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=== Schools of thought ===
Various competing schools of thought exist in the field. Some are close to resource and environmental economics while others are far more heterodox in outlook. An example of the latter is the ''European Society for Ecological Economics''. An example of the former is the Swedish ''Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics.'' [[Clive Spash]] has argued for the classification of the ecological economics movement, and more generally work by different economic schools on the environment, into three main categories. These are the mainstream new resource economists, the new environmental pragmatists,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.clivespash.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Spash_NEP_2009_EV.pdf|title=The New Environmental Pragmatists, Pluralism and Sustainability|website=clivespash.org
|access-date=10 April 2023|date=April 2015}}</ref> and the more radical social ecological economists.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.clivespash.org/2011_Spash_AJES_Social_Ecol_Econ.pdf |title=Spash, C.L. (2011) Social ecological economics: Understanding the past to see the future. American Journal of Economics and Sociology 70, 340-375 |access-date=2014-01-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107122030/http://www.clivespash.org/2011_Spash_AJES_Social_Ecol_Econ.pdf |archive-date=2014-01-07 }}</ref> International survey work comparing the relevance of the categories for mainstream and heterodox economists shows some clear divisions between environmental and ecological economists.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Jacqui Lagrue |title=Spash, C.L., Ryan, A. (2012) Economic schools of thought on the environment: Investigating unity and division |journal=Cambridge Journal of Economics |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=1091–1121 |date=2012-07-30 |doi=10.1093/cje/bes023 |hdl=10.1093/cje/bes023 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> A growing field of radical social-ecological theory is degrowth economics.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nelson |first=Anitra |date=2024-01-31 |title=Degrowth as a Concept and Practice : Introduction |url=https://commonslibrary.org/degrowth-as-a-concept-and-practice-introduction/ |access-date=2024-02-24 |website=The Commons Social Change Library |language=en-AU}}</ref>[[Degrowth]] addresses both biophysical limits and global inequality while rejecting neoliberal economics. Degrowth prioritizes grassroots initiatives in progressive socio-ecological goals, adhering to ecological limits by shrinking the human ecological footprint (See Differences from Mainstream Economics Below). It involves an equitable downscale in both production and consumption of resources in order to adhere to biophysical limits. Degrowth draws from [[Marxian economics]], citing the growth of efficient systems as the alienation of nature and man.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Klitgaard|first1=Kent A.|last2=Krall|first2=Lisi|date=December 2012|title=Ecological economics, degrowth, and institutional change|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0921800911004897|journal=Ecological Economics|language=en|volume=84|pages=247–253|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2011.11.008}}</ref> Economic movements like degrowth reject the idea of growth itself. Some degrowth theorists call for an "exit of the economy".<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Schwartzman|first=David|date=March 2012|title=A Critique of Degrowth and its Politics|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10455752.2011.648848|journal=Capitalism Nature Socialism|language=en|volume=23|issue=1|pages=119–125|doi=10.1080/10455752.2011.648848|s2cid=56469290|issn=1045-5752}}</ref> Critics of the degrowth movement include new resource economists, who point to the gaining momentum of sustainable development. These economists highlight the positive aspects of a green economy, which include equitable access to renewable energy and a commitment to eradicate global inequality through sustainable development (See Green Economics).<ref name=":1" /> Examples of heterodox ecological economic experiments include the Catalan Integral Cooperative and the Solidarity Economy Networks in Italy. Both of these grassroots movements use communitarian based economies and consciously reduce their ecological footprint by limiting material growth and adapting to [[regenerative agriculture]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chiengkul|first=Prapimphan|date=May 2018|title=The Degrowth Movement: Alternative Economic Practices and Relevance to Developing Countries|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0304375418811763|journal=Alternatives: Global, Local, Political|language=en|volume=43|issue=2|pages=81–95|doi=10.1177/0304375418811763|s2cid=150125286|issn=0304-3754}}</ref>
==== Non-traditional approaches to ecological economics ====
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