Salafi jihadism, also known as revolutionary Salafism[1] or jihadist Salafism, is a religious-political Sunni Islamist ideology that seeks to establish a global caliphate, characterized by the advocacy of "physical" (military) jihadist attacks on non-Muslim and (takfired) Muslim targets. The Salafist interpretation of sacred Islamic texts is "in their most literal, traditional sense",[2] which adherents claim will bring about the return to "true Islam".[3][4][5][6][7]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Osama_bin_Laden%2C_portr%C3%A6t.jpg/220px-Osama_bin_Laden%2C_portr%C3%A6t.jpg)
The original use of the term "jihadist Salafists" (also "Salafi-jihadi" or "Salafist jihadis")[3][4][5][8] came from French political scientist Gilles Kepel[9][10][11][12] to refer to international volunteers of the jihad against the Soviet Union in Afghanistan who had come from around the world to fight for Islam against Marxist forces in Afghanistan and had lost the American-Saudi funding and interest after the Soviet forces had withdrawn, but wanted to continue waging jihad elsewhere.[13] Their original jihad was against an aggressive anti-religious power (Soviet Union and its Marxist allies), attempting to take over a Muslim region (Afghanistan), and had been enthusiastically supported by large numbers of Muslims including governments. However, isolated from their national and social class origins and seeking to "rationalize" their "existence and behavior",[9] some Arab Afghan volunteers expanded the targets of their jihad to include the United States (whom they "perceived as the greatest enemy of the faith", despite having supported and armed the Afghan Mujahideen), and various governments of Muslim-majority countries - whom they perceived as apostates from Islam.[2]
Jihadist and Salafist elements of "hybrid" ideology developed by international volunteers ("Arab-Afghan" Mujahideen) had not been joined previously because mainstream Salafis,[3][8][14] (dubbed by some Western commentators as "good Salafis"),[11] had mostly adhered to political quietism - eschewing political activities and partisan allegiances, viewing them as potentially divisive for the broader Muslim community and as a distraction from the studying and practicing of Islam.[15] Prominent Quietist Salafi scholars have denounced doctrines of Salafi jihadism as Bid'ah ("innovation") and "heretical",[16] strongly forbidding Muslims from participating or assisting in any armed underground activity against ruling governments.[Note 1][a] Jihadist salafists often dismiss the quietist scholars as "'sheikist" traitors, portraying them as palace scholars worried about the patronage of "the oil sheiks of the Arabian peninsula" rather than pure Islam,[2] and contend that they are not dividing the Muslim community because, (in their view), the rulers of Muslim-majority countries and other self-proclaimed Muslims they attack are not actually part of the community having deviated from Islam and become apostates or false Muslims.[3][5][19]
Early ideologues of the movement were Arab Afghan veterans of the Afghan jihad: Abu Qatada al-Filistini, the (naturalized Spanish) Syrian Abu Musab, Mustapha Kamel known as Abu Hamza al-Masri, etc.[2] The jihadist ideology of Qutbism has been identified variously as the ideological foundation of the movement,[3][20][21] a closely related Islamist ideology,[3][22][23][24] or a variety of revolutionary Salafism.[3][23] While Salafism had little presence in Europe during the 1980s, Salafi jihadists had by the mid-2000s acquired "a burgeoning presence in Europe, having attempted more than 30 terrorist attacks among E.U. countries since 2001."[11] While many see the influence and activities of Salafi jihadists as in decline after 2000 (at least in the United States),[25][26] others see the movement as growing in the wake of the Arab Spring, the breakdown of state control in Libya and Syria in 2014,[27] and the U.S. retreat from Afghanistan in 2021.[28]
Definitions
In the words of Madawi al Rasheed, Salafi jihadism is
a hybrid construction deeply rooted in the last three decades of the twentieth century that is desperate to anchor itself in an authentic Islamic tradition, yet reflecting serious borrowing from the discourse of Western modernity[29]
According to Madawi Al Rasheed, ideology of Jihadi-Salafism is a post-modern hybridity whose sources can be found in the past and present, in both Muslim world and Western world. Thus, it is the outcome of cross-fertilisation of sources that are both transnational and local, resulting in a devastating ideology that re-invents the past to induce a "cataclysmic war between two binary oppositions." Thus contemporary Salafi-Jihadis are primarily products of modernity, rather than an extension of traditional Muslim societies. Thus, Jihadis seek to create a mimicry of the West of which they want to be part of, but reject the other leading to violence. However, more than the ideology itself, it is the circumstances that explain the appeal of Jihadis which is the real cause of violence. The traditional Mujahideen of the previous eras, such as ‘Omar al-Mukhtar, ‘Abd al-Qadir, al-Jaza’iri and ‘Izz al-Din al-Qassam were a different category of people, products of different social circumstances who sought to liberate occupied lands from foreign imperialist and colonial penetrations. Although they gained solidarity across the Islamic World, they were not transnational actors. Salafi-Jihadis on the other hand, die for an imagined globalised faith, shares Western modernity (despite its critique), and advocate a neo-liberal free-market rationale, in their quest for a global World Order. Thus Jihadi-Salafism has as much to do with the West as with Salafism or religion in general.[30]
Another definition of Salafi jihadism, offered by Mohammed M. Hafez, is an "extreme form of Sunni Islamism that rejects democracy and Shia rule". Hafez distinguished them from apolitical and conservative Salafi scholars (such as Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani, Muhammad ibn al Uthaymeen, Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz, Wasiullah Abbas, Zubair Ali Zai and Abdul-Azeez ibn Abdullaah Aal ash-Shaikh), but also from the sahwa movement associated with Salman al-Ouda or Safar Al-Hawali.[31]
According to Michael Horowitz, Salafi jihad is an ideology that identifies the "alleged source of the Muslims' conundrum" in the "persistent attacks and humiliation of Muslims on the part of an anti-Islamic alliance of what it terms 'Crusaders', 'Zionists', and 'apostates'."[32] The concept was described by the American-Israeli scholar Martin Kramer as an academic term that "will inevitably be [simplified to] jihadism or the jihadist movement in popular usage."[12]
Tenets
According to political scientist Gilles Kepel, Salafist jihadism combined "respect for the sacred texts in their most literal form, ... with an absolute commitment to jihad, whose number-one target had to be America, perceived as the greatest enemy of the faith."[33] 13th century Hanbalite jurist Taqi al-Din Ahmad ibn Taymiyya (1328 C.E/ 728 A.H), a maverick cleric known for his fierce anti-Mongol stances, is the most authoritative classical theologian in Salafi-jihadist discourse.[34]
According to Mohammed M. Hafez, contemporary jihadi Salafism is characterized by "five features":
- immense emphasis on the concept of tawhid (unity of God);
- God's sovereignty (hakimiyyat Allah), which defines right and wrong, good and evil, and which supersedes human reasoning is applicable in all places on earth and at all times, and makes unnecessary and un-Islamic other ideologies such as liberalism or humanism;
- the rejection of all religious innovation (bid‘ah) in Islam;
- the permissibility and necessity of takfir (the declaring of a Muslim to be outside the creed, so that they may face execution);
- and on the centrality of jihad against infidel regimes.[31]
Another researcher, Thomas Hegghammer, has outlined five objectives shared by jihadis:[35]
- Changing the social and political organisation of the state (an example, being the Armed Islamic Group (GIA) and the former Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (GSPC) which fought to overthrow the Algerian state and replace it with an Islamic state).[35]
- Establishing sovereignty on a territory perceived as occupied or dominated by non-Muslims (an example being the Pakistan-based Lashkar-e-Taiba (Soldiers of the Pure) in Indian-administered Kashmir and the Caucasus Emirate in the Russian Federation).[35]
- Defending the Muslim community (ummah) from external non-Muslim perceived threats, either the "near enemy" (al-adou al-qarib, this includes jihadists Arabs who travelled to Bosnia and Chechnya to defend local Muslims against non-Muslim armies) or the "far enemy" (al-adou al-baid, often affiliates of Al-Qaeda attacking the West).[35]
- Correcting other Muslims' moral behaviour. (In Indonesia, vigilantes first used sticks and stones to attack those they considered "deviant" in behavior before moving on to guns and bombs.)[35]
- Intimidating and marginalising other Muslim sects (an example being Lashkar-e-Jhangvi which has carried out violent attacks on Pakistani Shia for decades, and killings in Iraq).[35])
Robin Wright notes the importance in Salafi jihadist groups of
- the formal process of taking an oath of allegiance (Bay'ah) to a leader.[36] (This can be by individuals to an emir or by a local group to a transglobal group.)
- "marbling", i.e. pretending to cut ties to a less-than-popular global movement when "strategically or financially convenient". (An example is the cutting of ties to al-Qaeda by the Syrian group Al-Nusra Front with al-Qaeda's approval.[36])
Al Jazeera journalist Jamal Al Sharif describes Salafi jihadism as combining "the doctrinal content and approach of Salafism and organisational models from Muslim Brotherhood organisations. Their motto emerged as 'Salafism in doctrine, modernity in confrontation'".[37]
Differences from Quietist and Islamist Salafism
Much of Salafi-Jihadist discourse borrows heavily from Sayyid Qutb's concept of jahiliyya (pre-Islamic ignorance), hakimiyya (Sovereignty of God) and takfir (excommunication). Prominent contemporary ideologues of Salafi jihadism, such as Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi and Abu Qatada al Filistini, drew heavily from the works of Sayyid Qutb and adopted concepts of Al-Wala wal Bara from his writings. Maqdisi’s interpretation of Al-Wala wal Bara marked a distinct shift from traditional Salafi theology by introducing Takfiri principles to it. Adopting a binary world-view, Maqdisi excommunicated contemporary governments in the Muslim World and their collaborators as apostates. Salafi Jihadists also reject democracy as it contradicts their interpretation of Hakimiyya. Salafi Islamists, while supporting revolutions to topple authoritarian regimes, permit the participation in democratic systems across the world to Islamize the political order through the existing structures. These revolutionary Islamist doctrines advocating violent overthrow of the existing political order, is seen as heretical by Quietist Salafis. [38]
Salafi jihadists distinguish themselves from Quietist salafis whom they label "sheikist", so named because – the jihadists believe – that the "sheikists" had forsaken adoration of God for adoration of "the oil sheiks of the Arabian peninsula, with the Al Saud family at their head". Principal among the sheikist scholars was Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz – "the archetypal court ulema [ulama al-balat]". These allegedly "false" salafi "had to be striven against and eliminated", but even more infuriating was the Salafi Islamists of the Muslim Brotherhood, whom the Salafi jihadists considered excessively moderate and lacking in a stricter literalist interpretation of holy texts.[33]
Quietist Salafi scholarship in turn, denounce Salafi jihadism as a heterodox ideology far-removed from Salafi orthodoxy.[16] Quietist Salafi scholars such as Albani, Ibn Uthaymeen, Ibn Baz, Saleh Al-Fawzan, and Muqbil ibn Hadi condemned rebellion against the rulers as "the most corrupt of innovations", and forbade Muslims "to take it upon himself to execute a ruling" which is under the jurisdiction of the rulers.[39][40][41][42][43][Note 2] Salafi jihadists contend that they are not dividing the Muslim community because, in their view, the rulers of Muslim-majority countries and other self-proclaimed Muslims they attack have deviated from Islam and are actually apostates or false Muslims.[3][5][19]
Quietist Salafis criticize Al-Qaeda and Islamic State as Qutbists and often label Salafi Islamists as "Surooris". According to them, these organizations are directly opposed to Salafiyya and its manhaj (methodology). Major doctrines of the Salafi Jihadist movement have its roots in early heterodox sects such as the Kharijites. As a result, heavy creedal disparities exist between traditional Salafis and Salafi Jihadists. Mainstream Salafism, which consists of both quietist and political Salafis, reject the violence of Jihadists. Major Purist Salafi ulema condemn certain Salafi-jihadist organisations as Kharijites.[38]
History
Origins
The Egyptian Islamist movements of 1950s are generally considered to be the precursors of contemporary Salafi-Jihadist movements.[38] The theological doctrines of the Syrian-Egyptian Islamic scholar Sayyid Rashid Rida (1865–1935 CE) greatly influenced these movements. Amongst his notable ideas included reviving the traditions of the early Muslim generations (Salaf) as well ridding the Islamic World of Western influences and Jahiliyya by specifically looking up to the model of Khulafa Rashidun. Rida's ideas would set the foundations of future Salafi-Jihadist movements and greatly influence Islamists like Hasan al-Banna, Sayyid Qutb, and other Islamic fundamentalist figures.[45][46][47][48] Rashid Rida fervently opposed Western ideas and foreign influences, and his activities were focused on overturning the encroachment of secular laws across the Muslim World following the First World War. Rida believed that deference to man-made laws was tantamount to the polytheism of "Jahiliyya" and campaigned for the re-establishment of a Sunni Caliphate that would unite the Muslims. Only this, Rida asserted, alongside the "return to true and pure Islam" exemplified by the tenets of the Salafiyya movement; could liberate Muslim World from colonialism and restore past Islamic glory.[49][50] Rida's treatises laid the theological framework of future militants who would eventually establish the Salafi-Jihadi movement.[49][51]
Fore-runners of Salafi jihadism principally includes Egyptian militant Islamist scholar and theoretician Sayyid Qutb, who developed "the intellectual underpinnings", in the 1950s, for what would later become the doctrine of most Jihadist organizations around the world, including Al-Qaeda and ISIS.[52][53][54][55] Going radically further than his predecessors, Qutb called upon Muslims to form an ideologically committed vanguard that would wage armed Jihad against the secular and Western-allied governments in the Arab World, until the restoration of Islamic rule.[49][51] Sayyid Qutb's brother, Muhammad Qutb was one of Osama bin Laden’s teachers at university. Sayyid Qutb has been described as "Al-Qaeda's Philosopher". Ayman al Zawahiri, the Egyptian who was second in command and co-founder of Al-Qaeda, called Qutb, "the most prominent theoretician of the fundamentalist movements".[56][57]
In his writings, both before and after joining the Muslim Brotherhood Qutb argued that the Muslim world had reached a crisis point and that the Islamic world has been replaced by pagan ignorance of Jahiliyyah, (which directly translates to "ignorance", a term used by Muslims to describe the "dark" ages of pre-Islamic Arabia). When Qutb went abroad for a two-year scholarship to the United States, it is said he came back with extremist radical beliefs. He used what's been often described by scholars as his "genuine literary excellence" to spread these views of western criticism to form the main intellectual doctrine for the Muslim Brotherhood, which later be adopted by most terrorist organizations worldwide.[58][59]
Qutbism doctrine of Islam interpretation emphasizes how the secular, infidel Muslim leaders and populations have fallen to imitating the western way of life, and that before any prosperity would occur, the Muslim world must revert to the Caliphate-age Shari'ah Law instead of "Man-made laws". He issued ideological & religious debates stating that the violent means are justifiable under Islamic Law for an end as great as returning the Islamic State "days of glory", and these means are often leading a victorious violent holy war (Jihad) against the West.[60]
A part of his writings which have influenced Islamists and terrorist organizations on the nature of The West, can be found in his book "The America that I Have Seen", which he wrote immediately after returning to Egypt from the United States. In it he complained of Western materialism, individual freedoms, economic system, racism, brutal boxing matches, "poor" haircuts,[61] superficiality in conversations and friendships,[62] restrictions on divorce, enthusiasm for sports, lack of artistic feeling,[62] "animal-like" mixing of the sexes (which "went on even in churches"),[63] and strong support for the new Israeli state.[64]
He was appalled by what he perceived as loose sexual openness of American men and women. Qutb noted with disapproval the openly displayed sexuality of American women stating in the same influential book The America that I Have Seen:
the American girl is well acquainted with her body's seductive capacity. She knows it lies in the face, and in expressive eyes, and thirsty lips. She knows seductiveness lies in the round breasts, the full buttocks, and in the shapely thighs, sleek legs – and she shows all this and does not hide it.[61]
On 29 August 1966, Sayyid Qutb was executed by hanging by Egyptian president's Gamal Abdel-Nasser's regime for his alleged role in the president's assassination plot.[65][66][67][68] This would later paint him as an Islamic martyr or shahid (he is often called "Shahid Sayyid Qutb" or Sayyid Qutb al-Shahid by admirers) among supporters & Islamist circles, particularly as the trial was alleged to be a show trial.[69] Qutb wrote his major Islamist works (a commentary of the Qur'an, Fi Zilal al-Qur'an (In the Shade of the Qur'an), and a manifesto of political Islam called Ma'alim fi-l-Tariq (Milestones), while incarcerated and allegedly tortured. This, alongside his allegedly extrajudicial execution, elevated the value of these two major writings, giving his radical, violent Islamist doctrine in his writings a stronger influence over future terrorist organizations.[70][71]
Evolution of Salafi jihadism after Qutb
The crushing defeat of various Arab states in the 1967 Six-Day War led to the de-legitimization of socialist and nationalist ideologies across the Arab world. Their demise provided a fertile ground for the Salafiyya movement, which spread across the Arab world as well as the wider Islamic world. The rise of oil industry in Gulf states also brought in a large-workforce. The workforce embraced Salafi doctrines and founded Salafi organisations as they returned to their home-countries.[38]
Beginning from 1970s, various Islamist and Jihadist factions attempted to idealize traditional Salafiyya, recasting it as a totalizing political system based on the doctrines of Sayyid Qutb. Majority of Salafis traditionally viewed Salafiyya as a scholarly movement that revived the religious faith of Muslims through teaching and devout adherence to Islamic decrees. Additionally, they advocated Salafism to remain uncontaminated from politics. However, a minority sought the establishment of an Islamic system through violent means, based on Sayyid Qutb's concepts of Hakimiyya (Sovereignty of God). They advocated a global Jihad, with clear political overtones, to fight for Muslim liberation across national boundaries. This movement came to be known as Salafi-Jihadism.[38] Groups like Takfir wal-Hijra, who kidnapped and murdered an Egyptian ex-government minister in 1978, also inspired some of "the tactics and methods" used by Al Qaeda.[11]
Expansion
Gilles Kepel writes that the Salafis whom he encountered in Europe in the 1980s, were "totally apolitical".[9][11] However, by the mid-1990s, he met some who felt jihad in the form of "violence and terrorism" was "justified to realize their political objectives". The mingling of many Salafists who were alienated from mainstream European society with violent jihadists created "a volatile mixture".[11] "When you're in the state of such alienation you become easy prey to the jihadi guys who will feed you more savory propaganda than the old propaganda of the Salafists who tell you to pray, fast and who are not taking action".[11]
In the 1990s, militant Islamists of the al-Jama'a al-Islamiyya were active in the terrorist attacks on police, government officials, and foreign tourists in Egypt, and the Armed Islamic Group of Algeria was a principal extremist group in the Algerian Civil War.[9] In Afghanistan, the Taliban were adherents of the Deobandi, not the Salafi school of Islam, but they closely co-operated with bin Laden and various Salafi-jihadist leaders.[9] The largest jihadist-Salafist terrorist operation is considered to be the September 11 attacks against the United States perpetrated by al-Qaeda in 2001.[72]
In his research, Seth Jones of the Rand Corporation finds that Salafi-jihadist numbers and activity have increased from 2007 to 2013. According to his research:
- the number of Salafi jihadist groups increased by over 50% from 2010 to 2013, using Libya and parts of Syria as sanctuary.
- the number of Salafi jihadist fighters "more than doubled from 2010 to 2013" using both low and high estimates. The war in Syria was the single most important attraction for Salafi-jihadist fighters.
- attacks by al-Qaeda–affiliated groups (Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, al Shabaab, Jabhat al-Nusrah, and al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula)
- despite al-Qaeda's traditional focus on the "far enemy" (US and Europe), approximately 99% of the attacks by al-Qaeda and its affiliates in 2013 were against "near enemy" targets (in North Africa, the Middle East, and other regions outside of the West).[27]
Leaders, groups and activities
Leaders
"Theoreticians" of Salafist jihadism included Afghan jihad veterans such as the Palestinian Abu Qatada, the Syrian Mustafa Setmariam Nasar, the Egyptian Mustapha Kamel, known as Abu Hamza al-Masri.[73] Osama bin Laden was its most well-known leader. The dissident Saudi preachers Salman al-Ouda and Safar Al-Hawali, were held in high esteem by this school. Al Qaeda leader Ayman Al Zawahiri would praise Sayyid Qutb, stating that Qutb's call formed the ideological inspiration for the contemporary Salafi-Jihadist movement.[74] Other leading figures in the movement include Anwar al-Awlaki, former leader of Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP);[75] Abu Bakar Bashir, leader of the banned Indonesian militant group (Jema'ah Islamiyah); Nasir al-Fahd, Saudi Arabian Salafi-Jihadist scholar who opposes the Saudi state, and reportedly pledged allegiance to ISIS;[76] Mohammed Yusuf, the founder of the Nigerian Boko Haram;[77] Omar Bakri Muhammad,[78] Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, leader of terrorist group Islamic State of Iraq and Levant;[79][80] etc.
Development
Murad al-Shishani of The Jamestown Foundation states there have been three generations of Salafi-jihadists: those waging jihad in Afghanistan, Bosnia and Iraq. As of the mid-2000s, Arab fighters in Iraq were "the latest and most important development of the global Salafi-jihadi movement".[81] These fighters were usually not Iraqis, but volunteers who had come to Iraq from other countries, mainly Saudi Arabia. Unlike in earlier Salafi jihadi actions, Egyptians "are no longer the chief ethnic group".[81] According to Bruce Livesey Salafist jihadists are currently a "burgeoning presence in Europe, having attempted more than 30 terrorist attacks among EU countries" from September 2001 to the beginning of 2005".[11]
According to Mohammed M. Hafez, in Iraq jihadi salafi are pursuing a "system-collapse strategy" whose goal is to install an "Islamic emirate based on Salafi dominance, similar to the Taliban regime in Afghanistan." In addition to occupation/coalition personnel they target mainly Iraqi security forces and Shia civilians, but also "foreign journalists, translators and transport drivers and the economic and physical infrastructure of Iraq."[31]
Groups
Salafist jihadist groups include Al Qaeda,[14] the now defunct Algerian Armed Islamic Group (GIA),[33] and the Egyptian group Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya which still exists.
In the Algerian Civil War 1992–1998, the GIA was one of the two major Islamist armed groups (the other being the Armee Islamique du Salut or AIS) fighting the Algerian army and security forces. The GIA included veterans of the Afghanistan jihad and unlike the more moderate AIS, fought to destabilize the Algerian government with terror attacks designed to "create an atmosphere of general insecurity".[82] It considered jihad in Algeria fard ayn or an obligation for all (sane adult male) Muslims,[82] and sought to "purge" Algeria of "the ungodly" and create an Islamic state. It pursued what Gilles Kepel called "wholesale massacres of civilians", targeting French-speaking intellectuals, foreigners,[82] and Islamists deemed too moderate, and took its campaign of bombing to France, which supported the Algerian government against the Islamists. Although over 150,000 were killed in the civil war,[83] the GIA eventually lost popular support and was crushed by the security forces.[84] Remnants of the GIA continued on as "Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat", which as of 2015 calls itself al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb.[85]
Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya, (the Islamic Group) another Salafist-jihadi movement[86] fought an insurgency against the Egyptian government from 1992 to 1998 during which at least 800 Egyptian policemen and soldiers, jihadists, and civilians were killed. Outside of Egypt it is best known for a November 1997 attack at the Temple of Hatshepsut in Luxor where fifty-eight foreign tourists trapped inside the temple were hunted down and hacked and shot to death. The group declared a ceasefire in March 1999,[87] although as of 2012 it is still active in jihad against the Ba'athist Syrian regime.[86]
Perhaps the most famous and effective Salafist jihadist group was Al-Qaeda.[88] Al-Qaeda evolved from the Maktab al-Khidamat (MAK), or the "Services Office", a Muslim organization founded in 1984 to raise and channel funds and recruit foreign mujahideen for the war against the Soviets in Afghanistan. It was established in Peshawar, Pakistan, by Osama bin Laden and Abdullah Yusuf Azzam. As it became apparent that the jihad had compelled the Soviet military to abandon its mission in Afghanistan, some mujahideen called for the expansion of their operations to include Islamist struggles in other parts of the world, and Al Qaeda was formed by bin Laden on August 11, 1988.[89][90] Members were to making a pledge (bayat) to follow one's superiors.[91] Al-Qaeda emphasized jihad against the "far enemy", by which it meant the United States. In 1996, it announced its jihad to expel foreign troops and interests from what they considered Islamic lands, and in 1998, it issued a fatwa calling on Muslims to kill Americans and their allies whenever and wherever they could. Among its most notable acts of violence were the 1998 bombings of US embassies in Dar es Salaam and Nairobi that killed over 200 people;[92] and the 9/11 attacks of 2001 that killed almost 3,000 people and caused many billions of dollars in damage.
According to Mohammed M. Hafez, "as of 2006 the two major groups within the jihadi Salafi camp" in Iraq were the Mujahidin Shura Council and the Ansar al Sunna Group.[31] There are also a number of small jihadist Salafist groups in Azerbaijan.[93]
The group leading the Islamist insurgency in Southern Thailand in 2006 by carrying out most of the attacks and cross-border operations,[94] BRN-Koordinasi, favours Salafi ideology. It works in a loosely organized strictly clandestine cell system dependent on hard-line religious leaders for direction.[95][96]
Jund Ansar Allah is, or was, an armed Salafist jihadist organization in the Gaza Strip. On August 14, 2009, the group's spiritual leader, Sheikh Abdel Latif Moussa, announced during Friday sermon the establishment of an Islamic emirate in the Palestinian territories attacking the ruling authority, the Islamist group Hamas, for failing to enforce Sharia law. Hamas forces responded to his sermon by surrounding his Ibn Taymiyyah mosque complex and attacking it. In the fighting that ensued, 24 people (including Sheikh Abdel Latif Moussa himself) were killed and over 130 were wounded.[97]
In 2011, Salafist jihadists were actively involved with protests against King Abdullah II of Jordan,[98] and the kidnapping and killing of Italian peace activist Vittorio Arrigoni in Hamas-controlled Gaza Strip.[99][100]
In the North Caucasus region of Russia, the Caucasus Emirate replaced the nationalism of Muslim Chechnya and Dagestan with a hard-line Salafist-takfiri jihadist ideology. They are immensely focused on upholding the concept of tawhid (purist monotheism), and fiercely reject any practice of shirk, taqlid, ijtihad and bid‘ah. They also believe in the complete separation between the Muslim and the non-Muslim, by propagating Al Wala' Wal Bara' and declaring takfir against any Muslim who (they believe) is a mushrik (polytheist) and does not return to the observance of tawhid and the strict literal interpretation of the Quran and the Sunnah as followed by Muhammad and his companions (Sahaba).[101]
In Syria and Iraq both Jabhat al-Nusra and ISIS[102] have been described as Salafist-jihadist. Jabhat al-Nusra has been described as possessing "a hard-line Salafi-Jihadist ideology" and being one of "the most effective" groups fighting the regime.[103] Writing after ISIS victories in Iraq, Hassan Hassan believes ISIS is a reflection of "ideological shakeup of Sunni Islam's traditional Salafism" since the Arab Spring, where salafism, "traditionally inward-looking and loyal to the political establishment", has "steadily, if slowly", been eroded by Salafism-jihadism.[102]
Boko Haram in Nigeria is a Salafi jihadism group[104] that has killed tens of thousands of people, displaced 2.3 million from their homes,[105]
Activities in Europe
France
In France, in 2015 police say that salafism is represented in 90 out of 2500 investigated religious communities, which was double the number compared to five years earlier.[106] In November and December 2016, authorities closed four salafist mosque in Ecquevilly, the El Islah mosque in Villiers-sur-Marne and two in Seine-Saint-Denis (Clichy-sous-Bois and Stains).[107]
In December 2017, a salafi-Jihadist mosque in Marseille was closed by authorities for preaching about violent jihad.[108] In August 2018, after the European Court of Human Rights approved the decision, French authorities deported the salafi-Jihadist preacher Elhadi Doudi to his home country Algeria because of his radical messages he spread in Marseille.[109]
Germany
According to Deutsche Welle, Salafism is a growing movement in Germany whose aim of a Caliphate is incompatible with a Western democracy.[110] According to the German Federal Agency for Civic Education, nearly all Islamist terrorists are Salafists, but not all Salafists are terrorists. Therefore, the agency evaluated the Salafist movement beyond the actions by Salafists and analysed the ideological framework of Salafism which is in conflict with the minimal foundations of a democratic and open society. Salafists calling for the death penalty for apostasy is in conflict with freedom of religion. The dualistic view on "true believers" and "false believers" in practice means people being treated unequally on religious grounds. The call for a religious state in the form of a caliphate means that Salafists reject the rule of law and the sovereignty of the people's rule. The Salafist view on gender and society leads to discrimination and the subjugation of women.[111]
Estimates by German interior intelligence service show that it grew from 3,800 members in 2011 to 7,500 members in 2015.[112] In Germany, most of the recruitment to the movement is done on the Internet and also on the streets,[112] a propaganda drive which mostly attracts youth.[112] There are two ideological camps, one advocates Salafi-Activism and directs its recruitment efforts towards non-Muslims and non-Salafist Muslims to gain influence in society.[112] The other and minority movement, the jihadist Salafism, advocates gaining influence by the use of violence and nearly all identified terrorist cells in Germany came from Salafist circles.[112]
In 2015, Sigmar Gabriel, Vice-Chancellor of Germany, spoke out, saying "We need Saudi Arabia to solve the regional conflicts, but we must at the same time make clear that the time to look away is past. Wahhabi mosques are financed all over the world by Saudi Arabia. In Germany, many dangerous Islamists come from these communities."[113] In November 2016, nationwide raids were conducted on the Salafi-Islamist True Religion organization.[114][115][116]
According to the German Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution in Cologne, the number of Salafists in Germany grew from 9,700 in December 2016 to 10,800 in December 2017. In addition to the rise, the Salafist movement in Germany was increasingly fractured which made them harder to monitor by authorities.[110] According to the office, street distributions of Quran took place less frequently which was described as a success for the authorities.[110] Radicalisation changed character, from taking place in mosques and interregional Salafist organisations to more often happening in small circles, which increasingly formed on the internet. A further development was a rise in participation of women.[110] According to the FFGI at Goethe University Frankfurt, wahhabist ideology is spread in Germany as in other European country mostly by an array of informal, personal and organisational networks, where organisations closely associated with the government of Saudi Arabia such as the Muslim World League (WML) and the World Association of Muslim Youth are actively participating.[117]
In February 2017, the German Salafist mosque organisation Berliner Fussilet-Moscheeverein was banned by authorities. Anis Amri, the perpetrator of the 2016 Berlin truck attack, was said to be among its visitors. In March 2017, the German Muslim community organisation Deutschsprachige Islamkreis Hildesheim was also banned after investigators found that its members were preparing to travel to the conflict zone in Syria to fight for the Islamic State. According to the Federal Agency for Civic Education, these examples show that certain Salafist mosques not only concern themselves with religious matters, but also prepare serious crimes and terrorist activities.[118]
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Many Islamic religious buildings were damaged or destroyed in the Bosnian War during the 90s, estimates say up to 80%,[119] and some are rebuilt with the aid of funds from Saudi Arabia in exchange for Saudi control[citation needed] which became the starting point of the Wahhabi influence in Bosnia. According to a study from 2005,[by whom?] over 3% of the mainstream Sunni Muslim population (around 60,000 people) of Bosnia and Herzegovina identified themselves as wahhabist.[citation needed] Despite this, all-covering veils such as niqab and burqa are still a rare sight.[120]
Sweden
Representatives from the mosque in Gävle are promoting this variant of Islam, which is considered extreme in Sweden. According to researcher Aje Carlbom at Malmö University the organisation which is behind the missionary work is the Swedish United Dawah Center, abbreviated SUDC.[121] SUDC is characterised as a salafist group by a researcher of religious history at Stockholm University and it has many links to the British Muslim Abdur Raheem Green.[121] According to professor Mohammed Fazlhashemi, salafi-Jihadists oppose rational theology and they hate shia Muslims most of all.[121] Three Muslim community organisations in Malmö reportedly invited antisemitic and homophobic salafist lecturers such as Salman al-Ouda. One of the organisations, Alhambra is a student society at Malmö University.[122][undue weight? – discuss]
In Hässleholm the Ljusets moské (translated: "mosque of the light") is spreading salafi ideology and portray shia Muslims as apostates and traitors in social media while the atrocities of the Islamic state are never mentioned.[123] In 2009 the imam Abu al-Hareth at the mosque was sentenced to six years in jail for the attempted murder of a local shia Muslim from Iraq and another member set fire to a shia mosque in Malmö.[123] In 2017, Swedish Security Police reported that the number of jihadists in Sweden had risen to thousands from about 200 in 2010.[124] Based on social media analysis, an increase was noted in 2013.[125] According to police in Sweden, salafist-Jihadists affect the communities where they are active.[126]
According to Swedish researcher Magnus Ranstorp, salafi-Jihadism is antidemocratic, homophobic and aims to subjugate women and is therefore opposed to a societal order founded on democracy.[126] According to Anas Khalifa , the salafi movement is present at nearly every major mosque in Sweden "in some form".[127]
United Kingdom
A 2017 report found the number of Wahhabi and Salafi-Jihadist mosques in Britain had increased from 68 in 2007 to 110 in 2014.[128] The report found that Middle Eastern nations are providing financial support to mosques and Islamic educational institutions, which have been linked to the spread of Salafi-Jihadist materials which expoused "an illiberal, bigoted" ideology.[129][130]
List of groups
According to Seth G. Jones at the RAND Corporation, as of 2014, there were around 50 Salafist-jihadist groups in existence or recently in existence ("present" in the list indicates a group's continued existence as of 2014). (Jones defines Salafi-jihadist groups as those groups which emphasize the importance of returning to a "pure" form of Islam, the form of Islam which was practiced by the Salaf, the pious ancestors; and those groups which believe that violent jihad is fard ‘ayn (a personal religious duty).[6]
Name of group | Base of operations | Years |
---|---|---|
Abdullah Azzam Brigades (Yusuf al-Uyayri Battalions) |
Saudi Arabia | 2009–present |
Abdullah Azzam Brigades (Ziyad al-Jarrah Battalions) |
Lebanon | 2009–present |
Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) | Philippines | 1991–present |
Aden-Abyan Islamic Army (AAIA) | Yemen | 1994–present |
Al-Itihaad al-Islamiya (AIAI) | Somalia, Ethiopia | 1994–2002 |
Al-Qaeda (core) | Pakistan | 1988–present |
Al-Qaeda in Aceh (a.k.a. Tanzim al Qa’ida Indonesia for Serambi Makkah) |
Indonesia | 2009–2011 |
Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (Saudi Arabia) | Saudi Arabia | 2002–2008 |
Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (Yemen) | Yemen | 2008–present |
al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM, formerly the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat, GSPC) |
Algeria | 1998–present |
Al Takfir wal al-Hijrah | Egypt (Sinai Peninsula) | 2011–present |
Al-Mulathamun (Mokhtar Belmokhtar) | Mali, Libya, Algeria | 2012–2013 |
Al-Murabitun (Mokhtar Belmokhtar) | Mali, Libya, Algeria | 2013–2017 |
Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia- Union of Islamic Courts (ARS/UIC) |
Somalia, Eritrea | 2006–2009 |
Ansar al-Islam | Iraq | 2001–present |
Ansar al-Sharia (Egypt) | Egypt | 2012–present |
Ansar al-Sharia (Libya) | Libya | 2012–2017 |
Ansar al-Sharia (Mali) | Mali | 2012–present |
Ansar al-Sharia (Tunisia) | Tunisia | 2011–present |
Ansar Bait al-Maqdis (a.k.a. Ansar Jerusalem) |
Gaza Strip, Egypt (Sinai Peninsula) | 2012–present |
Ansaru | Nigeria | 2012–present |
Osbat al-Ansar (AAA) | Lebanon | 1985–present |
Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters (BIFF, a.k.a. BIFM) |
Philippines | 2010–present |
Boko Haram | Nigeria | 2003–present |
Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (Basayev faction) |
Russia (Chechnya) | 1994–2007 |
East Turkestan Islamic Movement (ETIM, a.k.a. Turkestan Islamic Party) |
China (Xinjiang) | 1989–present |
Egyptian Islamic Jihad (EIJ) | Egypt | 1978–2001 |
Harakat al-Shabaab al-Mujahideen | Somalia | 2002–present |
Harakat al-Shuada'a al Islamiyah (a.k.a. Islamic Martyr's Movement, IMM) |
Libya | 1996–2007 |
Harakat Ansar al-Din | Mali | 2011–2017 |
Hizbul al Islam | Somalia | 2009–2010 |
Imarat Kavkaz (IK, or Caucasus Emirate) | Russia (Chechnya) | 2007–present |
Indian Mujahedeen | India | 2005–present |
Islamic Jihad Union (a.k.a. Islamic Jihad Group) |
Uzbekistan | 2002–present |
Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) | Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan | 1997–present |
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) | Iraq, Syria | 2004–present |
Jabhat al-Nusrah | Syria | 2011–present |
Jaish ul-Adl | Iran | 2013–present |
Jaish al-Islam (a.k.a. Tawhid and Jihad Brigades) |
Gaza Strip, Egypt (Sinai Peninsula) | 2005–present |
Jaish al-Ummah (JaU) | Gaza Strip | 2007–present |
Jamaat Ansar Bayt al-Maqdis | Egypt (Sinai Peninsula) | 2011–present |
Jamaat Ansarullah (JA) | Tajikistan | 2010–present |
Jamaah Ansharut Tauhid (JAT) | Indonesia | 2008–present |
Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) | Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore |
1993–present |
Jondullah | Pakistan | 2003–present |
Jund al-Sham | Lebanon, Syria, Gaza Strip, Qatar, Afghanistan |
1999–2008 |
Khalifa Islamiyah Mindanao (KIM) | Philippines | 2013–present |
Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT, a.k.a. Mansoorian) | Pakistan (Kashmir) | 1990–present |
Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG) | Libya | 1990–present |
Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group (GICM) | Morocco, Western Europe | 1998–present |
Movement for Tawhid and Jihad in West Africa (MUJAO) |
Mali | 2011–2013 |
Muhammad Jamal Network (MJN) | Egypt | 2011–present |
Mujahideen Shura Council | Gaza Strip, Egypt (Sinai Peninsula) | 2011–present |
Salafia Jihadia (As-Sirat al Moustaquim) | Morocco | 1995–present |
Tawhid wal Jihad | Iraq | 1999–2004 |
Tunisian Combat Group (TCG) | Tunisia, Western Europe | 2000–2011 |
Ruling strategy
In several places and times, jihadis have taken control of an area and they have ruled it as an Islamic state, such as ISIL in Syria and Iraq.
Among jihadists, establishing an uncompromising form of sharia law is a core value and goal, but strategies differ over how quickly this should be done. Observers such as the journalist Robert Worth have described jihadis as being torn between wanting to build a truly Islamic order gradually from the bottom up in order to avoid alienating non-jihadi Muslims (the desire of Osama bin Laden), and not wanting to wait for the creation of an Islamic state.[131]
In Zinjibar, Yemen, AQAP established an "emirate" which lasted from May 2011 until the summer of 2012. It emphasized (and publicized with a media campaign) "uncharacteristically gentle" good governance over its conquered territory rather than strict enforcement of sharia law—rebuilding infrastructure, quashing banditry, and resolving legal disputes.[132] One jihadi veteran of Yemen described its approach towards the local population:
You have to take a gradual approach with them when it comes to religious practices. You can't beat people for drinking alcohol when they don't even know the basics of how to pray. We have to first stop the great sins, and then move gradually to the lesser and lesser ones. ... Try to avoid enforcing Islamic punishments as much as possible unless you are forced to do so.[132]
However AQAP's "clemency drained away under the pressure of war",[132] and the area was taken back by the government. The failure of this model (according to New York Times correspondent Robert Worth), may have "taught" jihadis a lesson on the need to instill fear.[132]
ISIS is believed to have used a manifesto which is titled "The Management of Savagery" as its model. The manifesto emphasizes the need to create areas of "savagery"—i.e., lawlessness—in enemy territory. Once the enemy was too exhausted and weakened from the lawlessness (particularly terrorism) to continue to try to govern its territory, the nucleus of a new caliphate could be established in its place.[133] The author of "The Management of Savagery", did not place a lot of emphasis on winning the sympathy of local Muslims, instead, he placed a lot of emphasis on the use of extreme violence, writing that: "One who previously engaged in jihad knows that it is naught but violence, crudeness, terrorism, frightening [others] and massacring – I am talking about jihad and fighting, not about Islam and one should not confuse them."[133] (Social-media posts from ISIS territory "suggest that individual executions happen more or less continually, and mass executions occur every few weeks", according to journalist Graeme Wood.[134])
Views on violence
In recent years, the Salafi methodology has come to be associated with the jihad of extremist groups that advocate the killing of innocent civilians. The European Parliament, in a report commissioned in 2013, claimed that Wahhabi and Salafi-Jihadi groups are involved, mainly via Saudi charities, in the support and supply of arms to rebel groups around the world.[135] Some Salafi scholars appear to support violent extremism. The Egyptian Salafi-Jihadist cleric Mahmoud Shaaban "appeared on a religious television channel calling for the deaths of main opposition figures Mohammed ElBaradei – a Nobel Peace Prize laureate – and former presidential candidate Hamdeen Sabahi".[136][137] Some other Islamic groups, particularly amongst Sufis, have also complained about extremism among some Salafi.
According to the British Researcher Anabel Inge:
"While aspects of their purist creed are shared by Jihadi groups, most—probably the vast majority of—Salafis in Europe are explicitly against terrorism. ... In Britain, the 'Salafi' label has been associated with non-violent, often quietist groups. ... One preacher, for instance, encouraged his online followers to 'mass distribute' an anti-ISIS leaflet he had written, in which he urged anyone with information about terrorist plots to 'inform the authorities'. That same preacher reported receiving death threats from ISIS sympathizers. ... I found no evidence of so-called brainwashing. On the contrary, I found that the Salafi conversion process was largely intellectual, rather than based on social or other pressures."
Traditional Salafis have rejected the use of violence by Salafi-Jihadists. The Saudi scholar Muhammad ibn al Uthaymeen considered suicide bombing to be unlawful[139][140] and the scholar Abdul Muhsin al-Abbad wrote a treatise entitled: According to which intellect and Religion is Suicide bombings and destruction considered Jihad?.[139] Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani stated that "History repeats itself. Everybody claims that the Prophet is their role model. Our Prophet spent the first half of his message making dawah, and he did not start it with jihad".[141] The vast majority of Salafis reject violence, viewing most Salafi-Jihadist groups as deviants, and are amongst their most vehement critics.[142] It has been noted that the Western association of Salafism with violence stems from writings "through the prism of security studies" that were published in the late 20th century and that continue to persist.[143]
Condemnations and challenges by Muslims
Many Muslim leaders, scholarly figures and dozens of Islamic councils have denounced Salafi jihadism as deviant. Numerous Islamic scholars, of both Salafi and non-Salafi persuasions, have written treatises in which they have compared certain Salafi Jihadists groups like Islamic State to Kharijites.[144] Some scholars, Western policy institutes, and political scientists have asserted that Salafi-Jihadism can be a gateway to violent extremism and terrorism.[145][146][147][148][149][150][151][152][153][154][155]
According to Western analysts, obstacles in countering Salafi jihadism are funding from oil-rich Gulf nations and private donations which are difficult to track,[156][157][158] Saudi efforts to propagate Salafiyya movement throughout the Muslim world,[159] resentment for Western hegemony, authoritarian Arab regimes, feeling defenseless against foreign aggression and that "Muslim blood is cheap,"[160] weak governance, extremist Salafi preaching that counters moderate voices, and other challenges.[161]
Dutch political scientist Alex P. Schmid states:
"Salafist Jihadism (al-Salafiyya al-Jihadiyya) has managed to establish itself as the dominant ideology of rebellion in the early 21st century, just as Fascism and Communism had been the most violent ideologies of the twentieth century. For a brief moment in 2011, the Arab Spring with its non-violent mass demonstrations, seemed to offer an alternative model of rebellion in the absence of democratic regimes but when these mass uprisings were crushed in all countries except Tunisia, jihadism as a non-mass based method of fighting repression and foreign intervention gained the upper hand in the minds of many militant youths."[162][163]
Notes
- ^ Statements issued by major Quietist Salafi scholars:
- Nasiruddin Al Albani, Muhammad (27 August 2014). "You Can't Take the Law into Your Own Hands". Albaani Site. Archived from the original on 23 August 2017.
- "The Speech of Shaykh Muqbil about revolutions and uprisings". Dawatus Salafiyyah Leicester UK. Archived from the original on 2021-02-03.
As for uprisings and revolutions against the rulers who are in the Islamic lands, then this is not the way of rectification. And the way of rectification is teaching the Muslims the Book of their Lord and the Sunnah of their Prophet and teaching them the biography of the Prophet (صلى اللهُ عليه وسَلَّم) and the biography of his companions and how they had patience with the poverty, not having (enough) clothes, leaving their homelands and the infectious diseases which befell them in al-Madeenah after they emigrated. Therefore, it is imperative that we nurture the people in being close (to the way) of the companions, and I do not think that we are able to do that (in its entirety) but at least (it should be) close to the way of the companions.
- Al-Fawzan, Saalih (May 2004). "Is Rebelling Against a Ruler an Issue of Ijtihād?" (PDF). AbdurRahman.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-02-03.
It is impermissible to oppose and rebel against the leader of Muslim affairs. Rather, it is an obligation to obey him and forbidden to oppose him due to what that entails of bloodshed, disunity, and the ruining and alienation of a nation. And you all witness now those lands in which people revolted against their leaders. You see the results such as fighting and killing, bloodshed, and the loss of safety and security when some of these leaderships are not Muslim governments. But when people rebel against their leaders, the same thing occurs – that which occurred in Somalia, Afghanistan, Iraq, and every other place. What if the ruler is Muslim? It is not allowed to oppose him due to what that will result in of bloodshed, the loss of security, the opportunity for non-Muslims to gain control over Muslims, and dissension and division among Muslims.
- Abdul Wahid, Abu Khadeeja (19 December 2013). "The Tyranny Of The Rulers, A Reason For Rebellion?". Archived from the original on 4 February 2021.
The noble scholar Shaikh al-Albānī (rahimahullaah, died 1420H) was asked, 'Is that which is known nowadays as a military coup against the ruler mentioned in the Religion or is it an innovation?' So the Shaikh answered: 'There is no basis for these acts in Islām. And it is in opposition to the Islamic manhaj (methodology) with respect to the daʿwah (Islamic call) and creating the right atmosphere for it. Rather it is an innovation introduced by the innovators which has affected some Muslims. This is what I have stated and explained in my notes to al-Aqeedah at-Tahāwiyyah' The great scholar Ibn Bāz (died 1420AH) was asked, 'Is it from the methodology of the Salaf [to] criticize the rulers from the pulpits? And what is the methodology of the Salaf in advising the rulers?' So he answered: 'It is not from the methodology of the Salaf to criticize the rulers from the pulpits, because that would incite chaos, and it would involve not listening and obeying in that which is good. And this would mean becoming engrossed in that which harms and does not benefit. However, the way of advising that the Salaf followed was to write to the ruler, or to convey the advice to the Scholars who would then convey it to him, until he has been directed towards good. So opposing the evil can be done without mentioning the doer. So adultery, intoxicants and interest can be opposed without mentioning the one who is involved in them. And it is enough of an opposition to sins that they be warned against without mentioning that so and so is involved in them, whether it is the ruler, or other than the ruler.' Shaikh Sālih al-Fawzān was asked: 'Respected Shaikh, yourself and your brothers who are scholars in this country are Salafīs – and all praise is due to Allāh – and your method in advising the rulers is that of the Sharīʿah and as the Prophet has explained, yet there are those who find fault with you due to your neglect in openly rejecting the various oppositions [to the Sharīʿah] that have occurred. And yet others make excuses for you by saying that you are under the control and pressure of the state. So do you have any words of direction or clarification to these people?' So Shaikh al-Fawzān answered with clear and unambiguous words: 'There is no doubt that the rulers, just like people besides them, are not infallible. Advising them is an obligation. However, attacking them in the gatherings and upon the pulpits is considered to be the forbidden form of backbiting. And this evil is greater than that which occurred from the ruler since it is backbiting and because of what results from backbiting such as the sowing of the seeds of discord, causing disunity and affecting the progression of daʿwah (the call to Islām). Hence what is obligatory is to make sure advice reaches the rulers by sound and trustworthy avenues, not by publicizing and causing commotion. And as for reviling the Scholars of this country, that they do not give advice [to the rulers], or that they are being controlled in their affairs, this is a method by which separation between the Scholars, the youth and the society is desired, until it becomes possible for the mischief-maker to sow the seeds of his evil. This is because when evil suspicions are harbored about the Scholars, trust is no longer placed in them and then the chance is available for the biased partisans to spread their poison. And I believe that this thought is actually a schemed plot that has come into this country, and those who are behind it are foreign to this country. It is obligatory upon the Muslims to be cautious of it.'
- Iyaad, Abu (16 May 2019). "Shaykh Ibn ʿUthaymīn: Revolting Against the Rulers is the Most Corrupt, Vile Innovation". Kharijites.com. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021.
Shaykh Ibn ʿUthaymīn said: And rebelling against the ruler, there is no doubt it is from the most corrupt of innovations, the most vile of them and the most evil of them. The ummah was not torn to pieces except due to rebelling against its rulers.
Explanatory notes
- ^ "Defining Salafism and Its Importance:- Foundational to understanding the threat is knowing the meaning behind key terms associated with the global Salafi-Jihadist ideology. Salafism is often conflated or misinterpreted in texts and publications. Literally, the word Salafis means 'pious forefathers,' which is most often understood to mean 'the first three generations of Muslims.' The foundation for this statement can be found in Sahih al-Bukhari's compilation, which quotes Muhammad as saying, 'The best of my community [i.e. Muslims] are my generation, then those who come after them and then whose who follow them.' Proximity to Muhammad in the temporal sense matters in that the saying and actions of the early companions of Muhammad carry greater relevance and authority. Of course, the hadiths (a written collection of traditions based on the sayings of Muhammad), and principally the compilations of al-Bukhari and Muslim are held in highest regard.[6] And how these hadiths were understood by the early community of Muslims and acted upon matters greatly. This is essential to understand because Muslims, including Salafis, do not derive their religious beliefs and practices exclusively from the Quran, but also from the hadith, making its contents just as important for Islamic theology and law. The hadiths are also the locus from which Salafi-Jihadists derive many of the violent scriptural references which they use as justification for their methodology and behavior.[17][18]
- ^ "Defining Salafism and Its Importance:- Foundational to understanding the threat is knowing the meaning behind key terms associated with the global Salafi-Jihadist ideology. Salafism is often conflated or misinterpreted in texts and publications. Literally, the word Salafis means 'pious forefathers,' which is most often understood to mean 'the first three generations of Muslims.' The foundation for this statement can be found in Sahih al-Bukhari's compilation, which quotes Muhammad as saying, 'The best of my community [i.e. Muslims] are my generation, then those who come after them and then whose who follow them.' Proximity to Muhammad in the temporal sense matters in that the saying and actions of the early companions of Muhammad carry greater relevance and authority. Of course, the hadiths (a written collection of traditions based on the sayings of Muhammad), and principally the compilations of al-Bukhari and Muslim are held in highest regard, And how these hadiths were understood by the early community of Muslims and acted upon matters greatly. This is essential to understand because Muslims, including Salafis, do not derive their religious beliefs and practices exclusively from the Quran, but also from the hadith, making its contents just as important for Islamic theology and law. The hadiths are also the locus from which Salafi-Jihadists derive many of the violent scriptural references which they use as justification for their methodology and behavior.[44][18]
Citations
- ^ Amghar, Cavatorta, Samir, Francesco (17 March 2023). "Salafism in the contemporary age: Wiktorowicz revisited". Contemporary Islam. 17 (2): 3. doi:10.1007/s11562-023-00524-x. S2CID 257933043 – via Springer.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c d Kepel, Jihad, 2002, p.220
- ^ a b c d e f g h Poljarevic, Emin (2021). "Theology of Violence-oriented Takfirism as a Political Theory: The Case of the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS)". In Cusack, Carole M.; Upal, M. Afzal (eds.). Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 21. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 485–512. doi:10.1163/9789004435544_026. ISBN 978-90-04-43554-4. ISSN 1874-6691.
- ^ a b French, Nathan S. (2020). "A Jihadi-Salafi Legal Tradition? Debating Authority and Martyrdom". And God Knows the Martyrs: Martyrdom and Violence in Jihadi-Salafism. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 36–69. doi:10.1093/oso/9780190092153.003.0002. ISBN 9780190092153. LCCN 2019042378. Archived from the original on 2023-01-11. Retrieved 2021-09-26.
- ^ a b c d Baele, Stephane J. (October 2019). Giles, Howard (ed.). "Conspiratorial Narratives in Violent Political Actors' Language" (PDF). Journal of Language and Social Psychology. 38 (5–6). SAGE Publications: 706–734. doi:10.1177/0261927X19868494. hdl:10871/37355. ISSN 1552-6526. S2CID 195448888. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
- ^ a b Jones, Seth G. (2014). A Persistent Threat: The Evolution of al Qa'ida and Other Salafi Jihadists (PDF). Rand Corporation. p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 April 2015. Retrieved 28 May 2015.
- ^ Moghadam, Assaf (2008). The Globalization of Martyrdom: Al Qaeda, Salafi Jihad, and the Diffusion of ... JHU Press. pp. 37–8. ISBN 9781421401447. Archived from the original on 13 March 2016. Retrieved 28 May 2015.
- ^ a b Meleagrou-Hitchens, Alexander; Hughes, Seamus; Clifford, Bennett (2021). "The Ideologues". Homegrown: ISIS in America (1st ed.). London and New York: I.B. Tauris. pp. 111–148. ISBN 978-1-7883-1485-5. Archived from the original on 2023-01-11. Retrieved 2021-11-07.
- ^ a b c d e "Jihadist-Salafism" is introduced by Gilles Kepel, Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam (Harvard: Harvard University Press, 2002) pp.219-222
- ^ Deneoux, Guilain (June 2002). "The Forgotten Swamp: Navigating Political Islam". Middle East Policy. pp. 69–71."
- ^ a b c d e f g h "The Salafist movement by Bruce Livesey". PBS Frontline. 2005. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
- ^ a b Kramer, Martin (Spring 2003). "Coming to Terms: Fundamentalists or Islamists?". Middle East Quarterly. X (2): 65–77. Archived from the original on 2015-01-01. Retrieved 2015-01-01.
French academics have put the term into academic circulation as 'jihadist-Salafism.' The qualifier of Salafism – an historical reference to the precursor of these movements – will inevitably be stripped away in popular usage.
- ^ Kepel, Jihad, 2002, p.219-220
- ^ a b El-Baghdadi, Iyad. "Salafis, Jihadis, Takfiris: Demystifying Militant Islamism in Syria". 15 January 2013. Archived from the original on April 10, 2013. Retrieved 10 March 2013.
- ^ "Indonesia: Why Salafism and Terrorism Mostly Don't Mix". International Crisis Group. Archived from the original on 7 February 2015. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
- ^ a b Farid Shapoo, Sajid (19 July 2017). "Salafi Jihadism – An Ideological Misnomer". ResearchGate. Archived from the original on 19 Aug 2021.
Another interesting aspect of Salafi Jihadism is that the traditional Salafi scholars debunk it as a Salafi hybrid and that it is far removed from the traditional Salafism.
- ^ Kelvington, Michael R. (25 March 2019). "Global Salafi-Jihadism Ideology: The "Soft Power" of the Enemy". International Institute for Counter-Terrorism. Archived from the original on 28 November 2020.
- ^ a b F. Forte, David (19 October 2001). "Religion is Not the Enemy". National Review. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021.
- ^ a b Nedza, Justyna (2016). "The Sum of its Parts: The State as Apostate in Contemporary Saudi Militant Islamism". In Adang, Camilla; Ansari, Hassan; Fierro, Maribel; Schmidtke, Sabine (eds.). Accusations of Unbelief in Islam: A Diachronic Perspective on Takfīr. Islamic History and Civilization. Vol. 123. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 304–326. doi:10.1163/9789004307834_013. ISBN 978-90-04-30783-4. ISSN 0929-2403.
- ^ Livesey, Bruce (25 January 2005). "The Salafist Movement". PBS. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011.
- ^ Bolechów, Bartosz (2022). "The Islamic State's Worldview as a Radical Terror Management Device". Studia Politologiczne. 63: 64–65. doi:10.33896/SPolit.2022.63.4. S2CID 248190680. Archived from the original on 2022-04-24. Retrieved 2022-04-07.
- ^ Manne, Robert (2017). The Mind of the Islamic State. NY: Prometheist Books. pp. 17–22. ISBN 9781633883710. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2021.
- ^ a b Moussalli, Ahmad S. (2012). "Sayyid Qutb: Founder of Radical Islamic Political Ideology". In Akbarzadeh, Shahram (ed.). Routledge Handbook of Political Islam (1st ed.). London and New York: Routledge. pp. 24–26. ISBN 9781138577824. LCCN 2011025970. Archived from the original on 2023-01-11. Retrieved 2021-10-24.
- ^ Shultz, Richard H. (April 2008). "A Global Salafi Jihad Insurgency: Myth or Reality?". Global Insurgency Strategy and the Salafi Jihad Movement. INSS Occasional Paper. Vol. 66. Colorado Springs, Colorado: USAF Institute for National Security Studies at the USAF Academy. pp. 42–86. Archived from the original on 2023-01-11. Retrieved 2022-03-27.
- ^ Sageman, Marc (April 30, 2013). "The Stagnation of Research on Terrorism". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Archived from the original on September 22, 2015. Retrieved May 30, 2015.
al Qaeda is no longer seen as an existential threat to the West ... the hysteria over a global conspiracy against the West has faded.
- ^ Mearsheimer, John J. (January–February 2014). "America Unhinged" (PDF). National Interest: 9–30. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 30 May 2015.
Terrorism – most of it arising from domestic groups – was a much bigger problem in the United States during the 1970s than it has been since the Twin Towers were toppled.
- ^ a b Jones, Seth G. (2014). A Persistent Threat: The Evolution of al Qa'ida and Other Salafi Jihadists (PDF). Rand Corporation. pp. ix–xiii. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 April 2015. Retrieved 28 May 2015.
- ^ Clarke, Colin (8 September 2021). Cruickshank, Paul; Hummel, Kristina (eds.). "Twenty Years After 9/11: What Is the Future of the Global Jihadi Movement?" (PDF). CTC Sentinel. 14 (7). West Point, New York: Combating Terrorism Center: 91–105. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 September 2021. Retrieved 10 November 2021.
- ^ Meijer, Roel (2014). Global Salafism: Islam's New Religious Movement. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 25–26, 305. ISBN 978-0-19-933343-1.
- ^ Meijer, Roel (2013). Global Salafism: Islam's New Religious Movement. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 25–26, 301, 305–307. ISBN 978-0-19-933343-1.
- ^ a b c d Hafez, Mohammed M. (2007). Suicide Bombers in Iraq By Mohammed M. Hafez. US Institute of Peace Press. ISBN 9781601270047. Archived from the original on 31 December 2013. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
- ^ Horowitz, Michael. "Defining and confronting the Salafi Jihad". 11 Feb 2008. Middle East Strategy at Harvard. Archived from the original on 29 April 2014. Retrieved 10 March 2013.
- ^ a b c Kepel, Gilles (2006). Jihad By Gilles Kepel, Anthony F. Roberts. Bloomsbury Publishing PLC. ISBN 9781845112578. Archived from the original on 14 June 2014. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
- ^ Ajjub, Orwa (2021). The Development of the Theological and Political Aspects of Jihadi-Salafism. Lund University. pp. 8, 15. ISBN 978-91-7895-772-9. Archived from the original on 2022-10-18. Retrieved 2022-10-18 – via SASNET.
- ^ a b c d e f Hegghammer, Thomas (2009). "10. Jihadi-Salafis or Revolutionaries? On Religion and Politics in the Study of Militant Islamismf". In Meijer, R. (ed.). Global Salafism: Islam's New Religious Movement (PDF). Columbia University Press. pp. 244–266. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 October 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
- ^ a b Wright, Robin (December 12, 2016). "AFTER THE ISLAMIC STATE". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 7 December 2016. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
- ^ Al Sharif, Jamal. "Salafis in Sudan:Non-Interference or Confrontation". 03 July 2012. Al Jazeera Center for Studies. Archived from the original on 7 July 2013. Retrieved 7 April 2013.
- ^ a b c d e Farid Shapoo, Sajid (19 July 2017). "Salafi Jihadism – An Ideological Misnomer". ResearchGate. Archived from the original on 19 Aug 2021.
- ^ Nasiruddin Al Albani, Muhammad (27 August 2014). "You Can't Take the Law into Your Own Hands". Albaani Site. Archived from the original on 23 August 2017.
- ^ "The Speech of Shaykh Muqbil about revolutions and uprisings". Dawatus Salafiyyah Leicester UK. Archived from the original on 2021-02-03.
As for uprisings and revolutions against the rulers who are in the Islamic lands, then this is not the way of rectification. And the way of rectification is teaching the Muslims the Book of their Lord and the Sunnah of their Prophet and teaching them the biography of the Prophet (صلى اللهُ عليه وسَلَّم) and the biography of his companions and how they had patience with the poverty, not having (enough) clothes, leaving their homelands and the infectious diseases which befell them in al-Madeenah after they emigrated. Therefore, it is imperative that we nurture the people in being close (to the way) of the companions, and I do not think that we are able to do that (in its entirety) but at least (it should be) close to the way of the companions.
- ^ Al-Fawzan, Saalih (May 2004). "Is Rebelling Against a Ruler an Issue of Ijtihād?" (PDF). AbdurRahman.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-02-03.
It is impermissible to oppose and rebel against the leader of Muslim affairs. Rather, it is an obligation to obey him and forbidden to oppose him due to what that entails of bloodshed, disunity, and the ruining and alienation of a nation. And you all witness now those lands in which people revolted against their leaders. You see the results such as fighting and killing, bloodshed, and the loss of safety and security when some of these leaderships are not Muslim governments. But when people rebel against their leaders, the same thing occurs – that which occurred in Somalia, Afghanistan, Iraq, and every other place. What if the ruler is Muslim? It is not allowed to oppose him due to what that will result in of bloodshed, the loss of security, the opportunity for non-Muslims to gain control over Muslims, and dissension and division among Muslims.
- ^ Abdul Wahid, Abu Khadeeja (19 December 2013). "The Tyranny Of The Rulers, A Reason For Rebellion?". Archived from the original on 4 February 2021.
The noble scholar Shaikh al-Albānī (rahimahullaah, died 1420H) was asked, 'Is that which is known nowadays as a military coup against the ruler mentioned in the Religion or is it an innovation?' So the Shaikh answered: 'There is no basis for these acts in Islām. And it is in opposition to the Islamic manhaj (methodology) with respect to the daʿwah (Islamic call) and creating the right atmosphere for it. Rather it is an innovation introduced by the innovators which has affected some Muslims. This is what I have stated and explained in my notes to al-Aqeedah at-Tahāwiyyah' The great scholar Ibn Bāz (died 1420AH) was asked, 'Is it from the methodology of the Salaf [to] criticize the rulers from the pulpits? And what is the methodology of the Salaf in advising the rulers?' So he answered: 'It is not from the methodology of the Salaf to criticize the rulers from the pulpits, because that would incite chaos, and it would involve not listening and obeying in that which is good. And this would mean becoming engrossed in that which harms and does not benefit. However, the way of advising that the Salaf followed was to write to the ruler, or to convey the advice to the Scholars who would then convey it to him, until he has been directed towards good. So opposing the evil can be done without mentioning the doer. So adultery, intoxicants and interest can be opposed without mentioning the one who is involved in them. And it is enough of an opposition to sins that they be warned against without mentioning that so and so is involved in them, whether it is the ruler, or other than the ruler.' Shaikh Sālih al-Fawzān was asked: 'Respected Shaikh, yourself and your brothers who are scholars in this country are Salafīs – and all praise is due to Allāh – and your method in advising the rulers is that of the Sharīʿah and as the Prophet has explained, yet there are those who find fault with you due to your neglect in openly rejecting the various oppositions [to the Sharīʿah] that have occurred. And yet others make excuses for you by saying that you are under the control and pressure of the state. So do you have any words of direction or clarification to these people?' So Shaikh al-Fawzān answered with clear and unambiguous words: 'There is no doubt that the rulers, just like people besides them, are not infallible. Advising them is an obligation. However, attacking them in the gatherings and upon the pulpits is considered to be the forbidden form of backbiting. And this evil is greater than that which occurred from the ruler since it is backbiting and because of what results from backbiting such as the sowing of the seeds of discord, causing disunity and affecting the progression of daʿwah (the call to Islām). Hence what is obligatory is to make sure advice reaches the rulers by sound and trustworthy avenues, not by publicizing and causing commotion. And as for reviling the Scholars of this country, that they do not give advice [to the rulers], or that they are being controlled in their affairs, this is a method by which separation between the Scholars, the youth and the society is desired, until it becomes possible for the mischief-maker to sow the seeds of his evil. This is because when evil suspicions are harbored about the Scholars, trust is no longer placed in them and then the chance is available for the biased partisans to spread their poison. And I believe that this thought is actually a schemed plot that has come into this country, and those who are behind it are foreign to this country. It is obligatory upon the Muslims to be cautious of it.'
- ^ Iyaad, Abu (16 May 2019). "Shaykh Ibn ʿUthaymīn: Revolting Against the Rulers is the Most Corrupt, Vile Innovation". Kharijites.com. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021.
Shaykh Ibn ʿUthaymīn said: And rebelling against the ruler, there is no doubt it is from the most corrupt of innovations, the most vile of them and the most evil of them. The ummah was not torn to pieces except due to rebelling against its rulers.
- ^ Kelvington, Michael R. (25 March 2019). "Global Salafi-Jihadism Ideology: The "Soft Power" of the Enemy". International Institute for Counter-Terrorism. Archived from the original on 28 November 2020.
- ^ "Muhammad Rashid Rida". Encyclopedia of the Middle East. 23 April 2019. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 22 September 2021.
- ^ C. Martin, Richard (2016). "State and Government". Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, Second Edition. 27500 Drake Rd. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Publishers. p. 1088. ISBN 978-0-02-866269-5.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location (link) - ^ A. Turner, John (2014). "Chapter 7: The Rise of Salafi Jihadism and the Al-Qaeda Ideology". Religious Ideology and the Roots of the Global Jihad: Salafi Jihadism and International Order. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 114. doi:10.1057/9781137409577. ISBN 978-1-349-48873-5.
- ^ M. Bennett, Andrew (2013). "Islamic History & Al-Qaeda: A Primer to Understanding the Rise of Islamist Movements in the Modern World". Pace International Law Review Online. 3 (10). PACE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF LAW: 344–345. Archived from the original on 2021-09-21. Retrieved 2021-09-22 – via DigitalCommons.
- ^ a b c R. Farmer, Brian (2007). "4: Islamism and Terrorism". Understanding Radical Islam: Medieval Ideology in the Twenty-first Century. New York, 29 Broadway, NY 10006, USA: Peter Land Publishing Inc. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-8204-8843-1.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location (link) - ^ Conway, Jarvis, Lehane, Macdonald, Maura, Lee, Orla, Stuart; J. Weimann, Gunnar (2017). "Between the Arab Revolutions and the Islamic State's Caliphate: al-Qaeda Leaders' Online Propaganda 2012–2014". Terrorists' Use of the Internet: Assessment and Response. Amsertdam, Netherlands: IOS Press. pp. 135–136. doi:10.3233/978-1-61499-765-8-129. ISBN 978-1-61499-764-1.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Tran, Edwin (2 March 2021). "Family tree of Islamist extremism". Encyclopedia Geopolitica. Archived from the original on 7 August 2022.
- ^ Robert Irwin, "Is this the man who inspired Bin Laden?" Archived 2022-12-09 at the Wayback Machine The Guardian (1 November 2001).
- ^ Paul Berman, "The Philosopher of Islamic Terror" Archived 2022-12-09 at the Wayback Machine, New York Times Magazine (23 March 2003).
- ^ "Out of the Shadows: Getting ahead of prisoner radicalization" (PDF). PBS. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-04-23. Retrieved 2020-09-29.
- ^ Trevor Stanley. "The Evolution of Al-Qaeda: Osama bin Laden and Abu Musab al-Zarqawi". Archived from the original on 3 January 2022. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ^ Thorpe, Lucas (2019). "Sayyid Qutb and Aquinas: Liberalism, Natural Law and the Philosophy of Jihad". The Heythrop Journal. 60 (3): 413–435. doi:10.1111/heyj.12256.
- ^ Stahl, A.E. "'Offensive Jihad' in Sayyid Qutb's Ideology." International Institute for Counter-Terrorism.
- ^ Kepel, War for Muslim Minds, (2004) pp. 174–75
- ^ Kepel, Jihad, (2002), p. 51
- ^ The 9/11 Commission Report Archived 2018-12-21 at the Wayback Machine (2004), Authorized Edition, pp. 50, 466 (n. 12).
- ^ a b David Von Drehle, A Lesson In Hate Archived 2022-12-04 at the Wayback Machine Smithsonian Magazine
- ^ a b Excerpt Archived 2014-01-06 at the Wayback Machine from Qutb's article "Amrika allati Ra'aytu" (The America That I Have Seen)
- ^ Qutb, Milestones, p. 139
- ^ Calvert, John (2000), "'The World is an Undutiful Boy!': Sayyid Qutb's American Experience," Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, Vol. II, No. 1, pp. 87–103:98.
- ^ Berman, Terror and Liberalism, (2003), p. 63
- ^ Ami Isseroff (7 December 2008). "Sayyid Qutb". Encyclopedia of the Middle East. Archived from the original on 6 October 2013. Retrieved 9 July 2013.
- ^ Sivan (1985) p. 93.
- ^ Fouad Ajami, "In the Pharaoh's Shadow: Religion and Authority in Egypt," Islam in the Political Process, editor James P. Piscatori, Cambridge University Press, 1983, pp. 25–26.
- ^ Hasan, S. Badrul, Syed Qutb Shaheed, Islamic Publications International, 2nd ed. 1982
- ^ Interview with Dr Abdel Moneim Abul Fotouh – Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood leader Archived 10 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine 8 May 2008
- ^ "Syed Qutb". Archived from the original on 26 September 2021. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ^ "The Global Salafi Jihad". the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States. July 9, 2003. Archived from the original on 2 March 2015. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
- ^ "Jihadist-Salafism" is introduced by Gilles Kepel, Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam (Harvard: Harvard University Press, 2002), p. 220
- ^ al-Saleh, Huda (21 March 2018). "After Saudi Crown Prince's pledge to eliminate Brotherhood, Zawahri defends them". AlArabiya News. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021.
- ^ Richey, Warren. "To turn tables on ISIS at home, start asking unsettling questions, expert says". Christian Science Monitor. ISSN 0882-7729. Archived from the original on 2 March 2016. Retrieved 2 March 2016.
- ^ Scheuer, Michael (20 January 2011). Osama Bin Laden. Oxford University Press. p. 247. ISBN 9780199753277. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 26 September 2021.
- ^ Dowd, Robert A. (1 July 2015). Christianity, Islam, and Liberal Democracy: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa. Oxford University Press. p. 102. ISBN 9780190225216.
- ^ Moghadam, Assaf (1 May 2011). The Globalization of Martyrdom: Al Qaeda, Salafi Jihad, and the Diffusion of Suicide Attacks. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 45. ISBN 9781421401447. Archived from the original on 24 April 2021. Retrieved 26 September 2021.
Salafi Jihadist preachers such as Abu Hamza al-Masri and Omar Bakri Muhammad help inspire thousands of Muslim youth to develop a cultlike relationship to martyrdom in mosques
- ^ "Who was Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi?", BBC, 28 October 2019, archived from the original on 20 November 2019, retrieved 24 March 2020
- ^ Helfont, Samuel (12 November 2019), "What radicalized ISIS leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi?, Iraq's post-2003 chaos is actually to blame, not Saddam Hussein", The Washington Post, archived from the original on 24 September 2021, retrieved 26 September 2021
- ^ a b "The Rise and Fall of Arab Fighters in Chechnya" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 December 2014. Retrieved 14 December 2014.
- ^ a b c "Jihadist-Salafism" is introduced by Gilles Kepel, Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam (Harvard: Harvard University Press, 2002), pp. 260–62
- ^ "Algeria country profile – Overview". BBC. 24 March 2015. Archived from the original on 24 May 2015. Retrieved 27 May 2015.
- ^ Gilles Kepel, Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam (Harvard: Harvard University Press, 2002), pp. 260–75
- ^ "Islamism, Violence and Reform in Algeria: Turning the Page (Islamism in North Africa III)]". International Crisis Group Report. 30 July 2004. Archived from the original on 27 May 2015. Retrieved 27 May 2015.
- ^ a b "Former militants of Egypt's Al-Gama'a al-Islamiya struggle for political success" (PDF). Terrorism Monitor (Jamestown Foundation). X (18): 1. September 27, 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 May 2015. Retrieved 27 May 2015.
- ^ "al-Gama'at al-Islamiyya Jama'a Islamia (Islamic Group, IG)". FAS Intelligence Resource Program. Archived from the original on 20 April 2015. Retrieved 27 May 2015.
- ^ a b Jones, Seth G. (2014). A Persistent Threat: The Evolution of al Qa'ida and Other Salafi Jihadists (PDF). Rand Corporation. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 April 2015. Retrieved 28 May 2015.
- ^ Wander, Andrew (July 13, 2008). "A history of terror: Al-Qaeda 1988–2008". The Guardian, The Observer. London. Archived from the original on 2 September 2013. Retrieved June 30, 2013.
11 August 1988 Al-Qaeda is formed at a meeting attended by Bin Laden, Zawahiri and Dr Fadl in Peshawar, Pakistan.
- ^ "The Osama bin Laden I know". January 18, 2006. Archived from the original on January 1, 2007. Retrieved January 9, 2007.
- ^ Wright, Lawrence (2006). The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Knopf. pp. 133–34. ISBN 0-375-41486-X.
- ^ Bennett, Brian (12 June 2011). "Al Qaeda operative key to 1998 U.S. embassy bombings killed in Somalia". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 12 March 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2015.
- ^ The Two Faces of Salafism in Azerbaijan Archived 2010-12-26 at the Wayback Machine. Terrorism Focus Volume: 4 Issue: 40, December 7, 2007, by: Anar Valiyev
- ^ "A Breakdown of Southern Thailand's Insurgent Groups". Terrorism Monitor. 4 (17). The Jamestown Foundation. September 8, 2006. Archived from the original on 26 October 2014. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
- ^ Rohan Gunaratna & Arabinda Acharya, The Terrorist Threat from Thailand: Jihad Or Quest for Justice?
- ^ Zachary Abuza, The Ongoing Insurgency in Southern Thailand, INSS, p. 20
- ^ Al-Quds Al-Arabi (London), August 19, 2009.
- ^ "Jordan protests: Rise of the Salafist Jihadist movement". BBC News. 22 April 2011. Archived from the original on 11 July 2014. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
- ^ "Body of Italian found in Gaza Strip house-Hamas". Reuters. 15 April 2011. Archived from the original on 28 September 2014. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
- ^ "Italian peace activist killed in Gaza". Al Jazeera English. Archived from the original on 2 September 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
- ^ Darion Rhodes, Salafist-Takfiri Jihadism: the Ideology of the Caucasus Emirate Archived 2014-09-03 at the Wayback Machine, International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, March 2014
- ^ a b Hassan, Hassan (16 August 2014). "Isis: a portrait of the menace that is sweeping my homeland". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 9 May 2015. Retrieved 25 May 2015.
- ^ Benotman, Noman. "Jabhat al-Nusra, A Strategic Briefing" (PDF). circa 2012. Quilliam Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2014. Retrieved 10 March 2013.
- ^ Thurston, Alexander (2019). Search Results Boko Haram: The History of an African Jihadist Movement. Princeton University Press. p. 18. ISBN 9780691197081. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
- ^ "Nigeria's Boko Haram Kills 49 in Suicide Bombings". www.nytimes.com. Archived from the original on 2015-11-21.
- ^ "Le salafisme gagne du terrain chez les musulmans". Le Monde. 1 April 2015. Archived from the original on 26 September 2015. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
- ^ RMC. "Mosquée salafiste fermée par l'État: " Ce qui dérange, c'est notre religiosité "". RMC (in French). Archived from the original on 1 June 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2019.
- ^ "Une mosquée salafiste fermée à Marseille sur ordre de la préfecture". www.20minutes.fr (in French). 12 December 2017. Archived from the original on 1 June 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2019.
- ^ "La France expulse un imam salafiste vers l'Algérie pour ses prêches radicaux". France 24 (in French). 20 April 2018. Archived from the original on 27 May 2019. Retrieved 27 May 2019.
- ^ a b c d "Zahl der Salafisten steigt in Deutschland auf Rekordhoch | Aktuell Deutschland" (in German). Deutsche Welle. 10 December 2017. Archived from the original on 10 December 2017. Retrieved 10 December 2017.
Salafisten sind Anhänger einer fundamentalistischen Strömung des Islam, die einen mit der westlichen Demokratie unvereinbaren Gottesstaat anstreben.
- ^ Pfahl-Traughber, Prof Dr Armin (9 September 2015). "Salafismus – was ist das überhaupt? | bpb". bpb.de (in German). Archived from the original on 25 May 2019. Retrieved 26 May 2019.
- ^ a b c d e "(de) Salafistische Bestrebungen – Inhalte und Ziele salafistischer Ideologie". Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz. Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution. Archived from the original on 15 January 2018. Retrieved 18 September 2015.
- ^ Reuters Archived 2017-06-27 at the Wayback Machine, 6 December 2015, German Vice Chancellor warns Saudi Arabia over Islamist funding. Deutsche Welle Archived 2015-12-28 at the Wayback Machine, 6 December 2015, German vice-chancellor warns Saudi Arabia over Islamist funding in Germany
- ^ Smali, Alison (19 November 2016). "Germany Cracks Down on Salafists to Shield Refugees". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 20 November 2016. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
- ^ Niebergall, Nina (15 November 2016). "'True religion:' How Salafists lure supporters". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 16 November 2016. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
- ^ Eddy, Melissa (15 November 2016). "Germany Bans 'True Religion' Muslim Group and Raids Mosques". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 November 2016. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
- ^ Biskup, Lennart (2017). Saudi-Arabiens radikalisierender Einfluss auf Deutschlands Muslime (PDF). Frankfurt: Frankfurter Forschungszentrums Globaler Islam (FFGI). pp. 11 / Konklusion. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 June 2018.
- ^ Jaschke, Hans-Gerd. "Orte der islamistischen Radikalisierung | bpb". bpb.de (in German). Archived from the original on 2 December 2018. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
Die beiden Verbote zeigen, dass in salafistischen Moscheen nicht nur auf religiöse Art rekrutiert und agiert wird, sondern in einigen von ihnen schwere Straftaten bis hin zu terroristischen Aktionen geplant wurden.
- ^ Maya Shatzmiller (2002). Islam and Bosnia: Conflict Resolution and Foreign Policy in Multi-Ethnic States. Queens University School of Policy. p. 100.
- ^ "Islamists Gain Ground in Sarajevo". Der Spiegel. 25 February 2009. Archived from the original on 14 March 2017. Retrieved 14 March 2017.
- ^ a b c "(sv) Gävles moské vill sprida extrem tolkning av islam". Gefle Dagblad. 7 September 2015. Archived from the original on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
- ^ "Tre olika Malmöföreningar ville lyssna på bin Ladins förra mentor". Sydsvenskan. 29 April 2016. Archived from the original on 2 May 2016. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
- ^ a b "Moskéns ledning sprider extremism och hat". Expressen (in Swedish). Archived from the original on 4 June 2017. Retrieved 4 June 2017.
- ^ "Säpochefen: "Det finns tusentals radikala islamister i Sverige"". Aftonbladet. Archived from the original on 16 June 2017. Retrieved 17 June 2017.
- ^ Radio, Sveriges (16 June 2017). "Säpo: Huge increase in violent Islamist extremists in Sweden – Radio Sweden". Sveriges Radio. Archived from the original on 16 June 2017. Retrieved 17 June 2017.
- ^ a b "Ekstremistisk islamisme vokser i Sverige". DR (in Danish). Archived from the original on 13 June 2019. Retrieved 8 July 2018.
- ^ Doku (29 July 2021). "Anas Khalifa – därför lämnade jag salafismen – Doku.nu" (in Swedish). Archived from the original on 2021-08-24. Retrieved 2021-08-24.
- ^ Dorsey, James M (6 July 2017). "Saudi Arabian Extremism in the UK: Inside the Henry Jackson Report". The Market Mogal. Archived from the original on 3 May 2018. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia has 'clear link' to UK extremism, report says". BBC News. 5 July 2017. Archived from the original on 5 July 2017. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
- ^ Elgot, Jessica (4 July 2017). "Theresa May sitting on report on foreign funding of UK extremists". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
- ^ Worth, Robert F. (2016). A Rage for Order: The Middle East in Turmoil, from Tahrir Square to ISIS. Pan Macmillan. pp. 172–3. ISBN 9780374710712. Archived from the original on 25 February 2017. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
- ^ a b c d Worth, Robert F. (2016). A Rage for Order: The Middle East in Turmoil, from Tahrir Square to ISIS. Pan Macmillan. p. 173. ISBN 9780374710712. Archived from the original on 25 February 2017. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
- ^ a b Worth, Robert F. (2016). A Rage for Order: The Middle East in Turmoil, from Tahrir Square to ISIS. Pan Macmillan. pp. 173–174. ISBN 9780374710712. Archived from the original on 25 February 2017. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
- ^ Wood, Graeme (March 2015). "What ISIS Really Wants". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 12 October 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
- ^ Valentine, Simon Ross (28 November 2014). Force and Fanaticism: Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia and Beyond. Oxford University Press. p. 246. ISBN 9781849044646. Archived from the original on 24 September 2021. Retrieved 24 September 2021.
- ^ The Observer Archived 2021-09-24 at the Wayback Machine, Violent tide of Salafism threatens the Arab spring, by Peter Beaumont and Patrick Kingsley, 10 February 2013.
- ^ Reuters Archived 2021-09-24 at the Wayback Machine, Egypt orders cleric held over ElBaradei death call, by Marwa Awad, edited by Paul Taylor and Jon Hemming, 11 February 2013.
- ^ "6 common misconceptions about Salafi Muslims in the West". Radicalisation Research. 2016-10-07. Archived from the original on 2021-02-14. Retrieved 2021-02-14.
- ^ a b Gabriel G. Tabarani, Jihad's New Heartlands: Why the West Has Failed to Contain Islamic Fundamentalism, p. 26.
- ^ Richard Gauvain, Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God, p. 331
- ^ Quintan Wiktorowicz, Anatomy of the Salafi Movement, p. 217.
- ^ Meleagrou-Hitchens, Alexander (2018). Salafism in America. The George Washington University. p. 4.
- ^ Meijer, Roel (2009). "Introduction". In Meijer, Roel (ed.). Global Salafism: Islam's New Religious Movement. Columbia University Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-231-15420-8.
- ^ Farid Shapoo, Sajid (19 July 2017). "Salafi Jihadism – An Ideological Misnomer". ResearchGate. Archived from the original on 19 Aug 2021.
Many Salafi scholars including Grand Mufti Sheikh Abdul Aziz have issued statements calling Salafi Jihadist groups like Daesh as an extension of Kharijites. The self-proclaimed pious strand of Islam is thus considered by many as following the practices of a completely deviant strand; it is not surprising that many traditional Muslim scholars have written treatises comparing Salafi Jihadist with Kharijites.
- ^ "PURITAN POLITICAL ENGAGEMENT: THE EVOLUTION OF SALAFISM IN MALAYSIA". www.understandingconflict.org. Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict. Archived from the original on 1 May 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ^ Meleagrou-Hitchens, Alexander. "Salafism in America" (PDF). George Washington University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 June 2022. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ^ Shadi Hamid and Rashid Dar (2016). "Islamism, Salafism, and jihadism: A primer". Brookings. Archived from the original on 12 October 2016. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ^ Cohen, Eyal. "PUSHING THE JIHADIST GENIE BACK INTO THE BOTTLE" (PDF). Brookings. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2019. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ^ "Prominent scholars declare ISIS caliphate 'null and void'". Middle East Monitor. 5 July 2014. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ^ "Muslims Against ISIS Part 1: Clerics & Scholars". Wilson Center. Archived from the original on 23 May 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ^ "Letter to Baghdadi". Open Letter to Baghdadi. Archived from the original on 8 February 2015. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ^ Yaʻqūbī (Shaykh.), Muḥammad (2015). Refuting ISIS: Destroying Its Religious Foundations and Proving that it Has Strayed from Islam and that Fighting it is an Obligation. Sacred Knowledge. ISBN 978-1-908224-12-5. Archived from the original on 2023-01-11. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ^ Castillo, Hamza. "The Kingdom's Failed Marriage" (PDF). Halaqa. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ^ Lynch, Marc (17 May 2010). "Islam Divided Between Salafi-jihad and the Ikhwan". Studies in Conflict & Terrorism. 33 (6): 467–487. doi:10.1080/10576101003752622. ISSN 1057-610X. S2CID 143127143.
- ^ "The Salafi-Jihad as a Religious Ideology". Combating Terrorism Center at West Point. 15 February 2008. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ^ Dubai, Maria Abi-Habib in Beirut and Rory Jones in (28 June 2015). "Kuwait Attack Renews Scrutiny of Terror Support Within Gulf States". Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ^ "Saudi Funding of ISIS". Washington Institute for Near East Policy. Archived from the original on 5 June 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ^ Byman, Daniel L. (May 2016). "The U.S.-Saudi Arabia counterterrorism relationship". Brookings. Archived from the original on 23 April 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ^ Wehrey, Frederic; Boukhars, Anouar (2019). Salafism in the Maghreb: Politics, Piety, and Militancy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-094240-3. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ^ "Arab and Muslim blood is cheap". Middle East Monitor. 16 February 2015. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ^ Estelle, Emily. "The Challenge of North African Salafism". Critical Threats. Archived from the original on 12 May 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
- ^ Bolechów, Bartosz (2022). "The Islamic State's Worldview as a Radical Terror Management Device". Studia Politologiczne. 63: 61–85. doi:10.33896/SPolit.2022.63.4. S2CID 248190680. Archived from the original on 2022-04-24. Retrieved 2022-04-07.
- ^ P. Schmid, Alex (2017). "Public Opinion Survey Data to Measure Sympathy and Support for Islamic Terrorism: A Look at the Muslim Opinions on Al Qaeda and IS" (PDF). ICCT Research Paper. doi:10.19165/2017.1.02. ISSN 2468-0656. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-11-04. Retrieved 2022-04-07 – via ICCT Politologiczne.
Further reading
- Oliver, Haneef James. "Sacred Freedom: Western Liberalist Ideologies in the Light of Islam". TROID, 2006, ISBN 0-9776996-0-9 (Free)
- Global Jihadism: Theory and Practice, Brachman, Jarret, Taylor & Francis, 2008, ISBN 0-415-45241-4, ISBN 978-0-415-45241-0
- Kepel, Gilles (2002). Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674010901.
External links
- Manne, Robert (2016). Sayyid Qutb: Father of Salafi Jihadism. ABC Religion and Ethics.