Content deleted Content added
Rescuing orphaned refs ("coedes" from rev 1226856213) |
m Renamed references using RefRenamer |
||
Line 47:
| image2 = [[File:Indian cultural zone.svg|250px]]
| caption2 = '''Indian cultural extent'''<br /> '''Dark orange''': The [[Indian subcontinent]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Patel|first1= Sneha|title= India's South Asian Policy|journal= The Indian Journal of Political Science|date= 2015|volume= 76|issue= 3|pages= 677–680|url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/26534911|jstor= 26534911|quote = It is important to note that Nepal was not a British colony like India. Geographically, culturally, socially and historically India and Nepal are linked most intimately and lived together from time immemorial. The most significant factor which has nurtured Indo-Nepalese relations through ages is geographical setting of the two countries which is a good example to understand that how geography connects the two countries.}}</ref><br/>'''Light orange''': Southeast Asia culturally linked to [[India]] (except [[Northern Vietnam]], [[Philippines]] and [[Western New Guinea]])<br/>
'''Yellow''': Regions with significant Indian cultural influence, notably the [[Philippines]], [[Tibet]], and historically [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]]<ref
| belowstyle = background:#fcfebe;
| below = [[Indosphere]] {{·}} [[Hindu texts]] {{·}} [[Buddhist texts]] {{·}} [[Folklore of India]] {{·}} [[Ramayana]] ([[Versions of Ramayana]])
Line 54:
'''Greater India''', also known as the '''Indian cultural sphere''', or the '''Indic world''', is an area composed of several countries and regions in [[South Asia]], [[East Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]] that were historically influenced by [[Culture of India|Indian culture]], which itself formed from the various distinct indigenous cultures of [[South Asia]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lévi|first1=Sylvain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dx5dzJGGBg0C&q=austroasiatic+influence+on+india&pg=PR15|title=Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in India|last2=Przyluski|first2=Jean|last3=Bloch|first3=Jules|date=1993|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0772-9|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195030/https://books.google.com/books?id=dx5dzJGGBg0C&q=austroasiatic+influence+on+india&pg=PR15|url-status=live}}</ref> It is an umbrella term encompassing the [[Indian subcontinent]] and surrounding countries, which are culturally linked through a diverse cultural cline. These countries have been transformed to varying degrees by the acceptance and introduction of [[Culture|cultural]] and institutional elements from each other. The term Greater India as a reference to the Indian cultural sphere was popularised by a network of Bengali scholars in the 1920s, but became obsolete in the 1970s.
Since around 500 BCE, Asia's expanding land and [[Indian Ocean trade|maritime trade]] had resulted in prolonged [[Socioeconomics|socio-economic]] and cultural stimulation and diffusion of [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and [[Hindus|Hindu]] beliefs into the region's cosmology, in particular in Southeast Asia and [[Sri Lanka]].<ref
By the early centuries of the [[Common Era|common era]], most of the principalities of Southeast Asia had effectively absorbed defining aspects of Indian culture, religion, and administration. The notion of divine god-kingship was introduced by the concept of [[Harihara]], and Sanskrit and other Indian [[Epigraphy|epigraphic]] systems were declared [[official script|official]], like those of the south Indian [[Pallava dynasty]] and [[Chalukya dynasty]].<ref name="
To the north, Indian religious ideas were assimilated into the cosmology of Himalayan peoples, most profoundly in Tibet and Bhutan, and merged with indigenous traditions. [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[monasticism]] extended into [[Afghanistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], and other parts of [[Central Asia]], and Buddhist texts and ideas were accepted in China and Japan in the east.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/ARTH406-Historical-Overview-of-Chinese-Buddhism-FINAL.pdf |title=Buddhism in China: A Historical Overview |publisher=The Saylor Foundation 1 |access-date=12 February 2017 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221358/http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/ARTH406-Historical-Overview-of-Chinese-Buddhism-FINAL.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> To the west, Indian culture converged with [[Greater Persia]] via the [[Hindu Kush]] and the [[Pamir Mountains]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zhu |first=Qingzhi |title=Some Linguistic Evidence for Early Cultural Exchange between China and India |journal=Sino-Platonic Papers |volume=66 |date=March 1995 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania |url=http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp066_india_china.pdf |quote=everyone knows well the so-called "Buddhist conquest of China" or "Indianized China" |access-date=26 March 2023 |archive-date=4 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804122822/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp066_india_china.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
Line 65:
{{Further|Indies|Geography (Ptolemy)}}
[[File:1864 Mitchell Map of India, Tibet, China and Southeast Asia - Geographicus - India-mitchell-1864.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Hindoostan]] and [[Farther India]] in a 1864 map by [[Samuel Augustus Mitchell]]]]
The concept of the ''Three Indias'' was in common circulation in pre-industrial Europe. ''Greater India'' was the [[Southern South Asia|southern part of South Asia]], ''Lesser India'' was the [[Northern South Asia|northern part of South Asia]], and ''Middle India'' was the [[Northwestern South Asia|region near the Middle East]].<ref name="
However, in some accounts of European nautical voyages, Greater India (or ''India Major'') extended from the [[Malabar Coast]] (present-day [[Kerala]]) to ''India extra Gangem''<ref>{{Harv|Wheatley|1982|p=13}} Quote: "Subsequently the whole area came to be identified with one of the "Three Indies," though whether ''India Major'' or ''Minor, Greater'' or ''Lesser, Superior'' or ''Inferior'', seems often to have been a personal preference of the author concerned. When Europeans began to penetrate into Southeast Asia in earnest, they continued this tradition, attaching to various of the constituent territories such labels as Further India or Hinterindien, the East Indies, the Indian Archipelago, Insulinde, and, in acknowledgment of the presence of a competing culture, Indochina."</ref> (lit. "India, beyond the Ganges," but usually the [[East Indies]], i.e. present-day [[Malay Archipelago]]) and ''India Minor'', from Malabar to [[Sindh|Sind]].<ref>{{Harv|Caverhill|1767}}</ref> ''[[Farther India]]'' was sometimes used to cover all of modern Southeast Asia.<ref name=
In late 19th-century geography, ''Greater India'' referred to a region that included: "(a) [[Himalayas|Himalaya]], (b) [[Punjab]], (c) [[Hindustan]], (d) [[Myanmar|Burma]], (e) [[Mainland Southeast Asia|Indo-China]], (f) [[Sunda Islands]], (g) [[Borneo]], (h) [[Sulawesi|Celebes]], and (i) [[Philippines]]."<ref
===Geological connotation===
Line 77:
[[File:006 Bujang Valley Candi.jpg|thumb|Candi Bukit Batu Pahat of [[Bujang Valley]]. A [[Hindu]]-[[Buddhist]] kingdom ruled ancient [[Kedah]] possibly as early as 110 CE, the earliest evidence of strong Indian influence which was once prevalent among the [[Kedahan Malay]]s.]]
The use of ''Greater India'' to refer to an Indian cultural sphere was popularised by a network of Bengali scholars in the 1920s who were all members of the Calcutta-based Greater India Society. The movement's early leaders included the historian [[R. C. Majumdar]] (1888–1980); the philologists [[Suniti Kumar Chatterji]] (1890–1977) and [[Prabodh Chandra Bagchi|P. C. Bagchi]] (1898–1956), and the historians [[Phanindranath Bose]] and [[Kalidas Nag]] (1891–1966).<ref
By some accounts Greater India consists of "lands including Burma, [[Java]], Cambodia, [[Bali]], and the former [[Champa]] and [[Kingdom of Funan|Funan]] polities of present-day [[Vietnam]],"<ref name=bayley2004-p713>{{Harv|Bayley|2004|p=713}}</ref> in which Indian and Hindu culture left an "imprint in the form of monuments, inscriptions and other traces of the historic "[[Sanskritization|Indianizing]]" process."<ref name="bayley2004-p713"/> By some other accounts, many Pacific societies and "most of the Buddhist world including [[Ceylon]], Tibet, Central Asia, and even Japan were held to fall within this web of Indianizing ''culture colonies''"<ref name="bayley2004-p713"/> This particular usage – implying cultural "sphere of influence" of India – was promoted by the [[Greater India Society]], formed by a group of [[Bengali people|Bengali]] [[Man of letters|men of letters]],<ref>{{harvtxt|Handy|1930|p=364}} Quote: "An equally significant movement is one that brought about among the Indian intelligentsia of Calcutta a few years ago the formation of what is known as the "Greater India Society," whose membership is open "to all serious students of the Indian cultural expansion and to all sympathizers of such studies and activities." Though still in its infancy, this organisation has already a large membership, due perhaps as much as anything else to the enthusiasm of its Secretary and Convener, Dr. Kalidas Nag, whose scholarly affiliations with the Orientalists in the University of Paris and studies in Indochina, Insulindia and beyond, have equipped him in an unusual way for the work he has chosen, namely stimulating interest in and spreading knowledge of Greater Indian culture of the past, present and future. The Society's President is Professor [[Jadunath Sarkar]], Vice-Chancellor of Calcutta University, and its Council is made up largely of professors on the faculty of the University and members of the staff of the Calcutta Museum, as well as of Indian authors and journalists. Its activities have included illustrated lecture series at the various universities throughout India by Dr. Nag, the assembling of a research library, and the publication of monographs of which four very excellent examples have already been printed: 1) ''Greater India'', by Kalidas Nag, M.A., D.Litt. (Paris), 2) ''India and China'', by Prabodh Chandra Bagchi, M.A., D.Litt., 3) ''Indian Culture in Java and Sumatra'', by Bijan Raj Chatterjee, D.Litt. (Punjab), PhD (London), and 4) ''India and Central Asia'', by Niranjan Prasad Chakravarti, M.A., PhD(Cantab.)."</ref> and is not found before the 1920s. The term ''Greater India'' was used in historical writing in India into the 1970s.<ref>{{harvtxt|Majumdar|1960|pp=222–223}}<!--this book was written in 1960, so how can it cite examples of what occurred in the 1970s?--></ref>
Line 85:
===Expansionist and political concept===
The term ''Greater India'' and the notion of an explicit Hindu expansion of ancient Southeast Asia have been linked to both [[Indian nationalism]]<ref>{{harvtxt|Keenleyside|1982|pp=213–214}} Quote: "Starting in the 1920s under the leadership of Kalidas Nag – and continuing even after independence – a number of Indian scholars wrote extensively and rapturously about the ancient Hindu cultural expansion into and colonisation of South and Southeast Asia. They called this vast region "Greater India" – a dubious appellation for a region which to a limited degree, but with little permanence, had been influenced by Indian religion, art, architecture, literature and administrative customs. As a consequence of this renewed and extensive interest in Greater India, many Indians came to believe that the entire South and Southeast Asian region formed the cultural progeny of India; now that the sub-continent was reawakening, they felt, India would once again assert its non-political ascendancy over the area... While the idea of reviving the ancient Greater India was never officially endorsed by the Indian National Congress, it enjoyed considerable popularity in nationalist Indian circles. Indeed, Congress leaders made occasional references to Greater India while the organisation's abiding interest in the problems of overseas Indians lent indirect support to the Indian hope of restoring the alleged cultural and spiritual unity of South and Southeast Asia."</ref> and [[Hindu nationalism]].<ref>{{harvtxt|Thapar|1968|pp=326–330}} Quote: "At another level, it was believed that the dynamics of many Asian cultures, particularly those of Southeast Asia, arose from Hindu culture, and the theory of Greater India derived sustenance from Pan-Hinduism. A curious pride was taken in the supposed imperialist past of India, as expressed in sentiments such as these: "The art of Java and Kambuja was no doubt derived from India and fostered by the Indian rulers of these colonies." (Majumdar, R. C. et al. (1950), ''An Advanced History of India'', London: Macmillan, p. 221) This form of historical interpretation, which can perhaps best be described as being inspired by Hindu nationalism, remains an influential school of thinking in present historical writings."</ref> The English term was popularised in the late 19th and the 20th century as a view of an expansionist India within the context of East Asia.<ref name="
Its modern meanings often invoke images of soft power.<ref name="
Sri Lanka also continues to have strong political links with South East Asia, asked by [[ASEAN]] to be a founding memeber, and has recently been increasing integration with South East Asia through its own "Look East" policy; politcians view the relationship between Sri Lanka and South East Asia as second only to South Asia.<ref>{{Citation |last=Attanayake |first=Chulanee |title=BIMSTEC and India’s “Act East” Policy: Implications for Sri Lanka |date=2023 |work=India’s Relations with Neighboring South and South East Asian Countries: Perspectives on Look East to Act East Policy |pages=65–73 |editor-last=Ghosh |editor-first=Lipi |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4610-5_6 |access-date=2024-05-14 |place=Singapore |publisher=Springer Nature |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-981-99-4610-5_6 |isbn=978-981-99-4610-5 |editor2-last=Basu Ray Chaudhury |editor2-first=Anasua}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sri Lanka Aims for RCEP Membership and Free Trade Agreements with ASEAN |url=https://www.presidentsoffice.gov.lk/index.php/2023/08/10/sri-lanka-aims-for-rcep-membership-and-free-trade-agreements-with-asean/ |website=Presidential Office}}</ref><ref>27-01-27, Selle Glastra, Student number: 1014420, Master Thesis Asian Studies, Leiden University, Humanities faculty, Thesis supervisor: David Henley</ref>
Line 94:
===Cultural expansion===
[[File:Atashgah Fire Temple.jpg|thumb|[[Atashgah of Baku]], a [[fire temple]] in Azerbaijan used by both Hindus<ref
[[File:Sculpture and mural from cave 254. Pillar and north wall. Northern Wei. Mogao.jpg|thumb|Hindu-Buddhist icongraphy from [[Mogao Caves]] in the [[Gobi Desert]]]]
Line 101:
A defining characteristic of the cultural link between Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent was the adoption of ancient Indian [[Vedic period|Vedic]]/Hindu and Buddhist culture and philosophy into [[Myanmar]], [[Tibet]], [[Thailand]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malay Peninsula|Malaya]], [[Laos]] and Cambodia. Indian scripts are found in Southeast Asian islands ranging from Sumatra, Java, Bali, South Sulawesi and the [[Baybayin|Philippines]].<ref>Martin Haspelmath, [https://books.google.com/books?id=sCRcARRN9nsC&pg=PA569 The World Atlas of Language Structures] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529081333/https://books.google.com/books?id=sCRcARRN9nsC&pg=PA569 |date=29 May 2016 }}, page 569, Oxford University Press, 2005, {{ISBN|0-19-925591-1}}</ref> The [[Ramayana]] and the [[Mahabharata]] have had a large impact on South Asia and Southeast Asia. One of the most tangible evidence of dharmic Hindu traditions is the widespread use of the ''[[Añjali Mudrā]]'' gesture of greeting and respect. It is seen in the [[Culture of India|Indian]] ''[[namasté]]'' and similar gestures known throughout Southeast Asia; its cognates include the [[Culture of Cambodia|Cambodian]] ''[[sampeah]]'', the [[Indonesian culture|Indonesian]] ''[[sembah]]'', the [[Culture of Japan|Japanese]] ''[[Buddhist terms and concepts#G|gassho]]'' and [[Culture of Thailand|Thai]] [[Thai greeting|''wai'']].
Beyond the [[Himalaya]] and [[Hindukush]] mountains in the north, along the Silk Route, Indian influence was linked with Buddhism. [[Tibet]] and [[Khotan]] were direct heirs of Gangetic Buddhism, despite the difference in languages. Many Tibetan monks even used to know Sanskrit very well.<ref name="
===Cultural commonalities===
Line 118:
====Caste system====
Indians spread their religion to Southeast Asia, beginning the Hindu and Buddhist cultures there. They introduced the [[caste system of India|caste system]] to the region, especially to [[Java]], Bali, [[Madura Island|Madura]], and Sumatra. The adopted caste system was not as strict as in India, tempered to the local context.<ref name=
====Architecture and monuments====
Line 149:
{{see also | Literature about Southeast Asia | South Asian literature }}
[[File:Kakawin ramayana Or 14022 f2-4.jpg|thumb|300px|Pages of [[Kakawin Ramayana]], the version of ''[[Ramayana]]'' from Java and Bali]]
Scripts in [[Sanskrit]] discovered during the early centuries of the Common Era are the earliest known forms of writing to have extended all the way to Southeast Asia. Its gradual impact ultimately resulted in its widespread domain as a means of dialect which evident in regions, from Bangladesh to Cambodia, Malaysia and Thailand and additionally a few of the larger Indonesian islands. In addition, alphabets from languages spoken in Burmese, Thai, Laos, and Cambodia are variations formed off of Indian ideals that have localized the language.<ref name="
The utilization of [[Sanskrit]] has been prevalent in all aspects of life including legal purposes. Sanskrit terminology and vernacular appears in ancient courts to establish procedures that have been structured by Indian models such as a system composed of a code of laws. The concept of legislation demonstrated through codes of law and organizations particularly the idea of "God King" was embraced by numerous rulers of Southeast Asia.{{sfnp|Coedes|1967|p=98}} The rulers amid this time, for example, the Lin-I Dynasty of [[Vietnam]] once embraced the Sanskrit dialect and devoted sanctuaries to the Indian divinity Shiva. Many rulers following even viewed themselves as "reincarnations or descendants" of the Hindu gods. However once Buddhism began entering the nations, this practiced view was eventually altered.
Line 182:
==Indianization of South East Asia==
{{Further|Austronesian maritime trade network|Maritime silk road|Indian maritime history|Indian Ocean trade|Hinduism in Southeast Asia | Buddhism in Southeast Asia|Balinese Hinduism|History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia}}
[[File:Austronesian maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean.png|300px|thumb|[[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] [[Spice trade|proto-historic]] and [[Maritime Silk Road|historic]] maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean<ref name="
[[File:Hinduism_Expansion_in_Asia_2023.svg|thumb|Hinduism expansion in Asia, from its heartland in Indian Subcontinent, to the rest of Asia, especially Southeast Asia, started circa 1st century marked with the establishment of early Hindu settlements and polities in Southeast Asia.]]
Line 197:
As conclusive evidence is missing, numerous Indianization theories of Southeast Asia have emerged since the early 20th century. The central question usually revolves around the main propagator of Indian institutional and cultural ideas in Southeast Asia.
Iron Age trade expansion caused regional [[Geostrategy|geostrategic]] remodeling. [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] sailors from [[Island Southeast Asia]] first established contact and trade with [[Southern India]] and [[Sri Lanka]] as early as 500 BCE. This resulted in the introduction of Southeast Asian material culture (including [[catamaran]]s, [[outrigger boat]]s, sewn-plank boats, and [[paan]]) and [[cultigen]]s (like [[coconut]]s, [[sandalwood]], [[banana]]s, and [[sugarcane]]) to South Asia; as well as connecting the material cultures of India and [[China]]. These early Austronesian trade routes linking Island Southeast Asia with India also became the maritime aspect of the wider [[spice trade]] network, which were later also used by [[Tamil people|Tamil]] and [[Arab]] maritime trade. The sustained contact between Southeast Asia and South Asia resulted in cultural exchange, in addition to the exchange of commodities.<ref
Another theory of the spread of Indianization that focuses on the caste of [[Vaishya]] [[Sadhaba|traders]] and their role for spreading Indian culture and language into Southeast Asia through trade. There were many trade incentives that brought Vaishya traders to Southeast Asia, the most important of which was gold. During the 4th century C.E., when the first evidence of Indian trader in Southeast Asia, the Indian sub-continent was at a deficiency for gold due to extensive control of overland trade routes by the [[Roman Empire]]. This made many Vaishya traders look to the seas to acquire new gold, of which Southeast Asia was abundant. However, the conclusion that Indianization was just spread through trade is insufficient, as Indianization permeated through all classes of Southeast Asian society, not just the merchant classes.<ref name=
Another theory states that Indianization spread through the warrior class of [[Kshatriya]]. This hypothesis effectively explains state formation in Southeast Asia, as these warriors came with the intention of conquering the local peoples and establishing their own political power in the region. However, this theory hasn't attracted much interest from historians as there is very little literary evidence to support it.<ref name="
The most widely accepted theory for the spread of Indianization into Southeast Asia is through the class of [[Brahman]] scholars. These Brahmans brought with them many of the Hindu religious and philosophical traditions and spread them to the elite classes of Southeast Asian polities. Once these traditions were adopted into the elite classes, it disseminated throughout all the lower classes, thus explaining the Indianization present in all classes of Southeast Asian society. Brahmans were also experts in art and architecture, and political affairs, thus explaining the adoption of many Indian style law codes and architecture into Southeast Asian society<ref name=
=== Adaption and adoption ===
[[File:Angkor Wat Aerial View Siem Reap Cambodia 2011.jpg|thumb|left|[[Angkor Wat]] in Cambodia is the largest Hindu temple in the world]]
It is unknown how immigration, interaction, and settlement took place, whether by key figures from India or through Southeast Asians visiting India who took elements of Indian culture back home. It is likely that Hindu and Buddhist traders, priests, and princes traveled to Southeast Asia from India in the first few centuries of the Common Era and eventually settled there. Strong impulse most certainly came from the region's ruling classes who invited Brahmans to serve at their courts as priests, astrologers and advisers.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/The-spread-of-Hinduism-in-Southeast-Asia-and-the-Pacific | title=The spread of Hinduism in Southeast Asia and the Pacific | publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica | access-date=20 December 2016 | archive-date=16 January 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200116205245/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/The-spread-of-Hinduism-in-Southeast-Asia-and-the-Pacific | url-status=live }}</ref> Divinity and royalty were closely connected in these polities as Hindu rituals validated the powers of the monarch. Brahmans and priests from India proper played a key role in supporting ruling dynasties through exact rituals. Dynastic consolidation was the basis for more centralized kingdoms that emerged in Java, Sumatra, Cambodia, Burma, and along the central and south coasts of Vietnam from the 4th to 8th centuries.<ref
[[File:Shiva Temple of Prambanan in Java Indonesia.jpg|thumb|right|The 9th century Shiva temple in [[Prambanan]] compound, adorned with bas-reliefs of Ramayana, located near Yogyakarta, Indonesia]]
Line 219:
=== Religion, authority and legitimacy ===
[[File:Ramayana Bali Ubud 1.jpg|thumb|300px|Balinese Ramayana dance drama, performed in Sarasvati Garden in [[Ubud]].]]
The pre-Indic political and social systems in Southeast Asia were marked by a relative indifference towards lineage descent. Hindu God kingship enabled rulers to supersede loyalties, forge cosmopolitan polities and the worship of Shiva and Vishnu was combined with ancestor worship, so that Khmer, Javanese, and Cham rulers claimed semi-divine status as descendants of a God. Hindu traditions, especially the relationship to the sacrality of the land and social structures, are inherent in Hinduism's transnational features. The epic traditions of the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa further legitimized a ruler identified with a God who battled and defeated the wrong doers that threaten the ethical order of the world.<ref
Hinduism does not have a single historical founder, a centralized imperial authority in India proper nor a bureaucratic structure, thus ensuring relative religious independence for the individual ruler. It also allows for multiple forms of divinity, centered upon the [[Trimurti]] the triad of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, the deities responsible for the creation, preservation, and destruction of the universe.<ref
The effects of Hinduism and Buddhism applied a tremendous impact on the many civilizations inhabiting Southeast Asia which significantly provided some structure to the composition of written traditions. An essential factor for the spread and adaptation of these religions originated from trading systems of the third and fourth century.<ref name="
[[Champa]], [[Dvaravati]], [[Kingdom of Funan|Funan]], [[Gangga Negara]], [[Early history of Kedah|Kadaram]], [[Kalingga]], [[Kutai]], [[Langkasuka]], [[Pagan Kingdom|Pagan]], [[Pan Pan (kingdom)|Pan Pan]], [[History of Brunei|Po-ni]], and [[Tarumanagara]] had by the 1st to 4th centuries CE adopted Hinduism's cosmology and rituals, the ''[[devaraja]]'' concept of kingship, and Sanskrit as official writing. Despite the fundamental cultural integration, these kingdoms were autonomous in their own right and functioned independently.<ref
===Waning of Indianization===
Line 231:
====Khmer Kingdom====
Not only did Indianization change many cultural and political aspects, but it also changed the spiritual realm as well, creating a type of Northern Culture which began in the early 14th century, prevalent for its rapid decline in the Indian kingdoms. The decline of Hinduism kingdoms and spark of Buddhist kingdoms led to the formation of orthodox Sinhalese Buddhism and is a key factor leading to the decline of Indianization. Sukhothai and Ceylon are the prominent characters who formulated the center of Buddhism and thus became more popularized over Hinduism.<ref name="
====Rise of Islam====
Not only was the spark of Buddhism the driving force for Indianization coming to an end, but Islamic control took over as well in the midst of the thirteenth century to trump the Hinduist kingdoms. In the process of Islam coming to the traditional Hinduism kingdoms, trade was heavily practiced and the now Islamic Indians started becoming merchants all over Southeast Asia.<ref name="
==Indianized kingdoms of South East Asia==
Line 241:
===Mainland kingdoms===
[[File:Dancing Shiva 10th c.jpg|thumb|The 10th-century [[tympanum (architecture)|tympanum]] of the dancing [[Shiva]] in [[Champa]], Vietnam]]
* '''[[Funan]]''': Funan was a polity that encompassed the southernmost part of the [[Indochina|Indochinese peninsula]] during the 1st to 6th centuries. The name ''Funan'' is not found in any texts of local origin from the period, and so is considered an [[exonym]] based on the accounts of two Chinese diplomats, [[Kang Tai]] and Zhu Ying who sojourned there in the mid-3rd century CE.<ref
[[File:Cat Tien large lingam.jpg|thumb|Stone lingam found in [[Cát Tiên archaeological site|Cát Tiên]], southern Vietnam]]
* '''[[Chenla Kingdom|Chenla]]''' was the successor polity of Funan that existed from around the late 6th century until the early 9th century in Indochina, preceding the [[Khmer Empire]]. Like its predecessor, Chenla occupied a strategic position where the maritime trade routes of the [[Indosphere]] and the [[East Asian cultural sphere]] converged, resulting in prolonged socio-economic and cultural influence, along with the adoption of the Sanskrit [[Epigraphy|epigraphic]] system of the south Indian [[Pallava dynasty]] and [[Chalukya dynasty]].<ref>Some Aspects of Asian History and Culture by Upendra Thakur p.2</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.khmerstudies.org/download-files/publications/siksacakr/no2/consideration.pdf?lbisphpreq=1 |title=Considerations on the Chronology and History of 9th Century Cambodia by Dr. Karl-Heinz Golzio, Epigraphist – ...the realm called Zhenla by the Chinese. Their contents are not uniform but they do not contradict each other. |publisher=Khmer Studies |access-date=5 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524140459/http://www.khmerstudies.org/download-files/publications/siksacakr/no2/consideration.pdf?lbisphpreq=1 |archive-date=24 May 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Chenla's first ruler Vīravarman adopted the idea of divine kingship and deployed the concept of [[Harihara]], the [[Syncretism|syncretistic]] Hindu "god that embodied multiple conceptions of power". His successors continued this tradition, thus obeying the code of conduct [[Manusmṛti]], the ''Laws of Manu'' for the [[Kshatriya]] warrior caste and conveying the idea of political and religious authority.<ref name="
* '''[[Langkasuka]]''': Langkasuka (-''langkha'' [[Sanskrit]] for "resplendent land" -''sukkha'' of "bliss") was an ancient Hindu kingdom located in the [[Malay Peninsula]]. The kingdom, along with the Old Kedah settlement, are probably the earliest territorial footholds founded on the Malay Peninsula. According to tradition, the founding of the kingdom happened in the 2nd century; [[Malay people|Malay]] legends claim that Langkasuka was founded at [[Kedah]], and later moved to [[Pattani province|Pattani]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a5rG6reWhloC&pg=PA162 |title=The Malay Peninsula: Crossroads of the Maritime Silk-Road (100 BC-1300 AD) |author=Michel Jacq-Hergoualc'h |pages=162–163 |others=Victoria Hobson (translator) |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004119734 |date=January 2002 |access-date=26 March 2023 |archive-date=19 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219073308/https://books.google.com/books?id=a5rG6reWhloC&pg=PA162 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* '''[[Champa]]''': The kingdoms of Champa controlled what is now south and central [[Vietnam]]. The earliest kingdom, [[Lâm Ấp]] was described by Chinese sources around 192. CE The dominant religion was [[Hinduism]] and the culture was heavily influenced by India. By the late fifteenth century, the Vietnamese – proponents of the [[Sinosphere]] – had eradicated the last remaining traces of the once powerful maritime kingdom of Champa.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=R5p7cRyK748C|title= Blood and Soil: Modern Genocide 1500–2000 By Ben Kiernan p. 102 The Vietnamese destruction of Champa 1390–1509|access-date= 27 June 2015|isbn= 9780522854770|last1= Kiernan|first1= Ben|year= 2008|publisher= Melbourne Univ.|archive-date= 26 March 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195118/https://books.google.com/books?id=R5p7cRyK748C|url-status= live}}</ref> The last surviving [[Cham (Asia)|Chams]] began their [[diaspora]] in 1471, many re-settling in [[Khmer people|Khmer]] territory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chamtoday.com/index.php/history-l-ch-s/169-the-cham-descendants-of-ancient-rulers-of-south-china-sea-watch-maritime-dispute-from-sidelines |title=The Cham: Descendants of Ancient Rulers of South China Sea Watch Maritime Dispute From Sidelines Written by Adam Bray |publisher=IOC-Champa |access-date=26 June 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626101606/http://www.chamtoday.com/index.php/history-l-ch-s/169-the-cham-descendants-of-ancient-rulers-of-south-china-sea-watch-maritime-dispute-from-sidelines |archive-date=26 June 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tVhvh6ibLJcC&pg=PA318 |title= The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Part 2 Parts 1368–1644 By Denis C. Twitchett, Frederick W. Mote |date= 28 January 1998 |access-date= 26 June 2015 |isbn= 9780521243339 |last1= Twitchett |first1= Denis C. |last2= Mote |first2= Frederick W. |publisher= Cambridge University Press |archive-date= 26 March 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195126/https://books.google.com/books?id=tVhvh6ibLJcC&pg=PA318 |url-status= live }}</ref>
* '''[[Khmer empire|Kambuja]]''': The [[Khmer Empire]] was established by the early 9th century in a mythical initiation and [[consecration]] ceremony by founder [[Jayavarman II]] at Mount Kulen (Mount Mahendra) in 802 CE<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wolters |first=O. W. |date=1973 |title=Jayavarman II's Military Power: The Territorial Foundation of the Angkor Empire |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=105 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |issue=1 |pages=21–30 |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00130400 |jstor=25203407|s2cid=161969465 }}</ref> A succession of powerful sovereigns, continuing the [[Hindu]] [[devaraja]] tradition, reigned over the classical era of Khmer civilization until the 11th century. [[Buddhism]] was then introduced temporarily into royal religious practice, with discontinuities and decentralisation resulting in subsequent removal.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://studiesofasia.wikispaces.com/file/view/EDAS8003A+Assignment+1+Khmer+civilisation+at+Angkor.pdf |title=The emergence and ultimate decline of the Khmer Empire – Many scholars attribute the halt of the development of Angkor to the rise of Theravada... |publisher=Studies of Asia |access-date=11 June 2015 |archive-date=25 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225164254/https://studiesofasia.wikispaces.com/file/view/EDAS8003A+Assignment+1+Khmer+civilisation+at+Angkor.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[List of kings of Cambodia|royal chronology]] ended in the 14th century. During this period of the Khmer empire, societal functions of [[Administration (government)|administration]], agriculture, architecture, [[hydrology]], [[logistics]], [[urban planning]], literature and [[art|the arts]] saw an unprecedented degree of development, refinement and accomplishment from the distinct expression of Hindu cosmology.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Khmer_Empire/ |title=Khmer Empire |publisher=[[World History Encyclopedia]] |access-date=7 July 2015 |archive-date=17 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417124558/https://www.worldhistory.org/Khmer_Empire/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* '''[[Mon kingdoms]]''': From the 9th century until the abrupt end of the [[Hanthawaddy Kingdom]] in 1539, the Mon kingdoms ([[Dvaravati]], [[Hariphunchai]], [[Pegu]]) were notable for facilitating Indianized cultural exchange in lower Burma, in particular by having strong ties with Sri Lanka.<ref
* '''[[Sukhothai Kingdom|Sukhothai]]''': The first [[Tai peoples]] to gain independence from the Khmer Empire and start their own kingdom in the 13th century. Sukhothai was a precursor for the [[Ayutthaya Kingdom]] and the Kingdom of Siam. Though ethnically Thai, the Sukhothai kingdom in many ways was a continuation of the Buddhist Mon-Dvaravati civilizations, as well as the neighboring Khmer Empire.<ref name="sunnytantikumar736">{{Cite web |last=sunnytantikumar736 |title=भारत की कहानी |url=https://ourhindistory.in/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4-%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80/ |access-date=2022-06-29 |website=Hindi Stories |language=en-US |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203183016/https://ourhindistory.in/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4-%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=พระราชพงษาวดาร ฉบับพระราชหัดถเลขา ภาค 1 |trans-title=Royal Chronicle: Royal Autograph Version, Volume 1 |publisher=[[National Library of Thailand|Wachirayan Royal Library]] |location=Bangkok |year=1912 |page=278}}</ref>
Line 254:
[[File:Durga Mahisasuramardini Prambanan.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue [[Durga]] dated to the 9th-century [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]] from Central Java]]
[[File:Pura Ulandanu Temple, Batur, Bali, Indonesia 02.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Ganesha]] shrine in Bali, a widely present custom from [[Majapahit]]]]
* '''[[Salakanagara]]''': Salakanagara kingdom is the first historically recorded Indianized kingdom in Western Java, established by an Indian trader after marrying a local Sundanese princess. This Kingdom existed between 130 and 362 CE.<ref
* '''[[Tarumanagara]]''' was an early Sundanese Indianized kingdom, located not far from modern Jakarta, and according to Tugu inscription ruler Purnavarman apparently built a canal that changed the course of the Cakung River, and drained a coastal area for agriculture and settlement. In his inscriptions, Purnavarman associated himself with Vishnu, and Brahmins ritually secured the hydraulic project.
* '''[[Kalingga Kingdom|Kalingga]]''': Kalingga (Javanese: Karajan Kalingga) was the 6th century Indianized kingdom on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia. It was the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Central Java, and together with Kutai and Tarumanagara are the oldest kingdoms in Indonesian history.
Line 271:
[[File:Corinthian Capital with Sun God Surya Riding a Chariot (Quadriga) Gandhara 100-200 CE.jpg|thumb|[[Surya]] sitting on a Corinthian chariot from [[Gandhara|ancient Afghanistan]]]]
The eastern regions of Afghanistan were considered politically as parts of India. Buddhism and Hinduism held sway over the region until the Muslim conquest.<ref
According to historian [[André Wink]], "In southern and eastern Afghanistan, the regions of [[Zamindawar]] (Zamin I Datbar or land of the justice giver, the classical [[Arachosia]]) and [[Zabulistan]] or [[Zabul]] (Jabala, [[Kingdom of Kapisa|Kapisha]], Kia pi shi) and [[Kabul]], the Arabs were effectively opposed for more than two centuries, from 643 to 870 AD, by the indigenous rulers the [[Zunbil]]s and the related [[Turk Shahi|Kabul-Shahs]] of the dynasty which became known as the Buddhist-Shahi. With [[Makran]] and [[Baluchistan, Pakistan|Baluchistan]] and much of Sindh this area can be reckoned to belong to the cultural and political frontier zone between India and [[Persia]]."<ref name="
Archaeological sites such as the 8th-century [[Tapa Sardar]] and Gardez show a blend of Buddhism with strong [[Shaivism|Shaivst]] iconography.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase15?language=en|title=15. The Rutbils of Zabulistan and the "Emperor of Rome" {{!}} Digitaler Ausstellungskatalog|website=pro.geo.univie.ac.at|access-date=19 December 2018|archive-date=2 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802204758/http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase15?language=en|url-status=dead}}</ref> Around 644 CE, the Chinese travelling monk [[Xuanzang]] made an account of Zabul (which he called by its Sanskrit name ''Jaguda''), which he describes as mainly pagan, though also respecting [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, which although in the minority had the support of its royals. In terms of other cults, the god Śuna,<ref>{{Cite book|title=A New Etymological Vocabulary of Pashto|last=Morgenstierne|first=Georg|publisher=Reichert Verlag|year=2003|isbn=9783895003646|location=Wiesbaden, Germany}}</ref> is described to be the prime deity of the country.<ref
The Caliph [[Al-Ma'mun]] (r. 813–833 A.D.) led the last Arab expeditions on Kabul and Zabul, after which the long-drawn conflict ended with the dissolution of the empire. Rutbil were made to pay double the tribute to the Caliph.<ref
===Zabulistan===
[[Zabulistan]], a historical region in southern [[Afghanistan]] roughly corresponding to the modern provinces of [[Zabul Province|Zabul]] and [[Ghazni Province|Ghazni]],<ref>{{citation |last=Minorsky |first=V. |title=Ḥudūd al-ʿĀlam (The Regions of the World) |publisher=The E. J. W. Gibb Memorial Trust |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-906094-03-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Ct1CQAAQBAJ |location=Great Britain}}</ref><ref
The [[Zunbil]]s, a royal dynasty south of the [[Hindu Kush]] in present-day southern Afghanistan region, worshiped the Zhuna, possibly a [[Solar deity|sun god]] connected to the Hindu god Surya and is sometimes referred to as Zoor or Zoon. He is represented with flames radiating from his head on coins. Statues were adorned with gold and used rubies for eyes. [[Xuanzang|Huen Tsang]] calls him "sunagir".<ref
===Buddhist Turk Shahi dynasty of Kabul===
Line 289:
The area had been under the rule of the [[Turk Shahi]] who took over the rule of Kabul in the seventh century and later were attacked by the Arabs.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bnv4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=The Huns|author=Hyun Jin Kim|publisher=Routledge|pages=58–59|isbn=9781317340911|date=2015-11-19|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326195008/https://books.google.com/books?id=bnv4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|url-status=live}}</ref> The Turk Shahi dynasty was [[Buddhist]] and were followed by a [[Hindu]] dynasty shortly before the Saffarid conquest in 870 A.D.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA125|title=Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World – Volume I: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7th–11th Centuries|author=André Wink|publisher=Brill|page=125|isbn=0391041738|year=2002}}</ref>
The Turk Shahi were a Buddhist [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] dynasty that ruled from Kabul and [[Kapisa (city)|Kapisa]] in the 7th to 9th centuries. They replaced the [[Nezak]] – the last dynasty of Bactrian rulers. [[Kabulistan]] was the heartland of the Turk Shahi domain, which at times included [[Zabulistan]] and [[Gandhara]].<ref
===Hindu Shahi dynasty of Kabul===
Line 302:
===Balkh===
From historical evidence, it appears [[Tokharistan]] (Bactria) was the only area heavily colonized by Arabs where [[Buddhism]] flourished and the only area incorporated into the Arab empire where Sanskrit studies were pursued up to the conquest.<ref
===Ghur===
[[Amir Suri]], a king of the [[Ghurid dynasty]], in the [[Ghor]] region of present-day central Afghanistan, and his son [[Muhammad ibn Suri]], despite bearing Arabic names were Buddhists.<ref
===Nuristan===
The vast area extending from modern [[Nuristan]] to Kashmir (styled "Peristan" by A. M. Cacopardo) containing host of "[[Nuristanis|Kafir]]" cultures and Indo-European languages that became Islamized over a long period. Earlier, it was surrounded by Buddhist areas. The Islamization of the nearby [[Badakhshan]] began in the 8th century and Peristan was completely surrounded by Muslim states in the 16th century with Islamization of [[Baltistan]]. The Buddhist states temporarily brought literacy and state rule into the region. The decline of Buddhism resulted in it becoming heavily isolated.<ref name="academia">{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/35077429|journal=Archivio per l'Antropologia e la Etnologia|title=Fence of Peristan – The Islamization of the "Kafirs" and Their Domestication|publisher=Società Italiana di Antropologia e Etnologia|author=Alberto M. Cacopardo|year=2016|pages=69, 77|access-date=26 March 2023|archive-date=10 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610175404/https://www.academia.edu/35077429|url-status=live}}</ref>
Successive wave of [[Pashtuns|Pashtun]] immigration, before or during 16th and 17th centuries, displaced the original Kafirs and [[Pashayi people]] from [[Kunar Valley]] and Laghman valley, the two eastern provinces near [[Jalalabad]], to the less fertile mountains.<ref
In 1020–21, Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna led a campaign against Kafiristan and the people of the "pleasant valleys of Nur and Qirat" according to Gardizi.<ref
== Genetic influence ==
Line 343:
* {{Citation|last1=Thapar|first1=Romila|author-link=Romila Thapar|date=1968|title=Interpretations of Ancient Indian History|journal=History and Theory|publisher=Wesleyan University|volume=7|issue=3|pages=318–335|doi=10.2307/2504471|jstor=2504471}}
* {{Citation|last1=Wheatley|first1=Paul|date=November 1982|title=Presidential Address: India Beyond the Ganges—Desultory Reflections on the Origins of Civilisation in Southeast Asia|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|publisher=Association for Asian Studies|volume=42|issue=1|pages=13–28|doi=10.2307/2055365|jstor=2055365|s2cid=161697583 }}
* {{citation|last=Zoetmulder|first=P. J.|title=Old Javanese-English Dictionary|year=1982|url=http://sealang.net/ojed/}}▼
==Further reading==
Line 356 ⟶ 357:
* {{citation|author=Daigorō Chihara|title=Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wiUTOanLClcC|year=1996|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-10512-6}}
* Hoadley, M. C. (1991). Sanskritic continuity in Southeast Asia: The ṣaḍātatāyī and aṣṭacora in Javanese law. Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.
▲* {{citation|last=Zoetmulder|first=P. J.|title=Old Javanese-English Dictionary|year=1982|url=http://sealang.net/ojed/}}
==External links==
| |||