The Amarna letters (/əˈmɑːrnə/; sometimes referred to as the Amarna correspondence or Amarna tablets, and cited with the abbreviation EA, for "El Amarna") are an archive, written on clay tablets, primarily consisting of diplomatic correspondence between the Egyptian administration and its representatives in Canaan and Amurru, or neighboring kingdom leaders, during the New Kingdom, spanning a period of no more than thirty years in the middle 14th century BC. The letters were found in Upper Egypt at el-Amarna, the modern name for the ancient Egyptian capital of Akhetaten, founded by pharaoh Akhenaten (c. 1351–1334 BC) during the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.
The Amarna letters are unusual in Egyptological research, because they are written not in the language of ancient Egypt, but in cuneiform, the writing system of ancient Mesopotamia. Most are in a variety of Akkadian sometimes characterised as a mixed language, Canaanite-Akkadian;[1] one especially long letter—abbreviated EA 24—was written in a late dialect of Hurrian, and is the longest contiguous text known to survive in that language.
The known tablets total 382 and fragments (350 are letters and the rest literary texts and school texts), of which 358 have been published by the Norwegian Assyriologist Jørgen Alexander Knudtzon in his work, Die El-Amarna-Tafeln, which came out in two volumes (1907 and 1915) and remains the standard edition to this day.[2][3][1][4] The texts of the remaining 24 complete or fragmentary tablets excavated since Knudtzon have also been made available.[1] Only 26 of the known tablets and fragments were found in their archaeological context, Building Q42.21.[5]
The Amarna letters are of great significance for biblical studies as well as Semitic linguistics because they shed light on the culture and language of the Canaanite peoples in this time period. Though most are written in Akkadian, the Akkadian of the letters is heavily colored by the mother tongue of their writers, who probably spoke an early form of Proto-Canaanite, the language(s) which would later evolve into the daughter languages of Hebrew and Phoenician. These "Canaanisms" provide valuable insights into the proto-stage of those languages several centuries prior to their first actual manifestation.[6][7]
The letters
edit
These letters, comprising cuneiform tablets written primarily in Akkadian – the regional language of diplomacy for this period – were first discovered around 1887 by local Egyptians who secretly dug most of them from the ruined city of Amarna, and sold them in the antiquities market.[8] They had originally been stored in an ancient building that archaeologists have since called the Bureau of Correspondence of Pharaoh. Once the location where they were found was determined, the ruins were explored for more. The first archaeologist who successfully recovered more tablets was Flinders Petrie, who in 1891 and 1892 uncovered 21 fragments.[9] Émile Chassinat, then director of the French Institute for Oriental Archaeology in Cairo, acquired two more tablets in 1903. Since Knudtzon's edition, some 24 more tablets, or fragments, have been found, either in Egypt, or identified in the collections of various museums.[10]
The initial group of letters recovered by local Egyptians have been scattered among museums in Germany, England, Egypt, France, Russia, and the United States. Either 202 or 203 tablets are at the Vorderasiatisches Museum in Berlin;[11] 99 are at the British Museum in London;[12][13] 49 or 50 are at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo;[14] 7 at the Louvre in Paris;[15] 3 at the Pushkin Museum in Moscow; and 1 in the collection of the Oriental Institute in Chicago.[4] A few tablets are at the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford and the Royal Museum of Art and History in Brussels.[16]
The archive contains a wealth of information about cultures, kingdoms, events and individuals in a period from which few written sources survive. It includes correspondence from Akhenaten's reign (Akhenaten who was also titled Amenhotep IV), as well as his predecessor Amenhotep III's reign. The tablets consist of over 300 diplomatic letters; the remainder comprise miscellaneous literary and educational materials. These tablets shed much light on Egyptian relations with Babylonia, Assyria, Syria, Canaan, and Alashiya (Cyprus) as well as relations with the Mitanni, and the Hittites. The letters have been important in establishing both the history and the chronology of the period. Letters from the Babylonian king, Kadashman-Enlil I, anchor the timeframe of Akhenaten's reign to the mid-14th century BC. They also contain the first mention of a Near Eastern group known as the Habiru, whose possible connection with the Hebrews—due to the similarity of the words and their geographic location—remains debated. Other rulers involved in the letters include Tushratta of Mitanni, Lib'ayu of Shechem, Abdi-Heba of Jerusalem, and the quarrelsome king, Rib-Hadda, of Byblos, who, in over 58 letters, continuously pleads for Egyptian military help. Specifically, the letters include requests for military help in the north against Hittite invaders, and in the south to fight against the Habiru.[17]
Letter found at Tell Beth-Shean
editDuring excavation in 1993 a small, damaged, clay cylinder (first thought to be a cylinder seal) was found. It was inscribed with "Amarna Cuneiform" and held a letter which appears to be part of the Amarna correspondence.[18]
"To Lab'aya, my lord, speak. Message of Tagi: To the King (Pharaoh), my lord: "I have listened carefully to your missive to me ...(illegible traces)"[19][20]
Letter summary
edit
Amarna Letters are politically arranged in a rough counterclockwise fashion:
- 001–014 Babylonia
- 015–016 Assyria
- 017–030 Mitanni
- 031–032 Arzawa
- 033–040 Alashiya
- 041–044 Hatti
- 045–380+ Syria/Lebanon/Canaan
Amarna Letters from Syria/Lebanon/Canaan are distributed roughly:
- 045–067 Syria
- 068–227 Lebanon (where 68–140 are from Gubla aka Byblos)
- 227–380 Canaan (written mostly in the Canaano-Akkadian language).
Akhenaten and Tushratta
editEarly in his reign, Akhenaten, the pharaoh of Egypt, had conflicts with Tushratta, the king of Mitanni, who had courted favor with his father, Amenhotep III, against the Hittites. Tushratta complains in numerous letters that Akhenaten had sent him gold-plated statues rather than statues made of solid gold; the statues formed part of the bride-price that Tushratta received for letting his daughter Tadukhepa marry Amenhotep III and then later marry Akhenaten.[21]
An Amarna letter preserves a complaint by Tushratta to Akhenaten about the situation:
I...asked your father Mimmureya [i.e., Amenhotep III] for statues of solid cast gold, ... and your father said, 'Don't talk of giving statues just of solid cast gold. I will give you ones made also of lapis lazuli. I will give you too, along with the statues, much additional gold and [other] goods beyond measure.' Every one of my messengers that were staying in Egypt saw the gold for the statues with their own eyes. ... But my brother [i.e., Akhenaten] has not sent the solid [gold] statues that your father was going to send. You have sent plated ones of wood. Nor have you sent me the goods that your father was going to send me, but you have reduced [them] greatly. Yet there is nothing I know of in which I have failed my brother. ... May my brother send me much gold. ... In my brother's country gold is as plentiful as dust. May my brother cause me no distress. May he send me much gold in order that my brother [with the gold and m]any [good]s may honor me.[4]
Amarna letters list
editNote: Many assignments are tentative; spellings vary widely. This is just a guide.[4]
| EA# | Letter author to recipient |
|---|---|
| EA# 1 | Amenhotep III to Babylonian king Kadashman-Enlil |
| EA# 2 | Babylonian king Kadashman-Enlil to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 3 | Babylonian king Kadashman-Enlil to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 4 | Babylonian king Kadashman-Enlil to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 5 | Amenhotep III to Babylonian king Kadashman-Enlil |
| EA# 6 | Babylonian king Burna-Buriash II to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 7 | Babylonian king Burna-Buriash II to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 8 | Babylonian king Burna-Buriash II to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 9 | Babylonian king Burna-Buriash II to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 10 | Babylonian king Burna-Buriash II to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 11 | Babylonian king Burna-Buriash II to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 12 | A Babylonian Princess to the King of Egypt |
| EA# 13 | Burraburiash's Gifts to an Egyptian Princess |
| EA# 14 | Amenhotep IV to Babylonian king Burna-Buriash II |
| EA# 15 | Assyrian king Ashur-Uballit I to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 16 | Assyrian king Ashur-Uballit I to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 17 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 18 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 19 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 20 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 21 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 22 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 23 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 24 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 25 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep III |
| EA# 26 | Mitanni king Tushratta to widow Tiy |
| EA# 27 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 28 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 29 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 30 | Mitanni king to the kings of Canaan |
| EA# 31 | Amenhotep III to Arzawa king Tarhundaraba |
| EA# 32 | Arzawa king Tarhundaraba to King of Egypt Amenhotep III |
| EA# 33 | Alashiya king to King of Egypt #1 |
| EA# 34 | Alashiya king to King of Egypt #2 |
| EA# 35 | Alashiya king to King of Egypt #3 |
| EA# 36 | Alashiya king to King of Egypt #4 |
| EA# 37 | Alashiya king to King of Egypt #5 |
| EA# 38 | Alashiya king to King of Egypt #6 |
| EA# 39 | Alashiya king to King of Egypt #7 |
| EA# 40 | Alashiya minister to Egypt minister |
| EA# 41 | Hittite king Suppiluliuma I to Huri[a] |
| EA# 42 | Hittite king to King of Egypt |
| EA# 43 | Suppiluliuma, Hittite King, to the King of Egypt |
| EA# 44 | Hittite prince Zi[k]ar to the King of Egypt |
| EA# 45 | 'Ammittamru I, Ugarit king, to the King of Egypt |
| EA# 46 | Ugarit king to Egyptian king |
| EA# 47 | Ugarit king to Egyptian king |
| EA# 48 | Heba, Queen of Ugarit, to the Queen of Egypt |
| EA# 49 | Ugarit king Niqm-Adda II to the King of Egypt |
| EA# 50 | Maidservant to the Queen of Egypt |
| EA# 51 | Nuhasse king Addunirari to the King of Egypt |
| EA# 52 | Qatna king Akizzi to Amenhotep III #1 |
| EA# 53 | Qatna king Akizzi to Amenhotep III #2 |
| EA# 54 | Qatna king Akizzi to Amenhotep III #3 |
| EA# 55 | Qatna king Akizzi to Amenhotep III #4 |
| EA# 56 | Akizzi(?), the Ruler of Qatna, to Amenhotep IV, the King of Egypt |
| EA# 57 | Akizzi, the Ruler of Qatna, to Amenhotep IV, the King of Egypt |
| EA# 58 | Tehu-Teshupa, a Ruler in North Canaan(?), to the King of Egypt |
| EA# 58 | [Qat]ihutisupa to king(?) obverse |
| EA# 59 | Tunip peoples to pharaoh |
| EA# 60 | Amurru king Abdi-Asirta to Amenhotep III, the king of Egypt |
| EA# 61 | Amurru king Abdi-Asirta to Amenhotep III, the king of Egypt #2 |
| EA# 62 | Amurru king Abdi-Asirta to Pahanate, the Commissioner of Sumur |
| EA# 63 | 'Abdi-Ashtarti, a Ruler in Southern Canaan (Gath?), to the king of Egypt |
| EA# 64 | 'Abdi-Ashtarti, a Ruler in Southern Canaan (Gath?), to the king of Egypt #2 |
| EA# 65 | 'Abdi-Ashtarti, a Ruler in Southern Canaan (Gath?), to the king of Egypt #3 |
| EA# 66 | Rib-Hadda, the Ruler of Byblos, to Haya, the Vizier of Egypt |
| EA# 67 | An unknown ruler in the north of Canaan to the King of Egypt |
| EA# 68 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #1 |
| EA# 69 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Egypt official |
| EA# 70 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #2 |
| EA# 71 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Haya, the Vizier of Egypt |
| EA# 72 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #3 |
| EA# 73 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa, an Egyptian official #1 |
| EA# 74 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #4 |
| EA# 75 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #5 |
| EA# 76 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #6 |
| EA# 77 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa, an Egyptian official #2 |
| EA# 78 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #7 |
| EA# 79 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to he king of Egypt #8 |
| EA# 80 | Gubal king Rib-Addi(?) to the king of Egypt #9 |
| EA# 81 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #10 |
| EA# 82 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa, an Egyptian official #3 |
| EA# 83 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #11 |
| EA# 84 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #12 |
| EA# 85 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #13 |
| EA# 86 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa, an Egyptian official #4 |
| EA# 87 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa, an Egyptian official #5 |
| EA# 88 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #14 |
| EA# 89 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #15 |
| EA# 90 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #16 |
| EA# 91 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #17 |
| EA# 92 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to the king of Egypt #18 |
| EA# 93 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa, an Egyptian official #6 |
| EA# 94 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #19 |
| EA# 95 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the Egyptian Senior Official |
| EA# 96 | An army commander to Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos |
| EA# 97 | Yappah-Hadda to Shumu-Hadda |
| EA# 98 | Yappah-Hadda to Yanhamu, the Egyptian Commissioner |
| EA# 99 | The king of Egypt to the ruler of the city of 'Ammiya(?) |
| EA#100 | The city of Irqata to the king of Egypt |
| EA#100 | Tagi to Lab-Aya |
| EA#101 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #20 |
| EA#102 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to Yanhamu(?), the Egyptian commissioner |
| EA#103 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #21 |
| EA#104 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #22 |
| EA#105 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #23 |
| EA#106 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #24 |
| EA#107 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #25 |
| EA#108 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #26 |
| EA#109 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #27 |
| EA#110 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #28 |
| EA#111 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #29 |
| EA#112 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #30 |
| EA#113 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #31 |
| EA#114 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #32 |
| EA#115 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #33 |
| EA#116 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #34 |
| EA#117 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #35 |
| EA#118 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #36 |
| EA#119 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #37 |
| EA#120 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #38 |
| EA#121 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #39 |
| EA#122 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #40 |
| EA#123 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #41 |
| EA#124 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #42 |
| EA#125 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #43 |
| EA#126 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #44 |
| EA#127 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #45 |
| EA#128 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #46 |
| EA#129 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #47 |
| EA#129 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #48 |
| EA#130 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #49 |
| EA#131 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #50 |
| EA#132 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #51 |
| EA#133 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #52 |
| EA#134 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #53 |
| EA#135 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #54 |
| EA#136 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #55 |
| EA#137 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #56 |
| EA#138 | Rib-Hadda, the ruler of Byblos, to the king of Egypt #57 |
| EA#139 | Ilirabih the city of Byblos to the king of Egypt #1 |
| EA#140 | Ilirabih the city of Byblos to the king of Egypt #2 |
| EA#141 | Beruta king Ammunira to the king of Egypt #1 |
| EA#142 | Beruta king Ammunira to the king of Egypt #2 |
| EA#143 | Beruta king Ammunira to the king of Egypt #2 |
| EA#144 | Zimredda, the ruler of Sidon, to the king of Egypt #1 |
| EA#145 | Zimredda, the ruler of Sidon, to the king of Egypt #2 |
| EA#146 | Tyre king Abi-Milki to the king of Egypt #1 |
| EA#147 | Tyre king AbiMilki to the king of Egypt #2 |
| EA#148 | Tyre king AbiMilki to the king of Egypt #3 |
| EA#149 | Tyre king AbiMilki to the king of Egypt #4 |
| EA#150 | Tyre king AbiMilki to the king of Egypt #5 |
| EA#151 | Tyre king AbiMilki to the king of Egypt #6 |
| EA#152 | Tyre king AbiMilki to the king of Egypt #7 |
| EA#153 | Tyre king AbiMilki to the king of Egypt #8 |
| EA#154 | Tyre king AbiMilki to the king of Egypt #9 |
| EA#155 | Tyre king AbiMilki to the king of Egypt #10 |
| EA#156 | Amurru king Aziri to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#157 | Amurru king Aziri to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#158 | Amurru king Aziri to Dudu #1 |
| EA#159 | Amurru king Aziri to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#160 | Amurru king Aziri to pharaoh #4 |
| EA#161 | Amurru king Aziri to pharaoh #5 |
| EA#162 | pharaoh to Amurra prince |
| EA#163 | The King of Egypt to a Canaanite Ruler(?) |
| EA#164 | Amurru king Aziri to Dudu #2 |
| EA#165 | Amurru king Aziri to pharaoh #6 |
| EA#166 | Amurru king Aziri to Hai |
| EA#167 | Amurru king Aziri to (Hai #2?) |
| EA#168 | Amurru king Aziri to pharaoh #7 |
| EA#169 | Amurru son of Aziri to an Egypt official |
| EA#170 | Ba-Aluia & Battiilu to the king |
| EA#171 | Amurru son of Aziri to pharaoh |
| EA#172 | A ruler of Amurru to the king of Egypt |
| EA#173 | The Ruler of (?) to the king of Egypt |
| EA#174 | Bieri of Hasabu |
| EA#175 | Ildaja of Hazi to king |
| EA#176 | Abdi-Risa |
| EA#177 | Guddasuna king Jamiuta |
| EA#178 | Hibija to a chief |
| EA#179 | The deposed ruler of Oftobihi to the King of Egypt |
| EA#180 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#181 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#182 | Mitanni king Shuttarna to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#183 | Mitanni king Shuttarna to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#184 | Mitanni king Shuttarna to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#185 | Majarzana of Hazi to king |
| EA#186 | Majarzana of Hazi to king #2 |
| EA#187 | Satija of ... to king |
| EA#188 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#189 | Qadesh mayor Etakkama |
| EA#190 | pharaoh to Qadesh mayor Etakkama(?) |
| EA#191 | Ruhiza king Arzawaija to king |
| EA#192 | Ruhiza king Arzawaija to king #2 |
| EA#193 | Dijate to king |
| EA#194 | Damascus mayor Biryawaza to king #1 |
| EA#195 | Damascus mayor Biryawaza to king #2 |
| EA#196 | Damascus mayor Biryawaza to king #3 |
| EA#197 | Damascus mayor Biryawaza to king #4 |
| EA#198 | Ara[ha]ttu of Kumidi to king |
| EA#199 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#200 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#2001 | Sealants |
| EA#2002 | Sealants |
| EA#201 | Artemanja of Ziribasani to king |
| EA#202 | Amajase to king |
| EA#203 | Abdi-Milki of Sashimi |
| EA#204 | prince of Qanu to king |
| EA#205 | Gubbu prince to king |
| EA#206 | prince of Naziba to king |
| EA#207 | Ipteh ... to king |
| EA#208 | ... to Egypt official or king |
| EA#209 | Zisamimi to king |
| EA#210 | Zisami[mi] to Amenhotep IV |
| EA#210 | Carchemish king to Ugarit king Asukwari |
| EA#211 | Zitrijara to king #1 |
| EA#2110 | Ewiri-Shar to Plsy |
| EA#212 | Zitrijara to king #2 |
| EA#213 | Zitrijara to king #3 |
| EA#214 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#215 | Baiawa to king #1 |
| EA#216 | Baiawa to king #2 |
| EA#217 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#218 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#219 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#220 | Nukurtuwa of (?) [Z]unu to king |
| EA#221 | Wiktazu to king #1 |
| EA#222 | Yiqdasu, a ruler of a Canaanite city, to the King of Egypt |
| EA#222 | Wik[tazu] to king #2 |
| EA#223 | En[g]u[t]a to king |
| EA#224 | Sum-Add[a] to king |
| EA#225 | Sum-Adda of Samhuna to king |
| EA#226 | Sipturi_ to king |
| EA#227 | Hazor king |
| EA#228 | Hazor king Abdi-Tirsi |
| EA#229 | Abdi-na-... to king |
| EA#230 | Iama to king |
| EA#231 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#232 | Acco king Zurata to pharaoh |
| EA#233 | Acco king Zatatna to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#234 | Acco king Zatatna to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#235 | Zitatna/(Zatatna) to king |
| EA#236 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#237 | Bajadi to king |
| EA#238 | Bajadi to an Eyptian Official |
| EA#239 | Baduzana to the king of Egypt |
| EA#240 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#241 | Rusmania to king |
| EA#242 | Megiddo king Biridija to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#243 | Megiddo king Biridija to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#244 | Megiddo king Biridija to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#245 | Megiddo king Biridija to pharaoh #4 |
| EA#246 | Megiddo king Biridija to pharaoh #5 |
| EA#247 | Megiddo king Biridija or Jasdata |
| EA#248 | Ja[sd]ata to king |
| EA#248 | Megiddo king Biridija to pharaoh |
| EA#249 | Ba'lu-Meher(?), the ruler of Gath-Padalla, to the king of Egypt |
| EA#249 | Addu-Ur-sag to king |
| EA#250 | Addu-Ur-sag to king |
| EA#2500 | Shechem |
| EA#251 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#252 | Labaja to king |
| EA#253 | Labaja to king |
| EA#254 | Labaja to king |
| EA#255 | Mut-Balu or Mut-Bahlum to king |
| EA#256 | Mut-Balu to Ianhamu |
| EA#257 | Balu-Mihir to king #1 |
| EA#258 | Balu-Mihir to king #2 |
| EA#259 | Balu-Mihir to king #3 |
| EA#260 | Balu-Mihir to king #4 |
| EA#261 | Dasru to king #1 |
| EA#262 | Dasru to king #2 |
| EA#263 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#264 | Gezer leader Tagi to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#265 | Gezer leader Tagi to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#266 | Gezer leader Tagi to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#267 | Gezer mayor Milkili to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#268 | Gezer mayor Milkili to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#269 | Gezer mayor Milkili to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#270 | Gezer mayor Milkili to pharaoh #4 |
| EA#271 | Gezer mayor Milkili to pharaoh #5 |
| EA#272 | Ba'lu-Dani (Or Ba'lu-Shipti), the ruler of Gezer, to the king of Egypt |
| EA#273 | Ba-Lat-Nese to king |
| EA#274 | Ba-Lat-Nese to king #2 |
| EA#275 | Iahazibada to king #1 |
| EA#276 | Iahazibada to king #2 |
| EA#277 | Qiltu king Suwardata to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#278 | Qiltu king Suwardata to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#279 | Qiltu king Suwardata to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#280 | Qiltu king Suwardata to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#281 | Qiltu king Suwardata to pharaoh #4 |
| EA#282 | Qiltu king Suwardata to pharaoh #5 |
| EA#283 | Qiltu king Suwardata to pharaoh #6 |
| EA#284 | Qiltu king Suwardata to pharaoh #7 |
| EA#285 | Jerusalem king Abdi-Hiba to pharaoh |
| EA#286 | Jerusalem king AbdiHiba to pharaoh |
| EA#287 | Jerusalem king AbdiHiba to pharaoh |
| EA#288 | Jerusalem king AbdiHiba to pharaoh |
| EA#289 | Jerusalem king AbdiHiba to pharaoh |
| EA#290 | Jerusalem king AbdiHiba to pharaoh |
| EA#290 | Qiltu king Suwardata to king |
| EA#291 | 'Abdi-Heba, the ruler of Jerusalem, to the king of Egypt |
| EA#292 | Gezer mayor Addudani to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#293 | Gezer mayor Addudani to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#294 | Gezer mayor Addudani to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#295 | Gezer mayor Addudani to pharaoh #4 |
| EA#296 | Gaza king Iahtiri |
| EA#297 | Gezer mayor Iapah[i] to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#298 | Gezer mayor Iapahi to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#299 | Gezer mayor Iapahi to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#300 | Gezer mayor Iapahi to pharaoh #4 |
| EA#301 | Subandu to king #1 |
| EA#302 | Subandu to king #2 |
| EA#303 | Subandu to king #3 |
| EA#304 | Subandu to king #4 |
| EA#305 | Subandu to king #5 |
| EA#306 | Subandu to king #6 |
| EA#307 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#308 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#309 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#310 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#311 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#312 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#313 | The Ruler of (?) to the King of Egypt |
| EA#314 | Jursa king Pu-Ba-Lu to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#315 | Jursa king PuBaLu to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#316 | Jursa king PuBaLu to pharaoh |
| EA#317 | Dagantakala to king #1 |
| EA#318 | Dagantakala to king #2 |
| EA#319 | A[h]tirumna king Zurasar to king |
| EA#320 | Asqalon king Widia to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#321 | Asqalon king Widia to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#322 | Asqalon king Widia to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#323 | Asqalon king Widia to pharaoh #4 |
| EA#324 | Asqalon king Widia to pharaoh #5 |
| EA#325 | Asqalon king Widia to pharaoh #6 |
| EA#326 | Asqalon king Widia to pharaoh #7 |
| EA#327 | ... the king |
| EA#328 | Lakis mayor Iabniilu to pharaoh |
| EA#329 | Lakis king Zimridi to pharaoh |
| EA#330 | Lakis mayor Sipti-Ba-Lu to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#331 | Lakis mayor SiptiBaLu to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#332 | Lakis mayor SiptiBaLu to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#333 | Ebi to a prince |
| EA#334 | ---dih of Zuhra [-?] to king |
| EA#335 | --- [of Z]uhr[u] to king |
| EA#336 | Hiziri to king #1 |
| EA#337 | Hiziri to king #2 |
| EA#338 | Zi. .. to king |
| EA#339 | ... to king |
| EA#340 | ... |
| EA#341 | ... |
| EA#342 | ... |
| EA#356 | myth of Adapa and the South Wind |
| EA#357 | myth the Ereskigal and Nergal |
| EA#358 | myth fragments |
| EA#359 | myth Epic of King of Battle |
| EA#360 | ... |
| EA#361 | ... |
| EA#362 | ... |
| EA#364 | Ayyab to king |
| EA#365 | Megiddo king Biridiya to pharaoh |
| EA#366 | Shuwardata, the ruler of Gath, to the king |
| EA#367 | pharaoh to Endaruta of Akshapa |
| EA#369 | Amenhotep IV to Milkilu, the ruler of Gezer |
| EA#xxx | Amenhotep III to Milkili |
| H#3100 | Tell el-Hesi |
| P#3200 | Pella prince Mut-Balu to Yanhamu |
| P#3210 | Lion Woman to king |
| T#3002 | Amenhotep to Taanach king Rewassa |
| T#3005 | Amenhotep to Taanach king Rewassa |
| T#3006 | Amenhotep to Taanach king Rewassa |
| U#4001 | Ugarit king Niqmaddu |
Chronology
editWilliam L. Moran summarizes the state of the chronology of these tablets as follows:
Despite a long history of inquiry, the chronology of the Amarna letters, both relative and absolute, presents many problems, some of bewildering complexity, that still elude definitive solution. Consensus obtains only about what is obvious, certain established facts, and these provide only a broad framework within which many and often quite different reconstructions of the course of events reflected in the Amarna letters are possible and have been defended. ...The Amarna archive, it is now generally agreed, spans at most about thirty years, perhaps only fifteen or so.[4]
From the internal evidence, the earliest possible date for this correspondence is the final decade of the reign of Amenhotep III, who ruled from 1388 to 1351 BC (or 1391 to 1353 BC), possibly as early as this king's 30th regnal year; the latest date any of these letters were written is the desertion of the city of Amarna, commonly believed to have happened in the second year of the reign of Tutankhamun later in the same century in 1332 BC. Moran notes that some scholars believe one tablet, EA 16, may have been addressed to Tutankhamun's successor Ay or Smenkhkare.[22] However, this speculation appears improbable because the Amarna archives were closed by Year 2 of Tutankhamun, when this king transferred Egypt's capital from Amarna to Thebes.
Quotations and phrases
editA small number of the Amarna letters are in the class of poetry. An example is EA 153 (EA is for 'el Amarna'). EA 153, entitled: "Ships on hold", from Abimilku of Tyre is a short, 20-line letter. Lines 6–8, and 9-11 are parallel phrases, each ending with "...before the troops of the king, my lord."-('before', then line 8, line 11). Both sentences are identical, and repetitive, with only the subject statement changing.
The entire corpus of Amarna letters has many standard phrases. It also has some phrases, and quotations used only once. Some are parables: (EA 252: "...when an ant is pinched (struck), does it not fight back and bite the hand of the man that struck it?"....)
Bird in a Cage
edit- A bird in a cage (Trap)—Rib-Hadda subcorpus of letters. (Rib-Hadda was trapped in Gubla-(Byblos), unable to move freely.)
"A brick may move.."
edit- A brick may move from under its partner, still I will not move from under the feet of the king, my lord.—Used in letters EA 266, 292, and 296. EA 292 by Adda-danu of Gazru.
"For the lack of a cultivator.."
edit- "For the lack of a cultivator, my field is like a woman without a husband."—Rib-Hadda letter EA 75
"Hale like the Sun..."
edit- "And know that the King-(pharaoh) is hale like the Sun in the Sky. For his troops and his chariots in multitude all goes very well...."—See: Endaruta, for the Short Form; See: Milkilu, for a Long Form. Also found in EA 99: entitled: "From the Pharaoh to a vassal". (with addressee damaged)
"I looked this way, and I looked..."
edit- "I looked this way, and I looked that way, and there was no light. Then I looked towards the king, my lord, and there was light."—EA 266 by Tagi (Ginti mayor); EA 296 by Yahtiru.
"May the Lady of Gubla.."
edit- "May the Lady of Gubla grant power to the king, my lord."—varieties of the phrase in the Rib-Hadda letters
a pot held in pledge
edit7 times and 7 times again
edit- 7 times and 7 times—Over and over again
- 7 times plus 7—EA 189, See: "Etakkama of Kadesh"(title)-(Qidšu)
I fall ... 7 times and 7..."on the back and on the stomach"
edit- I fall, at the feet, ... 7 times and 7 times, "on the back and on the stomach"—EA 316, by Pu-Ba'lu, and used in numerous letters to pharaoh. See: Commissioner: Tahmašši.
when an ant is struck..
editExample, single letter photo gallery, multiple sides
editAmarna letter EA 15, from Ashur-uballit I; see also Amarna letter EA 153.
-
Obverse -
Line drawing, obverse -
Reverse -
View from bottom
See also
edit
References
edit- ^ a b c Shlomo Izre'el. "The Amarna Tablets". Tel Aviv University. Retrieved 13 January 2019.
- ^ Knudtzon, Jørgen Alexander (1915). Die El-Amarna-Tafeln. Vol. 1. Leipzig: Hinrichs.
- ^ Knudtzon, Jørgen Alexander (1915). Die El-Amarna-Tafeln. Vol. 2. Leipzig: Hinrichs.
- ^ a b c d e Moran, William L. (1992). The Amarna Letters. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. xiv. ISBN 0-8018-4251-4.
- ^ [1]Colonna d'Istria, Laurent, "Cuneiform in Egypt: The el-Amarna Letters", in Stéphane Polis (ed.) Guide to the Writing Systems of Ancient Egypt , pp. 88-93, 2023 ISBN 978-2-7247-0873-8
- ^ F.M.T. de Liagre Böhl, Die Sprache der Amarnabriefe, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Kanaanismen ('The language of the Amarna letters, with special attention to the Canaanisms'), Leipzig 1909.
- ^ Eva von Dassow, 'Canaanite in Cuneiform', Journal of the American Oriental Society 124/4 (2004): 641–674. Archived 2015-04-02 at the Wayback Machine (pdf)
- ^ [2]Claude Reignier Conder, "The Tell Amarna tablets", London; New York: Macmillan, 1893
- ^ [3]Petrie, W. M. Flinders, "Tell el Amarna", London, Methuen & co, 1894
- ^ Rainey, Anson F., and William M. Schniedewind, "The El-Amarna Correspondence: A New Edition of the Cuneiform Letters From the Site of El-Amarna Based On Collations of All Extant Tablets", Boston: Brill, 2014 ISBN 978-90-04-28145-5
- ^ [4]Winckler, Hugo, "Der Thontafelfund von el-Amarna", Berlin: W. Spemann, 1889
- ^ [5]C. Bezold and E. A. W. Budge, "The Tell el-Amarna tablets in the British Museum with autotype facsimiles", British Museum, 1892
- ^ "Collection". The British Museum.
- ^ Sayce, A.H., "The cuneiform tablets of Tel el-Amarna, now preserved in the Boulaq Museum", Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology 11, pp. 326-413, 1888-89
- ^ Rainey, Anson F, "El Amarna Tablets 359–379", Kevelaer: Butzon & Bercker; Neukirchen-Vluyn, Neukirchener Verlag des Erziehungsvereins, 1970
- ^ Baranowski, Krzysztof J. "1. The Amarna Letters and Their Study". The Verb in the Amarna Letters from Canaan, University Park, US: Penn State University Press, 2021, pp. 4–20
- ^ El-Amarna Tablets Archived 2018-03-07 at the Wayback Machine, article at West Semitic Research Project, website of University of Southern California accessed 2/8/15.
- ^ [6]Mynářová, Jana, "Handbook of Amarna Cuneiform Palaeography: A Project Update", Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 11, pp. 15-16, 2016
- ^ Horowitz, Wayne, "An Inscribed Clay Cylinder From Amarna Age Beth Shean", Israel Exploration Journal, vol. 46, no. 3/4, pp. 208–218, 1996
- ^ Horowitz, Wayne, "The Amarna Age Inscribed Clay Cylinder from Beth-Shean", The Biblical Archaeologist, vol. 60, no. 2, pp. 97–100, 1997
- ^ [7]Güner, Serdar, and Daniel Druckman, "Tushratta’S Requests to the Pharaohs", How People Negotiate: Resolving Disputes in Different Cultures. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 67-71, 2003
- ^ Redford, Donald, "The coregency of Akhenaten and Smenkhkare", History and Chronology of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt: Seven Studies, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 170-182, 1967
Further reading
edit- Aruz, Joan, Kim Benzel, and Jean M. Evans, eds. Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008.
- [8]Bristowe, Sydney, Mrs, "The Oldest Letters In The World", LONDON: GEORGE ALLEN & UNWIN, LTD, 1923
- Budge, E.A.W., "On cuneiform despatches from Tûshratta, king of Mitanni, Burraburiyasch, the son of Kuri-Galzu, and the king of Alashiya, to Amenophis III, king of Egypt, and on the cuneiform tablets from Tell el-Amarna", Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology 10, pp. 540-569, 1887-88
- Cohen, Raymond, and Raymond Westbrook, eds. Amarna Diplomacy: The Beginnings of International Relations. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000
- Gordon, C.H., "Eight new cuneiform fragments from Tell el Amarna", Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 20, pp. 137-138, 1934
- [9]Gordon, Cyrus H., "The new Amarna tablets", Orientalia 16.1, pp. 1-21, 1947
- Goren, Y., Finkelstein, I. & Na'aman, N., Inscribed in Clay – Provenance Study of the Amarna Tablets and Other Ancient Near Eastern Texts, Tel Aviv: Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, 2004. ISBN 965-266-020-5
- Hagen, F., "The hieratic dockets on the cuneiform tablets from Amarna", Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 97, pp. 214-216, 2011
- [10]Handcock, Percy, "Selections from the Tell-el-Amarna letters", London: Society for promoting Christian knowledge; New York, The Macmillan company, 1920
- Mynářová, J., "Egyptians and the cuneiform tradition: On the palaeography of the Amarna documents", in Current research in cuneiform palaeography, eds. E. Devecchi, G.G.W. Müller, and J. Mynářová. Gladbeck: PeWe, pp. 89-102, 2015
- Mynářová, Jana. Language of Amarna – Language of Diplomacy: Perspectives On the Amarna Letters. Prague: Czech Institute of Egyptology; Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, 2007
- [11]Petrie, W. M. Flinders Syria and Egypt From the Tell El Amarna Letters, Methuen & co, 1898
- Rainey, Anson F. Canaanite in the Amarna Tablets: A Linguistic Analysis of the Mixed Dialect Used by Scribes from Canaan. 4 vols. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2010
- Sayce, A.H., "The cuneiform inscriptions of Tel el-Amarna", Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria Institute, or Philosophical Society of Great Britain 24, pp. 12-31, 1890
- Smith, Janet (2011). Dust or dew: Immortality in the Ancient Near East and in Psalm 49. Eugene, OR, US: Wipf and Stock. p. 286. ISBN 978-1-60899-661-2.
- Vita, Juan-Pablo. Canaanite Scribes In the Amarna Letters. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2015
External links
edit
- . Catholic Encyclopedia. 1913.
- CDLI, Chicago Digital Library Listing of the Amarna letters
- Electronic version of the Amarna tablets, Akkadian in English transliteration.
- High-resolution images, from the Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin.
- Mineralogical and Chemical Study of the Amarna Tablets – Provenance Study of the Amarna Tablets – University of Tel Aviv web page
- Sample letter
- Text of some letters, archive.org
