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== Geology==
[[File:Austroponera schneideri OU44901 holotype worker.jpg|thumb|[[Holotype]] of the ant ''[[Austroponera schneideri]]'' |alt=]]
The Foulden Maar crater is approximately {{convert|1000|m}} in diameter; its diatomaceous layer is estimated to be {{convert|200|m}} deep.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=Daphne E. |last2=Kaulfuss |first2=Uwe |last3=Conran |first3=John G. |last4=Bannister |first4=Jennifer M. |last5=Lindqvist |first5=Jon K. |date=1 October 2016 |title=Biodiversity and palaeoecology of Foulden Maar: an early Miocene Konservat-Lagerstätte deposit in southern New Zealand|journal=Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=525–541 |doi=10.1080/03115518.2016.1206321 |issn=0311-5518}}</ref> The Foulden Maar lake formed in a volcanic crater during the [[Waitakian]] ([[early Miocene]]), approximately 23&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://fossilworks.org/?a=collectionSearch&collection_no=50035|title=Fossilworks: Gateway to the Paleobiology Database|website=fossilworks.org|access-date=20 May 2019}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> It was deep and anoxic at the bottom, which precluded decomposition of plant and animal remains. The lake was hydrologically isolated, meaning that no rivers or streams disturbed the sedimentation, which formed multiple laminated layers. These thin layers of silica are known as diatomite, as they are composed primarily of one [[diatom]] species, ''[[Encyonema jordaniforme]]'' Krammer, that grew on submerged rocks or aquatic plants in the lake.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Mildenhall |first=Dallas C. |last2=Kennedy |first2=Elizabeth M. |last3=Lee |first3=Daphne E. |last4=Kaulfuss |first4=Uwe |last5=Bannister |first5=Jennifer M. |last6=Fox |first6=Bethany |last7=Conran |first7=John G. |date=2014 |title=Palynology of the early Miocene Foulden Maar, Otago, New Zealand: Diversity following destruction |url= |journal=Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology |volume=204 |pages=27–42 |doi=10.1016/j.revpalbo.2014.02.003}}{{Subscription required}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Harper |first=Margaret A. |last2=Van De Vijver |first2=Bart |last3=Kaulfuss |first3=Uwe |last4=Lee |first4=Daphne E. |date=2019 |title=Resolving the confusion between two fossil freshwater diatoms from Otago, New Zealand: ''Encyonema jordanii'' and ''Encyonema jordaniforme'' (Cymbellaceae, Bacillariophyta) |journal=Phytotaxa |volume=394 |issue=4 |pages=231–243|doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.394.4.1 |issn=1179-3163 }}</ref> As the lake gradually filled in and dried out, the diatomite layers capture a detailed fossil record of about 130,000 years.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Lindqvist|first=Jon K.|last2=Lee|first2=Daphne E.|date=1 December 2009|title=High-frequency paleoclimate signals from Foulden Maar, Waipiata Volcanic Field, southern New Zealand: An Early Miocene varved lacustrine diatomite deposit|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/30907296/Lindqvist-Lee-SED-GEOLOGY-09.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1557624675&Signature=yj3V9EroZsU%2FUvF585NApOWXIvE%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DHigh-frequency_paleoclimate_signals_from.pdf|journal=Sedimentary Geology |language=en |volume=222 |issue=1–2 |pages=98–110 |doi=10.1016/j.sedgeo.2009.07.009|via= |bibcode=2009SedG..222...98L}}</ref>
 
== Palaeontology ==
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== Palaeoecology ==
[[File:Foulden Maar reconstruction by Paula Peeters.jpg|right|thumb|This reconstruction of the lake at Foulden Maar 23 million years ago was commissioned by palaeontologist Dr. Daphne Lee and drawn by artist/ecologist Dr. Paula Peeters]]
The fossil evidence derived from pollen and spores suggests a warm temperate or sub-tropical rain forest with canopy trees, with an understorey of shrubs, ferns and on the margins pioneer species. Climatically, the area resembled modern-day south-eastern [[Queensland]] with species that no longer occur in the New Zealand flora.<ref name=":7" /> The lake contained small and large galaxiid fishes and eels, ducks (inferred from [[coprolite]]s), and likely crocodiles as well.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.radionz.co.nz/national/programmes/ourchangingworld/audio/1973870/fossil-hunt|title=Fossil Hunt|date=17 March 2011|website=RNZ|language=en-nz|access-date=14 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.paperbarkwriter.com/drawing-on-queenslands-present-to-recreate-new-zealands-past/|title=Drawing on Queensland's present to recreate New Zealand's past|last=Peeters|first=Paula|date=18 August 2016|website=Paperbark Writer|language=en-AU|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=11 May 2019}}</ref>
 
Leaf fossils from the deposit have been used to link past spikes in carbon dioxide levels with melting of Antarctic ice,<ref>{{Cite news |url= https://www.radionz.co.nz/national/programmes/ninetonoon/audio/201820694/otago-leaf-fossils-help-solve-major-climate-mystery| title=Otago leaf fossils help solve major climate mystery| date=20 October 2016 |website=RNZ| language=en-nz| access-date=10 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url= https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=11732949| title=Ancient crater lake in Central Otago offers clues for Antarctica| last=Backhouse| first=Matthew| date=20 October 2016 |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |access-date=11 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.popsci.com/historic-shrinking-antarctic-ice-sheet-linked-to-co2-spike| title=Historic Shrinking of Antarctic Ice Sheet Linked to CO2 Spike| last=Morford| first=Stacey| date=13 October 2016 |work=Popular Science |access-date=13 May 2019}}</ref> and the variations in the laminations of the diatomite have been studied to reveal the New Zealand climate from that time.<ref name=":6" />
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=== 2019 proposal ===
Plaman Resources claim the size of the deposit is 31 Mt.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.plamanglobal.com/|title=PLAMAN Global {{!}} Global Animal Nutrition and Health|website=PLAMAN Global|language=en|access-date=17 May 2019}}</ref> The shareholders for Plaman Resources, are [[Iris Corporation]], Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (50.95 per cent) and Burleigh Nominees Ltd, Douglas, Isle of Man (49.05 per cent).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://app.companiesoffice.govt.nz/co/4960779|title=Plaman Resources Ltd, Auckland|last=|first=|date=|website=NZ Companies Office|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=12 May 2019}}</ref> Plaman Resources' shareholders, the Iris Corporation and Burleigh Nominees, have allegedly been involved in corruption and humans-rights abuses and have unpaid debts.<ref name="nr-14-04-19" /> It is unclear if Iris Corporation would remain a shareholder of Plaman if [[Overseas Investment Office]] (OIO) approval for the mine is received.<ref>{{Cite news |url= https://www.odt.co.nz/business/diatomite-companys-ownership-uncertain |title=Diatomite company's ownership uncertain |last=Hartley|first=Simon|date=15 May 2019| work=[[Otago Daily Times]] |language=en|access-date=14 May 2019}}</ref>
[[File:Galaxias effusus whole (cropped).jpg|thumb|''Galaxias effusus'' from Foulden Maar is the oldest known species of ''Galaxias'', the group to which whitebait belong.]]
Plaman hold the mining rights and plan to turn all of the fossil-containing diatomite into an additive for incorporating into the food of intensively farmed animals such as ducks and pigs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite news|url=https://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/potential-create-100-jobs|title=Potential to create 100 jobs|last=Hartley|first=Simon|date=28 May 2018|work=Otago Daily Times|access-date=12 May 2019}}</ref> Initial seed funding of about US$20&nbsp;million (NZ$28&nbsp;million) was raised through Goldman Sachs New Zealand Holdings, the Auckland branch of New York stock-exchange listed investment bank in August 2018.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ritchie|first=Neil|date=August 2018|title=Mining Black Pearl|url=https://quarryingandminingmag.co.nz/q-m/mining/mining-black-pearl/|journal=Quarrying & Mining Magazine|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> The financial viability of these plans is reported to hinge on the purchase of an adjoining farm, which the OIO must rule on.<ref name=":14">{{Cite webnews|url=https://www.newsroomodt.co.nz/2019business/05/10/577063?slug=dunedinsleaked-pompeiireport-tosheds-belight-minedmine-for-pig-foodproject|title=Dunedin'sLeaked 'Pompeii'report tosheds belight minedon tomine make pig foodproject|last=HancockHartley|first=FarahSimon|date=1020 MayApril 2019|website=Newsroom|language=en-AU|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-urlwork=Otago Daily Times|access-date=1011 May 2019}}</ref><ref name=":41">{{Cite newsweb|url=https://www.odtnewsroom.co.nz/business2019/leaked05/10/577063?slug=dunedins-reportpompeii-shedsto-lightbe-minemined-projectfor-pig-food|title=LeakedDunedin's report'Pompeii' shedsto lightbe onmined mineto projectmake pig food|last=HartleyHancock|first=SimonFarah|date=2010 AprilMay 2019|workwebsite=Newsroom|language=en-AU|archive-url=|archive-date=Otago Daily Times|access-date=1110 May 2019}}</ref> No timetable has been set for the decision.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/112766113/sage-holds-key-to-sale-of-otago-fossil-land-to-diatomite-miner|title=Sage holds key to sale of Otago fossil land to diatomite miner|website=Stuff|language=en|access-date=17 May 2019}}</ref> The proposal would involve building a new $36.8m processing plant at Milton to crush the diatomite before shipping offshore from [[Port Chalmers]] or Bluff. It is estimated by the company that the trucking and processing would create 100 jobs over 27 years.<ref name=":11" /> Plaman has discussed with local councils applying to New Zealand's [[Provincial Growth Fund]] for help with the costs of building the processing plant, although no application has been made.<ref>
*{{Cite news |url=https://www.odt.co.nz/regions/south-otago/bid-pgf-fund-controversial-mine|title=Bid to PGF to fund controversial mine?|last=Miller|first=Tim|date=17 May 2019 | work=[[Otago Daily Times]] |language=en|access-date=16 May 2019}}
*{{Cite news |url= https://www.odt.co.nz/news/the-south-today/south-today-regions/mayor-tells-initial-talks-support-letter|title=Mayor tells of initial talks, support letter|last=Davison|first=Richard|date=18 May 2019| work=[[Otago Daily Times]] |language=en|access-date=17 May 2019}}</ref>
 
Previous mining at the site yielded low-quality diatomite only suitable for inclusion in concrete, rather than the high-quality product Plaman is marketing as "Black Pearl".<ref name=":1" /> Plaman claims that livestock will benefit nutritionally from Black Pearl, because the diatomite is "rich in natural organic matter (which contains humics, such as humic and fulvic acid) and other valuable nutrients, which have been shown to be beneficial in animal nutrition."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.plamanglobal.com/product/|title=PLAMAN Global {{!}} Product|website=PLAMAN Global|language=en|access-date=19 May 2019}}</ref> Animal nutrition experts expressed doubt that the product produced by Plaman will have any animal-health benefits, as there is no published data to support their claims.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsroom.co.nz/2019/05/17/588070?slug=fossil-dirt-nutrition-claims-under-doubt|title=Fossil-dirt nutrition claims under doubt|date=17 May 2019|website=Newsroom|language=en-AU|access-date=16 May 2019}}</ref> Concerns have also been expressed by the [[Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand|New Zealand Green Party]] that the diatomite would be sold as fertiliser to support the production of [[palm oil]].<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://quarryingandminingmag.co.nz/q-m/mining/iris-corporation/|title=Southland fertiliser popular with palm oil industries|last=Owens|first=Peter|date=8 February 2016|website=Quarry & Mining Magazine|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=12 May 2019}}</ref>
 
Plaman Resources have offered to refrain from mining nearby [[Hindon Maar]] if opposition to the Foulden Maar proposal is dropped. They have also offered to set aside {{convert|5|ha}} (12–20% of the deposit) of the eastern pit at Foulden Maar for scientific research,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/ninetonoon/audio/2018695982/mining-company-we-have-good-motives-here|title=Mining company : "We have good motives here"|date=21 May 2019|website=RNZ|language=en-nz|access-date=5 June 2019}}</ref> but geologists say that if the deposit is drained for mining the fossils may be lost regardless.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsroom.co.nz/2019/06/05/619984?slug=scientists-reject-maar-swap-offer-from-fossil-miner|title=Scientists reject fossil land swap|date=5 June 2019|website=Newsroom|language=en-AU|access-date=5 June 2019}}</ref>
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==== Opposition ====
Some locals are opposed to the anticipated levels of dust, noise, and general disruption the proposed mine would create.<ref name=":1" /> The [[Otago Regional Council]] has granted Plaman Resources [[resource consent]] to discharge air dust for the purpose of quarrying diatomite until 1 July 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://data.orc.govt.nz/Reporting/ConsentReport/Search/2000.230|title=Discharge to air permit|last=|first=|date=26 June 2000|website=data.orc.govt.nz|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=12 May 2019}}</ref> The original mining permit was for 20 years but has since been extended to November 2033.<ref>{{Cite news |url= https://www.odt.co.nz/business/otago-fertiliser-bolster-oil-palm-plantations|title=Otago fertiliser to bolster oil palm plantations|last=Hartley|first=Simon|date=13 November 2015| work=[[Otago Daily Times]] |language=en|access-date=12 May 2019}}</ref> A wider group of people concerned about the loss of the unique fossil record described as "Dunedin's Pompeii" and an "irreplaceable treasure box"<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":8">{{Cite news|url=https://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/dcc/mine-threat-fossil-record|title=Mine threat to fossil record|last=Morris|first=Chris|date=9 May 2019|work=Otago Daily Times|access-date=11 May 2019}}</ref> have launched a petition to preserve the site, garnering nearly 10,000 signatures in the first month.<ref name="nr-14-04-19">{{Cite news|url=https://www.newsroom.co.nz/2019/05/14/583737/who-is-the-fossil-mining-company-1|title=Who is the fossil mining company?|last=Hancock|first=Farrah|date=14 May 2018|work=Newsroom|access-date=14 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/foulden-maar-petition-attracts-support|title=Foulden Maar petition attracts support|last=Miller|first=Tim|date=15 May 2019| work=[[Otago Daily Times]] |language=en|access-date=14 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://our.actionstation.org.nz/petitions/save-foulden-maar|title=Save Foulden Maar|website=ActionStation|language=en|access-date=16 June 2019}}</ref> A leaked report by [[Goldman Sachs]] details the engagement of former Labour MP [[Clayton Cosgrove]] as a lobbyist to "secure approval" for the mine.<ref name=":1" />
 
Some locals would like to see the area turned into a geo-park, along similar lines to other diatomite sites in Norway, Germany, and China.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/helen-clark-joins-opposition-middlemarch-mine-proposal|title=Helen Clark joins opposition to Middlemarch mine proposal |last=Hartley|first=Simon|date=13 May 2019| work=[[Otago Daily Times]] |language=en|access-date=12 May 2019}}</ref><ref name=":8" /> Former [[Prime Minister of New Zealand|Prime Minister]] [[Helen Clark]] suggested that the site could be protected as a scientific reserve under the [[Reserves Act 1977]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/HelenClarkNZ/status/1127158662911279104|title=A low value but very destructive proposed mining operation in #Otago NZ threatens a geologically significant site rich in fossils & of considerable scientific interest. Wondering: has it been considered for scientific reserve status under Reserves Act?https://www.newsroom.co.nz/2019/05/10/577063/dunedins-pompeii-to-be-mined-for-pig-food|last=Clark|first=Helen|date=11 May 2019|website=@HelenClarkNZ|language=en|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=12 May 2019}}</ref> saying "It just doesn't stack up. It's a question of values. Do we value knowledge? Do we value natural heritage? Do we value science and research, or do we just want to a quick dollar from a low value pit? I mean, really, it's distressing."<ref name="nr-14-04-19" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsroom.co.nz/2019/05/13/581997?slug=growing-opposition-to-fossil-mining|title=Opposition grows to fossil mining|date=13 May 2019|website=Newsroom|language=en-AU|access-date=12 May 2019}}</ref><ref name ="odt-14-05-19">{{Cite news|url=https://www.odt.co.nz/regions/central-otago/public-lacks-facts-about-mine-mp|title=Public lacks facts about mine: MP|last=Miller|first=Tim|date=14 May 2019|work=Otago Daily Times|access-date=14 May 2019}}</ref> MP [[Clare Curran]] voiced support for the mining proposal, saying that she had been given assurances by Plaman.<ref name="odt-14-05-19" /> She argued that "misinformation" was abundant due to the slow overseas-investment-approval process and said that the resource-consent process would still need to be followed.<ref name="odt-14-05-19" /> Dunedin Mayor [[Dave Cull]], who wrote a letter of support for the mining proposal, has publicly called for clarification from Plaman after hearing details of the leaked Goldman Sachs report.<ref name=":10">{{Cite news |url=https://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/dcc/mayor-wants-clarification-diatomite-mine-proposal|title=Mayor wants clarification on diatomite mine proposal|last=Miller|first=Tim|date=15 May 2019| work=[[Otago Daily Times]] |language=en|access-date=14 May 2019}}</ref> [[Clutha District|Clutha]] Mayor Bryce Cadogan, who also supports the proposal, expressed frustration that commercial sensitivity prevented the release of all the information in favour of the mine.<ref name=":10" /> [[Dunedin City Council]] councillor [[Aaron Hawkins (politician)|Aaron Hawkins]] proposed that the council should "recognise the importance of Foulden Maar, and support its preservation, and protection as a scientific resource", and the council voted to do so, later formally opposing the mining proposal.<ref>
*{{Cite news |url=https://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/cr-bid-support-foulden-maar-preservation|title=Cr in bid to support Foulden Maar preservation|last=McPhee|first=Elena|date=18 May 2019| work=[[Otago Daily Times]] |language=en|access-date=17 May 2019}}
*{{Cite news |url=https://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/dcc/dcc-supports-preservation-foulden-maar|title=DCC supports preservation of Foulden Maar|last=McPhee|first=Elena|date=30 May 2019| work=[[Otago Daily Times]] |language=en|access-date=5 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://theconversation.com/proposal-to-mine-fossil-rich-site-in-new-zealand-sparks-campaign-to-protect-it-118505|title=Proposal to mine fossil-rich site in New Zealand sparks campaign to protect it|last=Rawlence|first=Nic|website=The Conversation|language=en|access-date=16 June 2019}}</ref> The [[University of Otago]] is also formally opposed to the mining proposal.<ref>{{Cite news |url= https://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/jaw-dropping-inducements-over-foulden-marr |title='Jaw-dropping inducements' over Foulden Marr|last=Miller|first=Tim|date=6 June 2019| work=[[Otago Daily Times]] |language=en|access-date=5 June 2019}}</ref> Sir [[Alan Mark (botanist)|Alan Mark]], chair of the environmental group the [[Wise Response Society]], called for the government to purchase the site and establish a geological reserve.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/plea-govt-protect-foulden-maar|title=Plea to Govt to protect Foulden Maar|last=Gibb|first=John|date=2019-06-22|website=Otago Daily Times Online News|language=en|access-date=2019-06-24}}</ref>
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