In materials science, MXenes are a class of two-dimensional inorganic compounds along with MBenes, that consist of atomically thin layers of transition metal carbides, nitrides, or carbonitrides. MXenes accept a variety of hydrophilic terminations.[1][2] The first MXene was reported in 2011 at Drexel University's College of Engineering.[1]

Structure

edit
 
Scanning electron microscope image of the MXene produced by HF-etching of Ti3AlC2

As-synthesized MXenes prepared via HF etching have an accordion-like morphology, which can be referred to as multi-layer MXene (ML-MXene), or few-layer MXene (FL-MXene) given fewer than five layers. Because the surfaces of MXenes can be terminated by functional groups, the naming convention Mn+1XnTx can be used, where T is a functional group (e.g. O, F, OH, Cl).[2]

Mono transition

edit

MXenes adopt three structures with one metal on the M site, as inherited from the parent MAX phases: M2C, M3C2, and M4C3. They are produced by selectively etching out the A element from a MAX phase or other layered precursor (e.g., Mo2Ga2C), which has the general formula Mn+1AXn, where M is an early transition metal, A is an element from group 13 or 14 of the periodic table, X is C and/or N, and n = 1–4.[3] MAX phases have a layered hexagonal structure with P63/mmc symmetry, where M layers are nearly closed packed and X atoms fill octahedral sites.[2] Therefore, Mn+1Xn layers are interleaved with the A element, which is metallically bonded to the M element.[4][5]

Double transition

edit

Double transition metal MXenes can take two forms, ordered double transition metal MXenes or solid solution MXenes. For ordered double transition metal MXenes, they have the general formulas: M'2M"C2 or M'2M"2C3 where M' and M" are different transition metals. Double transition metal carbides that have been synthesized include Mo2TiC2, Mo2Ti2C3, Cr2TiC2, and Mo4VC4. In some of these MXenes (such as Mo2TiC2, Mo2Ti2C3, and Cr2TiC2), the Mo or Cr atoms are on outer edges of the MXene and these atoms control electrochemical properties of the MXenes.[6]

For solid-solution MXenes, they have the general formulas: (M'2−yM"y)C, (M'3−yM"y)C2, (M'4−yM"y)C3, or (M'5−yM"y)C4, where the metals are randomly distributed throughout the structure in solid solutions leading to continuously tailorable properties.[7]

Divacancy

edit

By designing a parent 3D atomic laminate, (Mo2/3Sc1/3)2AlC, with in-plane chemical ordering, and by selectively etching the Al and Sc atoms, there is evidence for 2D Mo1.33C sheets with ordered metal divacancies.[8]

Synthesis

edit
 
MXenes are produced by selective etching of the "A" element from the MAX phase structure

MXenes are typically synthesized by a top-down selective etching process. This synthetic route is scalable, with no loss or change in properties as the batch size is increased.[9][10] Producing a MXene by etching a MAX phase occurs mainly by using strong etching solutions that contain a fluoride ion (F), such as hydrofluoric acid (HF),[2] ammonium bifluoride (NH4HF2),[11] and a mixture of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and lithium fluoride (LiF).[12] For example, etching of Ti3AlC2 in aqueous HF at room temperature causes the A (Al) atoms to be selectively removed, and the surface of the carbide layers becomes terminated by O, OH, and/or F atoms.[13][14] MXene can also be obtained in Lewis acid molten salts, such as ZnCl2, and a Cl terminal can be realized.[15] The Cl-terminated MXene is structurally stable up to 750 °C.[16] A general Lewis acid molten salt approach was proven viable to etch most of MAX phases members (such as MAX-phase precursors with A elements Si, Zn, and Ga) by some other melts (CdCl2, FeCl2, CoCl2, CuCl2, AgCl, and NiCl2).[17]

The MXene Ti4N3 was the first nitride MXene reported, and is prepared by a different procedure than those used for carbide MXenes. To synthesize Ti4N3, the MAX phase Ti4AlN3 is mixed with a molten eutectic fluoride salt mixture of lithium fluoride, sodium fluoride, and potassium fluoride and treated at elevated temperatures. This procedure etches out Al, yielding multilayered Ti4N3, which can further be delaminated into single and few layers by immersing the MXene in tetrabutylammonium hydroxide, followed by sonication.[18]

MXenes can also be synthesized directly or via CVD processes.[19] Recently, single crystalline monolayer W5N6 has been successfully synthesized by CVD in wafer scale[20][21] which shows promise of MXenes in electronic application in the future.

Since their first discovery, scientists have sought a more effective and efficient synthesis process. In a 2018 report, Peng et al. described a hydrothermal etching technique.[22] In this etching method, the MAX phase is treated in the solution of acid and salt under high pressure and temperature conditions. The method is more effective in producing MXene dots and nano-sheets.[23] Moreover, it is safer since there is no release of HF fumes during the etching process.[22]

Types

edit

2-1 MXenes: Ti2C,[24] V2C,[25] Nb2C,[25] Mo2C [26] Mo2N,[27] Ti2N,[28] (Ti2−yNby)C,[7] (V2−yNby)C,[7] (Ti2−yVy)C,[7] W1.33C,[29] Nb1.33C,[30] Mo1.33C,[31] Mo1.33Y0.67C [31]

3-2 MXenes: Ti3C2 ,[1] Ti3CN,[24] Zr3C2[32] and Hf3C2[33]

4-3 MXenes: Ti4N3,[18] Nb4C3 ,[34] Ta4C3 ,[24] V4C3,[35] (Mo,V)4C3[36]

5-4 MXenes: Mo4VC4[3]

Double transition metal MXenes:

2-1-2 MXenes: Mo2TiC2,[6] Cr2TiC2,[6] Mo2ScC2[37]

2-2-3 MXenes: Mo2Ti2C3[6]

Covalent surface modification

edit

2D transition-metal carbides surfaces can be chemically transformed with a variety of functional groups such as O, NH, S, Cl, Se, Br, and Te surface terminations as well as bare MXenes.[38] The strategy involves installation and removal of the surface groups by performing substitution and elimination reactions in molten inorganic salts.[39] Covalent bonding of organic molecules to MXene surfaces has been demonstrated through reaction with aryl diazonium salts.[40]

Intercalation and delamination

edit

Since MXenes are layered solids and the bonding between the layers is weak, intercalation of the guest molecules in MXenes is possible. Guest molecules include dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), hydrazine, and urea.[2] For example, N2H4 (hydrazine) can be intercalated into Ti3C2(OH)2 with the molecules parallel to the MXene basal planes to form a monolayer. Intercalaction increases the MXene c lattice parameter (crystal structure parameter that is directly proportional to the distance between individual MXene layers), which weakens the bonding between MX layers.[2] Ions, including Li+, Pb2+, and Al3+, can also be intercalated into MXenes, either spontaneously or when a negative potential is applied to a MXene electrode.[41]

Delamination

edit

Ti3C2 MXene produced by HF etching has accordion-like morphology with residual forces that keep MXene layers together preventing separation into individual layers. Although those forces are quite weak, ultrasound treatment results only in very low yields of single-layer flakes. For large scale delamination, DMSO is intercalated into ML-MXene powders under constant stirring to further weaken the interlayer bonding and then delaminated with ultrasound treatment. This results in large scale layer separation and formation of the colloidal solutions of the FL-MXene. These solutions can later be filtered to prepare MXene "paper" (similar to Graphene oxide paper).[42]

MXene clay

edit

For the case of Ti3C2Tx and Ti2CTx, etching with concentrated hydrofluoric acid leads to open, accordion-like morphology with a compact distance between layers (this is common for other MXene compositions as well). To be dispersed in suspension, the material must be pre-intercalated with something like dimethylsulfoxide. However, when etching is conducted with hydrochloric acid and LiF as a fluoride source, morphology is more compact with a larger inter-layer spacing, presumably due to amounts of intercalated water.[12] The material has been found to be 'clay-like': as seen in clay materials (e.g. smectite clays and kaolinite), Ti3C2Tx demonstrates the ability to expand its interlayer distance hydration and can reversibly exchange charge-balancing Group I and Group II cations.[43] Further, when hydrated, the MXene clay becomes pliable and can be molded into desired shapes, becoming a hard solid upon drying. Unlike most clays, however, MXene clay shows high electrical conductivity upon drying and is hydrophilic, and disperses into single layer two-dimensional sheets in water without surfactants. Further, due to these properties, it can be rolled into free-standing, additive-free electrodes for energy storage applications.

Material processing

edit

MXenes can be solution-processed in aqueous or polar organic solvents, such as water, ethanol, dimethyl formamide, propylene carbonate, etc.,[44] enabling various types of deposition via vacuum filtration, spin coating, spray coating, dip coating, and roll casting.[45][46][47] There have been studies conducted on ink-jet printing of additive free Ti3C2Tx inks and inks composed of Ti3C2Tx and proteins.[48][49]

Lateral flake size often plays a role in the observed properties and there are several synthetic routes that produce varying degrees of flake size.[45][50] For example, when HF is used as an etchant, the intercalation and delamination step will require sonication to exfoliate material into single flakes, resulting in flakes that are several hundreds of nanometers in lateral size. This is beneficial for applications such as catalysis and select biomedical and electrochemical applications. However, if larger flakes are warranted, especially for electronic or optical applications, defect-free and large area flakes are necessary. This can be achieved by Minimally Intensive Layer Delamination (MILD) method, where the quantity of LiF to MAX phase is scaled up resulting in flakes that can be delminated in situ when washing to neutral pH.[45]

Post-synthesis processing techniques to tailor the flake size have also been investigated, such as sonication, differential centrifugation, and density gradient centrifugation procedures.[51][52] Post processing methods rely heavily on the as-produced flake size. Using sonication allows for a decrease in flake size from 4.4 μm (as-produced), to an average of 1.0 μm after 15 minutes of bath sonication (100 W, 40 kHz), down to 350 nm after 3 hours of bath sonication. By utilizing probe sonication (8 s ON, 2 s OFF pulse, 250 W), flakes were reduced to an average of 130 nm in lateral size.[51] Differential centrifugation, also known as cascading centrifugation, can be used to select flakes based on lateral size by increasing the centrifuge speed sequentially from low speeds (e.g. 1000 rpm) to high speeds (e.g., 10000 rpm) and collecting the sediment. When this was performed, "large" (800 nm), "medium" (300 nm) and "small" (110 nm) flakes can be obtained.[52] Density gradient centrifugation is also another method for selecting flakes based on lateral size, where a density gradient is employed in the centrifuge tube and flakes move through the centrifuge tube at different rates based on the flake density relative to the medium. In the case of sorting MXenes, a sucrose and water density gradient can be used from 10 to 66 w/v %.[51] Using density gradients allows for more mono-disperse distributions in flake sizes and studies show the flake distribution can be varied from 100 to 10 μm without employing sonication.[51]

Properties

edit

With a high electron density at the Fermi level, MXene monolayers are predicted to be metallic.[1][53][54][55][56] In MAX phases, N(EF) is mostly M 3d orbitals, and the valence states below EF are composed of two sub-bands. One, sub-band A, made of hybridized Ti 3d-Al 3p orbitals, is near EF, and another, sub-band B, −10 to −3 eV below EF which is due to hybridized Ti 3d-C 2p and Ti 3d-Al 3s orbitals. Said differently, sub-band A is the source of Ti-Al bonds, while sub-band B is the source of Ti-C bond. Removing A layers causes the Ti 3d states to be redistributed from missing Ti-Al bonds to delocalized Ti-Ti metallic bond states near the Fermi energy in Ti2, therefore N(EF) is 2.5–4.5 times higher for MXenes than MAX phases.[1] Experimentally, the predicted higher N(EF) for MXenes has not been shown to lead to higher resistivities than the corresponding MAX phases. The energy positions of the O 2p (~6 eV) and the F 2p (~9 eV) bands from the Fermi level of Ti2CTx and Ti3C2Tx both depend on the adsorption sites and the bond lengths to the termination species.[57] Significant changes in the Ti-O/F coordination are observed with increasing temperature in the heat treatment.[58]

Only MXenes without surface terminations are predicted to be magnetic. Cr2C, Cr2N, and Ta3C2 are predicted to be ferromagnetic; Ti3C2 and Ti3N2 are predicted to be anti-ferromagnetic. None of these magnetic properties have yet been demonstrated experimentally.[1]

Optical

edit

Membranes of MXenes, such as Ti3C2 and Ti2C, have dark colors, indicating their strong light absorption in the visible wavelengths. MXenes are promising photo-thermal materials due to their strong visible light absorption.[59][60] More interestingly, it is reported that the optical properties of MXenes such as Ti3C2 and Ti2C in the IR region quite differ from that in the visible wavelengths.[61] For the wavelengths above 1.4 micrometer, these materials show negative permittivity, resulting in a strong metallic response to the IR light. In other words, they are highly reflective to IR lights. From the Kirchhoff's law of radiation, a low IR absorption means a low IR emissivity. The two MXenes materials show IR emissivity as low as 0.1, which are similar to some metals.[61] Such materials that are visible black but IR white are highly desired in many areas, such as camouflage, thermal management, and information encryption.

Corrosion resistance

edit

There is a growing body of the literature that recognises MXenes as high-performance corrosion inhibitors. The corrosion resistance of Ti3C2Tx MXene can be attributed to the synergy of good dispersibility, barrier effect and corrosion inhibitor release.[62]

Biological properties

edit

Compared to graphene oxide, which has been widely reported as an antibacterial agent, Ti2C MXene shows a lack of antibacterial properties.[63] However, MXene of Ti3C2 MXene shows a higher antibacterial efficiency toward both Gram-negative E. coli and Gram-positive B. subtilis.[64] Colony forming unit and regrowth curves showed that more than 98% of both bacterial cells lost viability at 200 μg/mL Ti3C2 colloidal solution within 4 h of exposure.[64] Damage to the cell membrane was observed, which resulted in release of cytoplasmic materials from the bacterial cells and cell death.[64] The principal in vitro studies of cytotoxicity of 2D sheets of MXenes showed promise for applications in bioscience and biotechnology.[65] Presented studies of anticancer activity of the Ti3C2 MXene was determined on two normal (MRC-5 and HaCaT) and two cancerous (A549 and A375) cell lines. The cytotoxicity results indicated that the observed toxic effects were higher against cancerous cells compared to normal ones.[65] The mechanisms of potential toxicity were also elucidated. It was shown that Ti3C2 MXene may affect the occurrence of oxidative stress and, in consequence, the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS).[65] Further studies on Ti3C2 MXene revealed potential of MXenes as a novel ceramic photothermal agent used for cancer therapy.[59] In neuronal biocompatibility studies, neurons cultured on Ti3C2 are as viable as those in control cultures, and they can adhere, grow axonal processes, and form functional networks.[66]

Water purification

edit

Recently, Ti3C2 MXenes have been used as flowing electrodes in a flow-electrode capacitive deionization cell for the removal of ammonia from simulated wastewater. MXene FE-CDI demonstrated a 100x improvement in ion absorption capacity at 10x greater energy efficiency as compared to activated carbon flowing electrodes.[67] One-micron-thick Ti3C2 MXene membranes demonstrated ultrafast water flux (approximately 38 L/(Bar·h·m2)) and differential sieving of salts depending on both the hydration radius and charge of the ions.[68] Cations larger than the interlayer spacing of MXene do not permeate through Ti3C2 membranes.[68] As for smaller cations, the ones with a larger charge permeate an order of magnitude slower than single-charged cations.[68]

Potential applications

edit

As conductive layered materials with tunable surface terminations, MXenes have been shown to be promising for energy storage applications (Li-ion batteries, supercapacitors, and energy storage components),[69][70] composites, photocatalysis,[71] water purification,[68] gas sensors,[72][73] transparent conducting electrodes,[46] neural electrodes,[66] as a metamaterial,[74] SERS substrate,[75] photonic diode,[76] electrochromic device,[47] and triboelectric nanogenerator (TENGs).[77]

Lithium-ion batteries

edit

MXenes have been investigated experimentally in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) (e.g. V2CTx ,[25] Nb2CTx ,[25] Ti2CTx ,[78] and Ti3C2Tx[42]). V2CTx has demonstrated the highest reversible charge storage capacity among MXenes in multi-layer form (280 mAhg−1 at 1C rate and 125 mAhg−1 at 10C rate). Multi-layer Nb2CTx showed a stable, reversible capacity of 170 mAhg−1 at 1C rate and 110 mAhg−1 at a 10C rate. Although Ti3C2Tx shows the lowest capacity among the four MXenes in multi-layer form, it can be delaminated via sonication of the multi-layer powder. By virtue of higher electrochemically active and accessible surface area, delaminated Ti3C2Tx paper demonstrates a reversible capacity of 410 mAhg−1 at 1C and 110 mAhg−1 at 36C rate. As a general trend, M2X MXenes can be expected to have greater capacity than their M3X2 or M4X3 counterparts at the same applied current, since M2X MXenes have the fewest atomic layers per sheet.

In addition to high power capabilities, each MXene has a different active voltage window, which could allow their use as battery cathodes/anodes. Moreover, the experimentally measured capacity for Ti3C2Tx paper is higher than predicted from computer simulations, indicating that further investigation is required to ascertain the charge storage mechanism.[79]

Sodium-ion batteries

edit

MXenes exhibit promising performances for sodium-ion batteries. Na+ should diffuse rapidly on MXene surfaces, which is favorable for fast charging/discharging.[80][81] Two layers of Na+ can be intercalated in between MXene layers.[82][83] As a typical example, multilayered Ti2CTx MXene as a negative electrode material showed a capacity of 175 mA h g−1 and good rate capability.[84] It is possible to tune the Na-ion insertion potentials of MXenes by changing the transition metal and surface functional groups.[80][41] V2CTx MXene has been successfully applied as a cathode material.[85] Porous MXene-based paper electrodes have been reported to exhibit high volumetric capacities and stable cycling performance, demonstrating promise for devices where size matters.[86]

Supercapacitors

edit

MXenes are under study to improve supercapacitor energy density. Improvements come from increased charge storage density, which can be increased in several ways. Increasing the available surface area for potential redox reactions through increasing interlayer spacing can accommodate more ions, but reduces electrode density. The synthesis route controls the surface chemistry and plays a large role in determining the intercalation reaction rate and the charge storage density. For example, molten salt prepared Ti3C2Tx MXenes, with chlorine surface groups, show a capacity of 142 mAh g−1 at 13C rate and 75 mAh g−1 at 128C rate, driven by full desolvation of Li+, allowing for increased charge storage density in the electrode.[87] In comparison, Ti3C2Tx MXenes prepared through HF etching show a capacity of 107.2 mAh g−1 at 1C rate.[88]

Composite Ti3C2Tx-based electrodes, including Ti3C2Tx/polymer (e.g. PPy, Polyaniline),[89][90] Ti3C2Tx /TiO2,[91] and Ti3C2Tx/Fe2O3 have been explored. Notably, Ti3C2Tx hydrogel electrodes delivered a high volumetric capacitance of up to 1500 F/cm3.[92]

Supercapacitor electrodes based on Ti3C2Tx MXene paper in aqueous solutions demonstrate excellent cyclability and the ability to store 300-400 F/cm3, which translates to three times as much energy as for activated carbon and graphene-based capacitors.[93] Ti3C2 MXene clay showed a volumetric capacitance of 900 F/cm3, a higher capacitance per unit of volume than most other materials, without losing any of its capacitance through more than 10,000 charge/discharge cycles.[12]

In Ti3C2Tx MXene electrodes for lithium-ion electrolytes, the choice of solvent greatly affected the ion transport and intercalation kinetics. In a propylene carbonate (PC) solvent, efficient desolvation of lithium ions during intercalation led to increased volumetric charge storage, with negligible increase in electrode volume. The improved kinetics garnered through solvent choice led to improved charge storage density when comparing the PC system to acetonitrile or dimethyl sulfoxide by a factor greater than 2.[94]

Composites

edit

FL-Ti3C2 (the most studied MXene) nanosheets can mix intimately with polymers such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), forming alternating MXene-PVA layered structures. The electrical conductivities of the composites can be controlled from 4×10−4 to 220 S/cm (MXene weight content from 40% to 90%). The composites have tensile strength up to 400% stronger than pure MXene films and show better capacitance up to 500 F/cm3.[95] By using electrostatic self-assembly, flexible and conductive MXene/graphene supercapacitor electrodes are produced. The free-standing MXene/graphene electrode displays a volumetric capacitance of 1040 F/cm3, an impressive rate capability with 61% capacitance retention and in long cycle life.[96] A method of alternative filtration for forming MXene-carbon nanomaterials composite films is also devised. These composites show better rate performance at high scan rates in supercapacitors.[97] The insertion of polymers or carbon nanomaterials between MXene layers enables electrolyte ions to diffuse more easily through the MXenes, which is the key for their applications in flexible energy storage devices. The mechanical properties of epoxy/MXenes is comparable with graphene and CNTs, the tensile strength and modulus can increase up to 67% and 23% respectively.[98] MXene/C-dot nanocomposites are reported to exhibit synergistic optical absorption and thermal properties of MXene and C-dot nanomaterials.[99]

Sensors

edit

MXenes-based sensors have been studied for various applications, including gas,[100] and biological sensing.[101] One of the novel sensors where MXenes were applied is a SERS.[75][102] It was reported that Ti3C2Tx MXenes substrates are applicable in sensing salicylic acid,[102] a metabolite of acetylsalicylic acid (also known as Aspirin), organic dye molecules[75] and biomolecules.[103]

Another promising area for applications of MXenes is gas sensing. MXenes-based gas sensors have shown high sensitivity and selectivity towards various gases, including ammonia, alcohols, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide.[100] These sensors can be used for environmental monitoring, industrial safety, and healthcare applications.

Porous materials

edit

Porous MXenes (Ti3C2, Nb2C and V2C) have been produced via a facile chemical etching method at room temperature.[104] Porous Ti3C2 has a larger specific surface area and more open structure, and can be filtered as flexible films with, or without, the addition of carbon nanotubes (CNTs).[104] The as-fabricated p-Ti3C2/CNT films showed significantly improved lithium ion storage capabilities, with a capacity as high as 1250 mA·h·g−1 at 0.1 C, excellent cycling stability, and good rate performance.[104]

Antennas

edit

Scientists at Drexel University in the US have created spray on antennas that perform as well as current antennas found in phones, routers and other gadgets by painting MXene's onto everyday objects, widening the scope of the Internet of things considerably.[105][106]

Optoelectronic devices

edit

MXene SERS substrates have been manufactured by spray-coating and were used to detect several common dyes, with calculated enhancement factors reaching ~106. Titanium carbide MXene demonstrates SERS effect in aqueous colloidal solutions, suggesting the potential for biomedical or environmental applications, where MXene can selectively enhance positively charged molecules.[75] Transparent conducting electrodes have been fabricated with titanium carbide MXene showing the ability to transmit approximately 97% of visible light per nanometer thickness. The performance of MXene transparent conducting electrodes depends on the MXene composition as well as synthesis and processing parameters.[107]

Superconductivity

edit

Nb2C MXenes exhibit surface-group-dependent superconductivity.[38]

References

edit
  1. ^ a b c d e f Naguib M, Kurtoglu M, Presser V, Lu J, Niu J, Heon M, et al. (October 2011). "Two-dimensional nanocrystals produced by exfoliation of Ti3 AlC2". Advanced Materials. 23 (37): 4248–4253. Bibcode:2011AdM....23.4248N. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.497.9340. doi:10.1002/adma.201102306. PMID 21861270. S2CID 6873357.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Naguib M, Mochalin VN, Barsoum MW, Gogotsi Y (February 2014). "25th anniversary article: MXenes: a new family of two-dimensional materials". Advanced Materials. 26 (7): 992–1005. Bibcode:2014AdM....26..992N. doi:10.1002/adma.201304138. PMID 24357390. S2CID 32458694.
  3. ^ a b Deysher G, Shuck CE, Hantanasirisakul K, Frey NC, Foucher AC, Maleski K, et al. (January 2020). "Synthesis of Mo4VAlC4 MAX Phase and Two-Dimensional Mo4VC4 MXene with Five Atomic Layers of Transition Metals". ACS Nano. 14 (1): 204–217. doi:10.1021/acsnano.9b07708. OSTI 1774171. PMID 31804797. S2CID 208768008.
  4. ^ Barsoum MW (2000). "The Mn+1AXn Phases: a New Class of Solids; Thermodynamically Stable Nanolaminates" (PDF). Prog. Solid State Chem. 28 (1–4): 201–281. doi:10.1016/S0079-6786(00)00006-6.
  5. ^ Sun Z, Music D, Ahuja R, Li S, Schneider JM (2004). "Bonding and classification of nanolayered ternaray carbides". Physical Review B. 70 (9): 092102. Bibcode:2004PhRvB..70i2102S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.70.092102. S2CID 117738466.
  6. ^ a b c d Anasori B, Xie Y, Beidaghi M, Lu J, Hosler BC, Hultman L, et al. (October 2015). "Two-Dimensional, Ordered, Double Transition Metals Carbides (MXenes)". ACS Nano. 9 (10): 9507–9516. doi:10.1021/acsnano.5b03591. PMID 26208121.
  7. ^ a b c d Han M, Maleski K, Shuck CE, Yang Y, Glazar JT, Foucher AC, et al. (November 2020). "Tailoring Electronic and Optical Properties of MXenes through Forming Solid Solutions". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 142 (45): 19110–19118. doi:10.1021/jacs.0c07395. OSTI 1774152. PMID 33108178. S2CID 225098811.
  8. ^ Tao Q, Dahlqvist M, Lu J, Kota S, Meshkian R, Halim J, et al. (April 2017). "Two-dimensional Mo1.33C MXene with divacancy ordering prepared from parent 3D laminate with in-plane chemical ordering". Nature Communications. 8 (1): 14949. Bibcode:2017NatCo...814949T. doi:10.1038/ncomms14949. PMC 5413966. PMID 28440271.
  9. ^ Shuck CE, Sarycheva A, Anayee M, Levitt A, Zhu Y, Uzun S, et al. (3 February 2020). "Scalable Synthesis of Ti3C2Tx MXene". Advanced Engineering Materials. 22 (3): 1901241. doi:10.1002/adem.201901241. S2CID 213119508.
  10. ^ "Etching Reactor for MXene synthesis (acidic etching of MAX-phase powders), productivity up to 100 g per batch". Carbon Ukraine. August 18, 2021. Retrieved August 18, 2021.
  11. ^ Halim J, Lukatskaya MR, Cook KM, Lu J, Smith CR, Näslund LA, et al. (April 2014). "Transparent Conductive Two-Dimensional Titanium Carbide Epitaxial Thin Films". Chemistry of Materials. 26 (7): 2374–2381. doi:10.1021/cm500641a. PMC 3982936. PMID 24741204.
  12. ^ a b c Ghidiu M, Lukatskaya MR, Zhao MQ, Gogotsi Y, Barsoum MW (December 2014). "Conductive two-dimensional titanium carbide 'clay' with high volumetric capacitance". Nature. 516 (7529): 78–81. Bibcode:2014Natur.516...78G. doi:10.1038/nature13970. OSTI 1286827. PMID 25470044. S2CID 4461911.
  13. ^ Halim J, Cook KM, Naguib M, Eklund P, Gogotsi Y, Rosen J, Barsoum MW (2016). "X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy of select multi-layered transition metal carbides (MXenes)". Applied Surface Science. 362: 406–417. Bibcode:2016ApSS..362..406H. doi:10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.11.089.
  14. ^ Harris KJ (2015). "Direct Measurement of Surface Termination Groups and Their Connectivity in the 2D MXene V2CTx Using NMR Spectroscopy". Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 119 (24): 13713–13720. doi:10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b03038.
  15. ^ Li M, Lu J, Luo K, Li Y, Chang K, Chen K, et al. (March 2019). "Element Replacement Approach by Reaction with Lewis Acidic Molten Salts to Synthesize Nanolaminated MAX Phases and MXenes". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 141 (11): 4730–4737. arXiv:1901.05120. doi:10.1021/jacs.9b00574. PMID 30821963. S2CID 73507099.
  16. ^ Persson I, Lind H, Li M, Li Y, Chen K, Zhou J, et al. (2019). "Tin+1Cn MXene with fully saturated and thermally stable Cl terminations". arXiv:1901.05212v1 [cond-mat.mtrl-sci].
  17. ^ Li Y, Shao H, Lin Z, Lu J, Liu L, Duployer B, et al. (August 2020). "A general Lewis acidic etching route for preparing MXenes with enhanced electrochemical performance in non-aqueous electrolyte". Nature Materials. 19 (8): 894–899. arXiv:1909.13236. Bibcode:2020NatMa..19..894L. doi:10.1038/s41563-020-0657-0. PMID 32284597. S2CID 203594112.
  18. ^ a b Urbankowski P, Anasori B, Makaryan T, Er D, Kota S, Walsh PL, et al. (June 2016). "Synthesis of two-dimensional titanium nitride Ti4N3 (MXene)". Nanoscale. 8 (22): 11385–11391. Bibcode:2016Nanos...811385U. doi:10.1039/C6NR02253G. PMID 27211286. S2CID 206040336.
  19. ^ Wang, Di; Zhou, Chenkun; Filatov, Alexander S.; Cho, Wooje; Lagunas, Francisco; Wang, Mingzhan; Vaikuntanathan, Suriyanarayanan; Liu, Chong; Klie, Robert F.; Talapin, Dmitri V. (March 24, 2023). "Direct synthesis and chemical vapor deposition of 2D carbide and nitride MXenes". Science. 379 (6638): 1242–1247. arXiv:2212.08922. Bibcode:2023Sci...379.1242W. doi:10.1126/science.add9204. PMID 36952427. S2CID 254854326.
  20. ^ Chin, Hao-Ting; Wang, Deng-Chi; Gulo, Desman Perdamaian; Yao, Yu-Chi; Yeh, Hao-Chen; Muthu, Jeyavelan; Chen, Ding-Rui; Kao, Tzu-Chun; Kalbáč, Martin; Lin, Ping-Hui; Cheng, Cheng-Maw; Hofmann, Mario; Liang, Chi-Te; Liu, Hsiang-Lin; Chuang, Feng-Chuan (2024-01-10). "Tungsten Nitride (W 5 N 6 ): An Ultraresilient 2D Semimetal". Nano Letters. 24 (1): 67–73. Bibcode:2024NanoL..24...67C. doi:10.1021/acs.nanolett.3c03243. ISSN 1530-6984. PMID 38149785.
  21. ^ Chin, Hao-Ting; Wang, Deng-Chi; Wang, Hao; Muthu, Jeyavelan; Khurshid, Farheen; Chen, Ding-Rui; Hofmann, Mario; Chuang, Feng-Chuan; Hsieh, Ya-Ping (2024-01-10). "Confined VLS Growth of Single-Layer 2D Tungsten Nitrides". ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces. 16 (1): 1705–1711. doi:10.1021/acsami.3c13286. ISSN 1944-8244. PMID 38145463.
  22. ^ a b Peng, Chao; Wei, Ping; Chen, Xin; Zhang, Yongli; Zhu, Feng; Cao, Yonghai; Wang, Hongjuan; Yu, Hao; Peng, Feng (2018-10-15). "A hydrothermal etching route to synthesis of 2D MXene (Ti3C2, Nb2C): Enhanced exfoliation and improved adsorption performance". Ceramics International. 44 (15): 18886–18893. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.07.124. ISSN 0272-8842.
  23. ^ Han, Fei; Luo, Shaojuan; Xie, Luoyuan; Zhu, Jiajie; Wei, Wei; Chen, Xian; Liu, Fuwei; Chen, Wei; Zhao, Jinlai; Dong, Lei; Yu, Kuai; Zeng, Xierong; Rao, Feng; Wang, Lei; Huang, Yang (2019-02-27). "Boosting the Yield of MXene 2D Sheets via a Facile Hydrothermal-Assisted Intercalation". ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces. 11 (8): 8443–8452. doi:10.1021/acsami.8b22339. ISSN 1944-8244. PMID 30697996.
  24. ^ a b c Naguib M, Mashtalir O, Carle J, Presser V, Lu J, Hultman L, et al. (February 2012). "Two-dimensional transition metal carbides". ACS Nano. 6 (2): 1322–1331. doi:10.1021/nn204153h. PMID 22279971. S2CID 27114444.
  25. ^ a b c d Naguib M, Halim J, Lu J, Cook KM, Hultman L, Gogotsi Y, Barsoum MW (October 2013). "New two-dimensional niobium and vanadium carbides as promising materials for Li-ion batteries". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 135 (43): 15966–15969. doi:10.1021/ja405735d. PMID 24144164.
  26. ^ Xu C, Wang L, Liu Z, Chen L, Guo J, Kang N, Ma XL, Cheng HM, Ren W (November 2015). "Synthesis of two-dimensional molybdenum carbide from the gallium based atomic laminate Mo2Ga2C". Scripta Materialia. 108: 147–150. doi:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2015.07.003.
  27. ^ Urbankowski P, Anasori B, Hantanasirisakul K, Yang L, Zhang L, Haines B, et al. (November 2017). "2D molybdenum and vanadium nitrides synthesized by ammoniation of 2D transition metal carbides (MXenes)". Nanoscale. 9 (45): 17722–17730. doi:10.1039/C7NR06721F. OSTI 1433989. PMID 29134998.
  28. ^ Soundiraraju B, George BK (September 2017). "Two-Dimensional Titanium Nitride (Ti2N) MXene: Synthesis, Characterization, and Potential Application as Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Substrate". ACS Nano. 11 (9): 8892–8900. doi:10.1021/acsnano.7b03129. PMID 28846394.
  29. ^ Meshkian R, Dahlqvist M, Lu J, Wickman B, Halim J, Thörnberg J, et al. (May 2018). "W-Based Atomic Laminates and Their 2D Derivative W1.33 C MXene with Vacancy Ordering". Advanced Materials. 30 (21): e1706409. Bibcode:2018AdM....3006409M. doi:10.1002/adma.201706409. PMID 29633399. S2CID 4749866.
  30. ^ Halim J, Palisaitis J, Lu J, Thörnberg J, Moon EJ, Precner M, et al. (2018). "Synthesis of Two-Dimensional Nb1.33C (MXene) with Randomly Distributed Vacancies by Etching of the Quaternary Solid Solution (Nb1.33Sc0.67)AlC MAX Phase". ACS Applied Nano Materials. 1 (6): 2455–2460. doi:10.1021/acsanm.8b00332. S2CID 52217491.
  31. ^ a b Persson I, El Ghazaly A, Tao Q, Halim J, Kota S, Darakchieva V, et al. (April 2018). "Tailoring Structure, Composition, and Energy Storage Properties of MXenes from Selective Etching of In-Plane, Chemically Ordered MAX Phases". Small. 14 (17): e1703676. doi:10.1002/smll.201703676. PMID 29611285.
  32. ^ Zhou J (2016). "A Two-Dimensional Zirconium Carbide by Selective Etching of Al3C3 from Nanolaminated Zr3Al3C5". Angewandte Chemie. 128 (16): 5092–5097. Bibcode:2016AngCh.128.5092Z. doi:10.1002/ange.201510432.
  33. ^ Zhou J, Zha X, Zhou X, Chen F, Gao G, Wang S, et al. (April 2017). "Synthesis and Electrochemical Properties of Two-Dimensional Hafnium Carbide". ACS Nano. 11 (4): 3841–3850. doi:10.1021/acsnano.7b00030. PMID 28375599.
  34. ^ Ghidiu M, Naguib M, Shi C, Mashtalir O, Pan LM, Zhang B, et al. (August 2014). "Synthesis and characterization of two-dimensional Nb4C3 (MXene)". Chemical Communications. 50 (67): 9517–9520. doi:10.1039/C4CC03366C. PMID 25010704.
  35. ^ Tran MH, Schäfer T, Shahraei A, Dürrschnabel M, Molina-Luna L, Kramm UI, Birkel CS (2018). "Adding a New Member to the MXene Family: Synthesis, Structure, and Electrocatalytic Activity for the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction of V4C3Tx". ACS Applied Energy Materials. 1 (8): 3908–3914. doi:10.1021/acsaem.8b00652. S2CID 105347986.
  36. ^ Pinto D, Anasori B, Avireddy H, Shuck CE, Hantanasirisakul K, Deysher G, et al. (2020). "Synthesis and Electrochemical Properties of 2D Molybdenum Vanadium Carbides – Solid Solution MXenes". Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 8 (18): 8957–8968. doi:10.1039/D0TA01798A. S2CID 218778531.
  37. ^ Meshkian R, Tao Q, Dahlqvist M, Lu J, Hultman L, Rosen J (2017). "Theoretical stability and materials synthesis of a chemically ordered MAX phase, Mo2ScAlC2, and its two-dimensional derivate Mo2ScC2 MXene". Acta Materialia. 125: 476–480. Bibcode:2017AcMat.125..476M. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2016.12.008. S2CID 99863958.
  38. ^ a b Kamysbayev V, Filatov AS, Hu H, Rui X, Lagunas F, Wang D, et al. (August 2020). "Covalent surface modifications and superconductivity of two-dimensional metal carbide MXenes". Science. 369 (6506): 979–983. Bibcode:2020Sci...369..979K. doi:10.1126/science.aba8311. PMID 32616671. S2CID 220327998.
  39. ^ "A new strategy to synthesize 2-D inorganic materials used in capacitors, batteries, and composites". phys.org. Retrieved 2020-07-15.
  40. ^ Wang H, Zhang J, Wu Y, Huang H, Li G, Zhang X, Wang Z (October 2016). "Surface modified MXene Ti3C2 multilayers by aryl diazonium salts leading to large-scale delamination". Applied Surface Science. 384: 287–293. Bibcode:2016ApSS..384..287W. doi:10.1016/j.apsusc.2016.05.060.
  41. ^ a b Eames C, Islam MS (November 2014). "Ion intercalation into two-dimensional transition-metal carbides: global screening for new high-capacity battery materials". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 136 (46): 16270–16276. doi:10.1021/ja508154e. PMID 25310601.
  42. ^ a b Mashtalir O, Naguib M, Mochalin VN, Dall'Agnese Y, Heon M, Barsoum MW, Gogotsi Y (2013). "Intercalation and delamination of layered carbides and carbonitrides". Nature Communications. 4: 1716. Bibcode:2013NatCo...4.1716M. doi:10.1038/ncomms2664. PMID 23591883.
  43. ^ Ghidu M (2016). "Ion-Exchange and Cation Solvation Reactions in Ti3C2 MXene". Chemistry of Materials. 28 (10): 3507–3514. doi:10.1021/acs.chemmater.6b01275.
  44. ^ Maleski K, Mochalin VN, Gogotsi Y (2017). "Dispersions of Two-Dimensional Titanium Carbide MXene in Organic Solvents". Chemistry of Materials. 29 (4): 1632–1640. doi:10.1021/acs.chemmater.6b04830. S2CID 99211958.
  45. ^ a b c Alhabeb M, Maleski K, Anasori B, Lelyukh P, Clark L, Sin S, Gogotsi Y (2017). "Guidelines for Synthesis and Processing of Two-Dimensional Titanium Carbide (Ti3C2Tx MXene)". Chemistry of Materials. 29 (18): 7633–7644. doi:10.1021/acs.chemmater.7b02847. OSTI 1399240. S2CID 96438231.
  46. ^ a b Dillon AD, Ghidiu MJ, Krick AL, Griggs J, May SJ, Gogotsi Y, Barsoum MW, Fafarman AT (2016). "Highly Conductive Optical Quality Solution-Processed Films of 2D Titanium Carbide". Advanced Functional Materials. 26 (23): 4162–4168. doi:10.1002/adfm.201600357. S2CID 100835117.
  47. ^ a b Salles P, Pinto D, Hantanasirisakul K, Maleski K, Shuck CE, Gogotsi Y (2019). "Electrochromic Effect in Titanium Carbide MXene Thin Films Produced by Dip-Coating". Advanced Functional Materials. 29 (17): 1809223. doi:10.1002/adfm.201809223. S2CID 104467139.
  48. ^ Zhang CJ, McKeon L, Kremer MP, Park SH, Ronan O, Seral-Ascaso A, et al. (April 2019). "Additive-free MXene inks and direct printing of micro-supercapacitors". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 1795. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.1795Z. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-09398-1. PMC 6470171. PMID 30996224.
  49. ^ Vural M, Pena-Francesch A, Bars-Pomes J, Jung H, Gudapati H, Hatter CB, et al. (2018). "Inkjet Printing of Self-Assembled 2D Titanium Carbide and Protein Electrodes for Stimuli-Responsive Electromagnetic Shielding". Advanced Functional Materials. 28 (32): 1801972. doi:10.1002/adfm.201801972.
  50. ^ Orrill M, LeBlanc S (2016). "Effect of Synthesis on Quality, Electronic Properties and Environmental Stability of Individual Monolayer Ti3C2 MXene Flakes". Advanced Electronic Materials. 2 (12): 1600255. doi:10.1002/aelm.201600255. OSTI 1337030. S2CID 52239785.
  51. ^ a b c d Maleski K, Ren CE, Zhao MQ, Anasori B, Gogotsi Y (July 2018). "Size-Dependent Physical and Electrochemical Properties of Two-Dimensional MXene Flakes". ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces. 10 (29): 24491–24498. doi:10.1021/acsami.8b04662. PMID 29956920. S2CID 206484342.
  52. ^ a b Zhang CJ, Pinilla S, McEvoy N, Cullen CP, Anasori B, Long E, Park SH (2017). "Oxidation Stability of Colloidal Two-Dimensional Titanium Carbides (MXenes)". Chemistry of Materials. 29 (11): 4848–4856. doi:10.1021/acs.chemmater.7b00745.
  53. ^ Enyashin AN, Ivanovskii AL (2013). "Structural and Electronic Properties and Stability of MXenes Ti2C and Ti3C2 Functionalized by Methoxy Groups". The Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 117 (26): 13637–13643. arXiv:1304.1670. doi:10.1021/jp401820b. S2CID 102267772.
  54. ^ Tang Q, Zhou Z, Shen P (October 2012). "Are MXenes promising anode materials for Li ion batteries? Computational studies on electronic properties and Li storage capability of Ti3C2 and Ti3C2X2 (X = F, OH) monolayer". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 134 (40): 16909–16916. doi:10.1021/ja308463r. PMID 22989058.
  55. ^ Khazaei M, Arai M, Sasaki T, Chung CY, Venkataramanan NS, Estili M, Sakka Y, Kawazoe Y (2013). "Novel Electronic and Magnetic Properties of Two-Dimensional Transition Metal Carbides and Nitrides". Adv. Funct. Mater. 23 (17): 2185–2192. doi:10.1002/adfm.201202502. S2CID 98277691.
  56. ^ Xie Y, Kent PR (2013). "Hybrid density functional study of structural and electronic properties of functionalized Tin+1Xn (X=C, N) monolayers". Phys. Rev. B. 87 (23): 235441. arXiv:1306.6936. Bibcode:2013PhRvB..87w5441X. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.87.235441. S2CID 119180429.
  57. ^ Magnuson M, Halim J, Näslund LÅ (2018). "Chemical Bonding in Carbide MXene Nanosheets". J. Elec. Spec. 224: 27–32. arXiv:1803.07502. Bibcode:2018JESRP.224...27M. doi:10.1016/j.elspec.2017.09.006. S2CID 4955258.
  58. ^ Magnuson M, Näslund LÅ (2020). "Local chemical bonding and structural properties in Ti3AlC2 MAX phase and Ti3C2Tx MXene probed by Ti 1s x-ray absorption spectroscopy". Physical Review Research. 2 (3): 033516–033526. arXiv:2010.00293. Bibcode:2020PhRvR...2c3516M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevResearch.2.033516. S2CID 4955258.
  59. ^ a b Lin H, Wang X, Yu L, Chen Y, Shi J (January 2017). "Two-Dimensional Ultrathin MXene Ceramic Nanosheets for Photothermal Conversion". Nano Letters. 17 (1): 384–391. Bibcode:2017NanoL..17..384L. doi:10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b04339. PMID 28026960.
  60. ^ Li R, Zhang L, Shi L, Wang P (April 2017). "MXene Ti3C2: An Effective 2D Light-to-Heat Conversion Material". ACS Nano. 11 (4): 3752–3759. doi:10.1021/acsnano.6b08415. PMID 28339184. S2CID 206707857.
  61. ^ a b Li Y, Xiong C, Huang H, Peng X, Mei D, Li M, et al. (October 2021). "2D Ti3 C2 Tx MXenes: Visible Black but Infrared White Materials". Advanced Materials. 33 (41): e2103054. arXiv:2105.08247. Bibcode:2021AdM....3303054L. doi:10.1002/adma.202103054. PMID 34463370. S2CID 239671067.
  62. ^ Saharudin MS, Che Nasir NA, Hasbi S (2022). "Tensile and Corrosion Resistance Studies of MXenes/Nanocomposites: A Review". In Ismail A, Dahalan WH, Öchsner A (eds.). Design in Maritime Engineering. Advanced Structured Materials. Vol. 167. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 189–198. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-89988-2_14. ISBN 978-3-030-89988-2. S2CID 246893173.
  63. ^ Jastrzębska AM, Karwowska E, Wojciechowski T, Ziemkowska W, Rozmysłowska A, Chlubny L, Olszyna A (2018). "The Atomic Structure of Ti2C/sub> and Ti3C2 MXenes is Responsible for Their Antibacterial Activity Toward E. coli Bacteria". J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 28 (3): 1272–1277. doi:10.1007/s11665-018-3223-z. S2CID 103601558.
  64. ^ a b c Rasool K, Helal M, Ali A, Ren CE, Gogotsi Y, Mahmoud KA (March 2016). "Antibacterial Activity of Ti₃C₂Tx MXene". ACS Nano. 10 (3): 3674–3684. doi:10.1021/acsnano.6b00181. PMID 26909865.
  65. ^ a b c Jastrzębska AM, Szuplewska A, Wojciechowski T, Chudy M, Ziemkowska W, Chlubny L, et al. (October 2017). "In vitro studies on cytotoxicity of delaminated Ti3C2 MXene". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 339: 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.06.004. PMID 28601597.
  66. ^ a b Driscoll N, Richardson AG, Maleski K, Anasori B, Adewole O, Lelyukh P, et al. (October 2018). "Two-Dimensional Ti3C2 MXene for High-Resolution Neural Interfaces". ACS Nano. 12 (10): 10419–10429. doi:10.1021/acsnano.8b06014. PMC 6200593. PMID 30207690.
  67. ^ Naqsh E Mansoor; Luis A Diaz; Christopher E Shuck; Yury Gogotsi; Tedd E Lister; David Estrada (July 2022). "Removal and recovery of ammonia from simulated wastewater using Ti3C2Tx MXene in flow electrode capacitive deionization". Nature Partner Journal Clean Water. 5 (1): 26. arXiv:2007.02853. Bibcode:2022npjCW...5...26M. doi:10.1038/s41545-022-00164-3.
  68. ^ a b c d Ren CE, Hatzell KB, Alhabeb M, Ling Z, Mahmoud KA, Gogotsi Y (October 2015). "Charge- and Size-Selective Ion Sieving Through Ti3C2Tx MXene Membranes". The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters. 6 (20): 4026–4031. doi:10.1021/acs.jpclett.5b01895. PMID 26722772.
  69. ^ Li X, Huang Z, Shuck CE, Liang G, Gogotsi Y, Zhi C (20 April 2022). "MXene chemistry, electrochemistry and energy storage applications". Nature Reviews Chemistry. 6 (6): 389–404. doi:10.1038/s41570-022-00384-8. PMID 37117426. S2CID 248245045.
  70. ^ Ostadhossein A, Guo J, Simeski F, Ihme M (2019). "Functionalization of 2D materials for enhancing OER/ORR catalytic activity in Li–oxygen batteries". Communications Chemistry. 2. doi:10.1038/s42004-019-0196-2.
  71. ^ Mashtalir O, Cook KM, Mochalin VN, Crowe M, Barsoum MW, Gogotsi Y (2014). "Dye adsorption and decomposition on two-dimensional titanium carbide in aqueous media". J. Mater. Chem. A. 2 (35): 14334–14338. doi:10.1039/C4TA02638A. S2CID 98651166.
  72. ^ Chen J, Chen K, Tong D, Huang Y, Zhang J, Xue J, et al. (2014). "CO2 and temperature dual responsive "Smart" MXene phases". Chemical Communications. 51 (2): 314–317. doi:10.1039/C4CC07220K. PMID 25406830.
  73. ^ Khakbaz P, Moshayedi M, Hajian S, Soleimani M, Narakathu BB, Bazuin BJ, Pourfath M, Atashbar MZ (2019). "Titanium Carbide MXene as NH3 Sensor: Realistic First-Principles Study". The Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 123 (49): 29794–29803. doi:10.1021/acs.jpcc.9b09823. S2CID 209708381.
  74. ^ Chaudhuri K, Alhabeb M, Wang Z, Shalaev VM, Gogotsi Y, Boltasseva A (2018). "Highly Broadband Absorber Using Plasmonic Titanium Carbide (MXene)". ACS Photonics. 5 (3): 1115–1122. doi:10.1021/acsphotonics.7b01439.
  75. ^ a b c d Sarycheva A, Makaryan T, Maleski K, Satheeshkumar E, Melikyan A, Minassian H, Yoshimura M, Gogotsi Y (2017). "Two-Dimensional Titanium Carbide (MXene) as Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Substrate". The Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 121 (36): 19983–19988. doi:10.1021/acs.jpcc.7b08180. OSTI 1399222.
  76. ^ Dong Y, Chertopalov S, Maleski K, Anasori B, Hu L, Bhattacharya S, et al. (March 2018). "Saturable Absorption in 2D Ti3 C2 MXene Thin Films for Passive Photonic Diodes". Advanced Materials. 30 (10): 1705714. Bibcode:2018AdM....3005714D. doi:10.1002/adma.201705714. PMID 29333627. S2CID 3697708.
  77. ^ Dong Y, Mallineni SS, Maleski K, Behlow H, Mochalin VN, Rao AM, Gogotsi Y, Podila R (2018). "Metallic MXenes: A new family of materials for flexible triboelectric nanogenerators". Nano Energy. 44: 103–110. Bibcode:2018NEne...44..103D. doi:10.1016/j.nanoen.2017.11.044.
  78. ^ Naguib M, Come J, Dyatkin B, Presser V, Taberna PL, Simon P, Barsoum MW, Gogotsi Y (2012). "MXene: a promising transition metal carbide anode for lithium-ion batteries" (PDF). Electrochemistry Communications. 16 (1): 61–64. doi:10.1016/j.elecom.2012.01.002.
  79. ^ Xie Y, Naguib M, Mochalin VN, Barsoum MW, Gogotsi Y, Yu X, et al. (April 2014). "Role of surface structure on Li-ion energy storage capacity of two-dimensional transition-metal carbides". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 136 (17): 6385–6394. doi:10.1021/ja501520b. PMID 24678996.
  80. ^ a b Yang E, Ji H, Kim J, Kim H, Jung Y (February 2015). "Exploring the possibilities of two-dimensional transition metal carbides as anode materials for sodium batteries". Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics. 17 (7): 5000–5005. Bibcode:2015PCCP...17.5000Y. doi:10.1039/C4CP05140H. PMID 25591787. S2CID 46155966.
  81. ^ Er D, Li J, Naguib M, Gogotsi Y, Shenoy VB (July 2014). "Ti₃C₂ MXene as a high capacity electrode material for metal (Li, Na, K, Ca) ion batteries". ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces. 6 (14): 11173–11179. doi:10.1021/am501144q. PMID 24979179.
  82. ^ Xie Y, Dall'Agnese Y, Naguib M, Gogotsi Y, Barsoum MW, Zhuang HL, Kent PR (September 2014). "Prediction and characterization of MXene nanosheet anodes for non-lithium-ion batteries". ACS Nano. 8 (9): 9606–9615. doi:10.1021/nn503921j. PMID 25157692.
  83. ^ Wang X, Shen X, Gao Y, Wang Z, Yu R, Chen L (February 2015). "Atomic-scale recognition of surface structure and intercalation mechanism of Ti3C2X". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 137 (7): 2715–2721. doi:10.1021/ja512820k. PMID 25688582.
  84. ^ Wang X, Kajiyama S, Iinuma H, Hosono E, Oro S, Moriguchi I, et al. (April 2015). "Pseudocapacitance of MXene nanosheets for high-power sodium-ion hybrid capacitors". Nature Communications. 6: 6544. Bibcode:2015NatCo...6.6544W. doi:10.1038/ncomms7544. PMC 4396360. PMID 25832913.
  85. ^ Dall'Agnese Y, Taberna PL, Gogotsi Y, Simon P (June 2015). "Two-Dimensional Vanadium Carbide (MXene) as Positive Electrode for Sodium-Ion Capacitors" (PDF). The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters. 6 (12): 2305–2309. doi:10.1021/acs.jpclett.5b00868. PMID 26266609.
  86. ^ Xie X, Zhao MQ, Anasori B, Maleski K, Ren CE, Li J, et al. (August 2016). "Porous heterostructured MXene/carbon nanotube composite paper with high volumetric capacity for sodium-based energy storage devices". Nano Energy. 26: 513–523. Bibcode:2016NEne...26..513X. doi:10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.06.005.
  87. ^ Li Y, Shao H, Lin Z, Lu J, Liu L, Duployer B, et al. (August 2020). "A general Lewis acidic etching route for preparing MXenes with enhanced electrochemical performance in non-aqueous electrolyte" (PDF). Nature Materials. 19 (8): 894–899. Bibcode:2020NatMa..19..894L. doi:10.1038/s41563-020-0657-0. PMID 32284597. S2CID 203594112.
  88. ^ Sun D, Wang M, Li Z, Fan G, Fan LZ, Zhou A (2014-10-01). "Two-dimensional Ti3C2 as anode material for Li-ion batteries". Electrochemistry Communications. 47: 80–83. doi:10.1016/j.elecom.2014.07.026. ISSN 1388-2481.
  89. ^ Boota M, Anasori B, Voigt C, Zhao MQ, Barsoum MW, Gogotsi Y (February 2016). "Pseudocapacitive Electrodes Produced by Oxidant-Free Polymerization of Pyrrole between the Layers of 2D Titanium Carbide (MXene)". Advanced Materials. 28 (7): 1517–1522. Bibcode:2016AdM....28.1517B. doi:10.1002/adma.201504705. PMID 26660424. S2CID 205265359.
  90. ^ VahidMohammadi A, Moncada J, Chen H, Kayali E, Orangi J, Carrero CA, Beidaghi M (2018). "Thick and freestanding MXene/PANI pseudocapacitive electrodes with ultrahigh specific capacitance". Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 6 (44): 22123–22133. doi:10.1039/C8TA05807E.
  91. ^ Zhu J, Tang Y, Yang C, Wang F, Cao M (2016). "Composites of TiO 2 Nanoparticles Deposited on Ti 3 C 2 MXene Nanosheets with Enhanced Electrochemical Performance". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 163 (5): A785–A791. doi:10.1149/2.0981605jes. S2CID 100764644.
  92. ^ Lukatskaya MR, Kota S, Lin Z, Zhao MQ, Shpigel N, Levi MD, et al. (August 2017). "Ultra-high-rate pseudocapacitive energy storage in two-dimensional transition metal carbides" (PDF). Nature Energy. 2 (8): 17105. Bibcode:2017NatEn...217105L. doi:10.1038/nenergy.2017.105. S2CID 20135031.
  93. ^ Lukatskaya MR, Mashtalir O, Ren CE, Dall'Agnese Y, Rozier P, Taberna PL, et al. (September 2013). "Cation intercalation and high volumetric capacitance of two-dimensional titanium carbide" (PDF). Science. 341 (6153): 1502–1505. Bibcode:2013Sci...341.1502L. doi:10.1126/science.1241488. PMID 24072919. S2CID 206550306.
  94. ^ Wang X, Mathis TS, Li K, Lin Z, Vlcek L, Torita T, et al. (March 2019). "Influences from solvents on charge storage in titanium carbide MXenes". Nature Energy. 4 (3): 241–248. Bibcode:2019NatEn...4..241W. doi:10.1038/s41560-019-0339-9. ISSN 2058-7546. S2CID 115143229.
  95. ^ Ling Z, Ren CE, Zhao MQ, Yang J, Giammarco JM, Qiu J, et al. (November 2014). "Flexible and conductive MXene films and nanocomposites with high capacitance". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111 (47): 16676–16681. Bibcode:2014PNAS..11116676L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1414215111. PMC 4250111. PMID 25389310.
  96. ^ Yan J, Ren CE, Maleski K, Hatter CB, Anasori B, Urbankowski P, Sarycheva A, Gogotsi Y (August 2017). "Flexible MXene/Graphene Films for Ultrafast Supercapacitors with Outstanding Volumetric Capacitance". Advanced Functional Materials. 27 (30): 1701264. doi:10.1002/adfm.201701264. OSTI 1399231. S2CID 136483327.
  97. ^ Zhao MQ, Ren CE, Ling Z, Lukatskaya MR, Zhang C, Van Aken KL, et al. (January 2015). "Flexible MXene/carbon nanotube composite paper with high volumetric capacitance". Advanced Materials. 27 (2): 339–345. Bibcode:2015AdM....27..339Z. doi:10.1002/adma.201404140. OSTI 1265885. PMID 25405330. S2CID 5582922.
  98. ^ Che Nasir NA (2022). "Effect of Nanofillers on the Mechanical Properties of Epoxy Nanocomposites". In Ismaila, Dahalan WM, Öchsner A (eds.). Design in Maritime Engineering: Contributions from the ICMAT 2021. pp. 199–207. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-89988-2_15. ISBN 978-3-030-89987-5. S2CID 246886446.
  99. ^ Sreekumar, Sreehari.; Ganguly, Abhijit.; Khalil, Sameh.; Chakrabarti, Supriya.; Hewitt, Neil.; Mondol, Jayanta.; Shah, Nikhilkumar. (2023). "Thermo-optical characterization of novel MXene/Carbon-dot hybrid nanofluid for heat transfer applications". Journal of Cleaner Production. 434 (29): 140395. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.140395.
  100. ^ a b Kim SJ, Koh HJ, Ren CE, Kwon O, Maleski K, Cho SY, et al. (February 2018). "Metallic Ti3C2Tx MXene Gas Sensors with Ultrahigh Signal-to-Noise Ratio". ACS Nano. 12 (2): 986–993. doi:10.1021/acsnano.7b07460. PMID 29368519.
  101. ^ Ramanavicius S, Ramanavicius A (December 2020). "Progress and Insights in the Application of MXenes as New 2D Nano-Materials Suitable for Biosensors and Biofuel Cell Design". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 21 (23): 9224. doi:10.3390/ijms21239224. PMC 7730251. PMID 33287304.
  102. ^ a b Adomavičiūtė-Grabusovė S, Ramanavičius S, Popov A, Šablinskas V, Gogotsi O, Ramanavičius A (August 2021). "Selective Enhancement of SERS Spectral Bands of Salicylic Acid Adsorbate on 2D Ti3C2Tx-Based MXene Film". Chemosensors. 9 (8): 223. doi:10.3390/chemosensors9080223. ISSN 2227-9040.
  103. ^ Peng Y, Lin C, Long L, Masaki T, Tang M, Yang L, et al. (January 2021). "Charge-Transfer Resonance and Electromagnetic Enhancement Synergistically Enabling MXenes with Excellent SERS Sensitivity for SARS-CoV-2 S Protein Detection". Nano-Micro Letters. 13 (1): 52. Bibcode:2021NML....13...52P. doi:10.1007/s40820-020-00565-4. PMC 7783703. PMID 33425476.
  104. ^ a b c Ren CE, Zhao MQ, Makaryan T, Halim J, Boota M, Kota S, et al. (2016). "Porous Two-Dimensional Transition Metal Carbide (MXene) Flakes for High-Performance Li-Ion Storage". ChemElectroChem. 3 (5): 689–693. doi:10.1002/celc.201600059. OSTI 1261374.
  105. ^ Sarycheva A, Polemi A, Liu Y, Dandekar K, Anasori B, Gogotsi Y (September 2018). "2D titanium carbide (MXene) for wireless communication". Science Advances. 4 (9): eaau0920. Bibcode:2018SciA....4..920S. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aau0920. PMC 6155117. PMID 30255151.
  106. ^ Han M, Liu Y, Rakhmanov R, Israel C, Tajin MA, Friedman G, et al. (January 2021). "Solution-Processed Ti3 C2 Tx MXene Antennas for Radio-Frequency Communication". Advanced Materials. 33 (1): e2003225. Bibcode:2021AdM....3303225H. doi:10.1002/adma.202003225. PMC 9119193. PMID 33251683. S2CID 227235744.
  107. ^ Hantanasirisakul K, Alhabeb M, Lipatov A, Maleski K, Anasori B, Salles P, et al. (2019). "Effects of Synthesis and Processing on Optoelectronic Properties of Titanium Carbonitride MXene". Chemistry of Materials. 31 (8): 2941–2951. doi:10.1021/acs.chemmater.9b00401. OSTI 1774175. S2CID 146157678.