu/Faculty%20Pages/Ballora/INART55/timeline.html History of Electroacoustic Music – Timeline] *[http://www.doornbusch.net/chronology A chronology of computer and electronic music] *[http://www.120years.net/ '120 Years of Electronic Music' ] History of electronic musical instruments 1880 to present day *[http://www.emf.org/ Electronic Music Foundation] {{Electronic music}} {{Electronica}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Electronic Music}} [[Category:Electronic music| ]]'