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==Background==
'''Timeline for the Expedition of [[Subutai]] and [[Jebe]] (the Mongol reconnaissance of the western steppes)'''
• 12 January 1221 [[Muhammad II of Khwarezm Shah]] of Khwarezm dies on the run from the Mongols on the island of Abeskum during [[Jenghiz Khan]]’s destruction of the [[Khwarezmid Empire]] campaign
=== Volga Bulgars ===
The [[Bulgars]] were nomadic tribes originally from the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]] just north of the Black Sea.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Beebe) |first=Ivan Matfeevich Rezansky (John |date=2020-09-22 |title=The Khanate of Volga Bulgaria {{!}} Ivan Rezansky's SCA Adventures |url=https://rezansky.com/volga-bulgaria/ |access-date=2023-01-02 |website=rezansky.com |language=en-US}}</ref> In the mid-7th century, the group split; some migrated westward to Central Europe, forming the [[First Bulgarian Empire]] in the Balkans, while others migrated northeastward towards the confluence of the [[Volga]] and [[Kama (river)|Kama]] rivers near modern-day [[Kazan]], founding [[Volga Bulgaria]].<ref>Rene Grousset, ''The Empire of the Steppes'', Barnes & Noble with Rutgers Univ. Press, 170. p. 176</ref> The Volga Bulgars converted to [[Islam]] after it was declared the official state religion in 922,<ref name=":0" /> establishing significant trade between the Islamic world and Europe.
• Jenghiz Khan summons his general [[Subutai]] to Samarkand upon hearing the news of the Shah’s death; Subutai gives a report on how best to defeat the new Shah, [[Jalal ad-Din]] (Muhammed’s son); Subutai requests not to be part of the final campaign and proposes to reconnoiter the west bank of the Caspian Sea and the steppes beyond - Jenghiz accepts this plan and assigns two ''tumens'' (20,000 men) to Subutai and his other best general, Jebe, under the condition that the campaign not take more than two years and that on their return march they find and join with the Khan’s son [[Jochi]] in the east to engage the [[Volga Bulgars]]
Despite peaceful relations with [[Kievan Rus']] during the 10th and 11th centuries, the principality of [[Vladimir-Suzdal]] began expanding its territory in the middle [[Volga]] region during the 12th century, and subsequent disputes over trade in the region resulted in hostilities with the Volga Bulgars. Various Bulgar towns and villages were conquered by the Kievan Rus', referred to as {{Lang|xbo|Brjahimov}} in old [[Bulgar language|Bulgar]].
• Subutai rejoins Jebe at their camp near the Caspian (delta of the Kura river) - the “reconnaissance in force” begins at the end of February 1221
The conquest led the Bulgars to establish a new capital at Bilar (also known as Biljarsk or Biler),<ref name="Istvan">Zimonyi Istvan: "History of the Turkic speaking peoples in Europe before the Ottomans". The lectures include the history of the Turkic-speaking peoples of Eastern Europe from the Huns to Kipchaks 4-14th centuries</ref> and the weakening of the Volga-Bulgar state.
• the Mongols invade Georgia and annihilate George IV of Georgia’s much larger forces on the plain of Khuman
=== Mongol expedition to the Dnieper ===
• the Mongols sack Margha and Hamadan
On 12 January 1221, [[Shah]] [[Muhammad II of Khwarezm]] died while retreating from the Mongols on the island of Abeskum<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=A50WWPlO-7wC&pg=PA193 The War Chronicles: From Chariots to Flintlocks], Joseph Cummins. via Google Books, p.193</ref> during [[Genghis Khan]]'s destruction of the [[Khwarezmid Empire]]. Upon hearing the news of the Shah's death, Genghis Khan summoned his general, [[Subutai]], to [[Samarkand]]. Subutai offered him advice on how best to defeat the new Shah, [[Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu]]. He requested not to be part of the final campaign, and instead proposed to [[Reconnaissance|reconnoiter]] the west bank of the [[Caspian Sea]] and the steppes beyond. Genghis Khan accepted this plan and assigned two ''[[tumen (unit)|tumens]]'' (totaling 20,000 soldiers) to Subutai and another to [[Jebe]], another one of the Khan's generals, under the condition that the campaign did not take more than two years and that on their return they find and join with the Khan's son [[Jochi]] in the east to engage the [[Volga Bulgars]]. Subutai rejoined Jebe at their camp near the Caspian at the delta of the [[Kura (river)|Kura river]]. The "reconnaissance in force" began at the end of February 1221. The Mongols then invaded [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and decimated [[George IV of Georgia]]'s much larger forces on the plain of Khuman, sacking Mariah and [[Hamadan]].
• the Mongols move into Georgia again towards Derbend and are attacked by King George IV with another army - the Mongols destroy it and George IV escapes with only his rearguard
The Mongol forces crossed the [[Caucasus]] with significant difficulty during the winter. After crossing, they met an army of some 50,000 allied [[Circassians]], [[Alans]], and [[Lezgins]], who were joined by [[Cumans]];<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Davison |first=Derek |date=31 May 2019 |title=Today in European history: the Battle of the Kalka River (1223) |url=https://fx.substack.com/p/today-in-european-history-the-battle-b5a |access-date=2023-01-29 |website=fx.substack.com |language=en}}</ref> the Cuman forces were further bolstered by their Volga Bulgar, [[Khazars|Khazar]], and [[Avars (Caucasus)|Avar]] allies under the command of their [[khagan]] [[Köten|Kotian]]'s brother, Yuri, and son, Daniel. After an inconclusive first battle, the Mongols bribed the Cumans to abandon their allies by promising them half their spoils from Georgia.<ref name=":1" /> The Cumans broke camp during the night, leaving their allies to the Mongol horde, who sacked the camp and [[wikt:impress|impressed]] the survivors they considered useful into their army.
• the Mongols cross the Caucasus with great hardship in winter to the Fergana valley and are to find a 50,000 man army waiting for them of Cumans assembled by their khagan Kotian and his Bulgar, Khazar and Avar allies under the command of Kotian’s brother Yuri and son Daniel
The Mongols later overtook and massacred the fleeing Cumans, among whom were Yuri and Daniel. In addition to this victory, the Mongols also recovered their treasure used for the bribe. Upon hearing the news of this defeat, many Cumans fled west to the borders of Hungary and the [[Byzantine Empire]]'s trading station on the [[Sea of Azov]]. ▼
• the Mongols engage the Cumans but can make no headway due to their unfavorable position and they withdraw - the Mongols resort to bribing the Cumans with half of their spoils taken from Georgia if they will join them - the Cumans agree but after taking payment they break camp under darkness and leave their allies
The Mongols sacked [[Astrakhan]], after which Subutai and Jebe split their forces. Subutai marched south to the Sea of Azov to ensure that the Cumans could not threaten them from the rear, while Jebe marched to the [[River Don (Russia)|Don river]] to await him. Subutai's force attacked and razed settlements along the shore, massacring any Cumans they encountered.{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}} It was during these advances that the Mongols encountered [[Venice|Venetian]] merchants for the first time. Subutai made a pact with them to destroy their [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] rivals' trading posts in exchange for information and military intelligence on the west.
• the Mongols attack and destroy the remaining Cuman allied forces and impress those survivors considered useful into their army
In accordance with the pact, Subutai destroyed the Genoese trading station of [[Sudak|Soldaia]] (Sudak) in [[Crimea]], after which he rejoined Jebe. The Mongol forces were then composed of perhaps 25,000 men, who marched unopposed to the [[Dniester|Dniester river]]. In the meantime, Jebe had allied with the chief of the [[Brodnici]], Polskinia, and 5,000 Brodnici troops joined his forces on the Don.
▲The• the Mongols laterwith overtookgreat andspeed massacredovertake the fleeing Cumans , amongwho whomhad werefled towards Astrakhan on the Volga and extirpate them - both Yuri and Daniel . Inare additionkilled and the Cumans massacred to thisa man victory,- the Mongols also recoveredrecover their treasure used forin the bribe.‘bribe’ Upon- hearing theon news of this defeat , many Cumans fledflee west to the borders of Hungary and the [[Byzantine Empire]]'sEmpire’s trading station on the [[Sea of Azov ]].
In the autumn and winter of 1222, the Mongol army marched up and down the Dniester, frequently resorting to [[Fearmongering|scare tactics]] to discourage attacks. Scouting parties were sent as far west as possible to gather military intelligence on southern Kievan Rus' and the states along the borders of the [[Carpathian Mountains]]. Their objective completed, the Mongols began their march home. ▼
• the Mongols sack Astrakhan
=== Retreat and pursuit by Cuman and Ruthenian forces ===
• Subutai and Jebe split their force - Jebe marches west to the river Don to await Subutai who marches south to the Sea of Azov to ensure the Cumans cannot threaten their expedition from the rear - Subutai’s force destroys the towns along the shore and what Cumans they find and meet Venetian merchants from Europe for the first time - he makes a pact with them to destroy Genoese trading posts in exchange for information on the West and military intelligence on the kingdoms there
The Cuman leader, [[Köten|Kotian]], had fled north with the remnants of the Cumans and pleaded for an alliance with the [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian]] (Rus') princes against the Mongols at a conference. The Ruthenian princes of [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] ([[Mstislav Mstislavich|Mstislav the Daring]]), [[Kursk]], [[Kiev]], and [[Chernihiv]] agreed to join Kotian to stop the Mongols. [[Yuri II of Vladimir|Duke Yuri of Suzdal]] also promised to send an army under the command of his nephew, the [[Konstantin of Rostov|Prince of Rostov]]. The nominal strength of this allied force was 80,000 men. ▼
• Jebe makes an alliance with the chief of the Brodniki, Polskinia, and 5,000 Brodniki troops join his forces on the Don
The Mongols learned that military action was being planned against them by their spies and scouts; the allied Rus' and Cuman forces approached the Mongol position from several directions. The Mongols were still under the Khan's orders to suppress the Volga Bulgars, but this could not be safely done with enemies in their rear, and the elimination of the incoming Ruthenian threats was a military necessity. They crossed the [[Dnieper]] where the expected rendezvous with Jochi did not take place; Jochi was supposedly ill and delayed in the east. After Mongol ambassadors to the Princes of Chernihiv and Kiev were killed, they declared war.
• Subutai destroys the Genoese trading station of Soldaia (Sudak) on the Crimea, then rejoins Jebe - their army now has perhaps 25,000 men - they march unopposed to the Dniester river
Subutai and Jebe left one thousand men under the command of Hamabek on the east bank of the Dnieper to delay the Ruthenian crossing—this rearguard was able to inflict heavy casualties but was eventually overwhelmed and destroyed, and Hamabek was captured and executed. In May 1223, the Mongols retreated over the steppes north of the Sea of Azov, land that they knew well. Although their mobility allowed them to easily outpace the Rus' forces, they instead decided to confront them. On 31 May 1223, they stopped along the western bank of the river [[Kalka River|Kalka]] (Kalmyus). In the ensuing [[Battle of the Kalka River]], Mongol forces of perhaps 23,000 exterminated the combined Cuman-Ruthenian army, which may have numbered 80,000 men,<ref name=":1" /> only 25–30% of which were experienced warriors.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deligiannis |first=Periklis |date=2011 |title=The battle of the Kalka River (1223): an analysis of the combat |url=https://www.academia.edu/19563586 |website=academia.edu |page=7 |format=PDF}}</ref> The Mongol tactics and weaponry, with which the Ruthenians had no prior experience, were superior to the rather unorganized assault by the allied armies. The Mongols pursued the remnants of the allied forces to the Dnieper, where the Prince of Kiev had retreated with his army mostly intact, not having been part of the reckless charges at Kalka; however, they were overtaken by the Mongols and eventually massacred in their fortified camp. The Prince of Rostov stopped and returned with his army to Suzdal upon the news of the defeat at Kalka to prepare for an attack, but it never came. The Mongols had resumed their march east.<ref>John Chambers, ''The Devil's Horsemen: The Mongol Invasion of Europe'', Atheneum, 1979. p. 17-30</ref><ref>Rene Grousset, ''The Empire of the Steppes'', Barnes & Noble with Rutgers Univ. Press, 1970. p. 245-247</ref><ref>David Morgan, ''The Mongols'', Blackwell Cambridge MA & Oxford UK, 1986. p. 71</ref>
▲In• the autumnAutumn and winterWinter of1222 1222,- the Mongol army marchedmarches up and down the Dniester , frequentlyusing resortingterror tactics to [[Fearmongering|scaremaintain tactics]]security tofrom discourageattack attacks.- Scoutingscouting parties wereare sent as far west as possible to gather military intelligence on southern Kievan Rus'Russia and the states along the borders of the [[Carpathian Mountains]]. Their objective completed, the Mongols began their march home.mountains
The Mongol campaign had killed as many as 200,000 soldiers from various nations and, up until this point, had never lost a major battle. At this point in history, the Mongol army was the finest in the world—it was professional and extremely well-trained and equipped. A Mongol rose through the ranks based on his merit rather than his position in Mongol society, and generals such as Jebe, Subutai, and the Great Khan had developed revolutionary tactics all controlled with iron discipline. Its mobility was unmatched by any other military force. Using the [[Mongolian horse]] (steppe pony) allowed the survival of their steeds in areas where other horses would have starved or otherwise died from conditions. Mongol commanders also realized the quality of their army and were not impressed by the mere size of the opposing forces of their enemies. They could stand and hold, and their tactics would often cause an enemy to break and retreat in a panic that inevitably led to a rout by Mongol mounted archers and lancers. They often employed siege engines and engineers from China and Persia in their ranks to enable them to take fortified cities, although this would not have been practical in the fast campaign of Jebe and Subutai.<ref>Stephen Turnbull, ''Genghis Khan & The Mongol Conquests'', 1190-1400, Osprey Publishing, 2003.</ref> This was the army now marching to face the Bulgars on the Volga. ▼
• their objective completed, the Mongols begin the march home to Mongolian territory
▲The• Cuman leader, [[Köten|Kotian ]], had fled north with the remnants of thesuch Cumans as he could and pleadedwas pleading for an alliance with the [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian]] (Rus')Russian princes against the Mongols - at a conference . Thethe RuthenianRussian princes of [[Galicia ( EasternMstislave Europethe Daring) |Galicia]], ([[Mstislavhis Mstislavich|Mstislavson-in-law theDaniel Daring]])of Volynia, [[Prince Oleg of Kursk ]], [[and the Princes of Kiev ]], and [[Chernihiv]]Chernigov agreedagree to join Kotian to stop the Mongols . [[Yuri II of- Vladimir|Duke Yuri of Suzdal ]] also promisedpromises to send an army under the command of his nephew , the [[KonstantinPrince of Rostov |Prince of- Rostov]]. Thethe nominal strength of this allied force was 80,000 men .
• the Mongols are aware via their spies and scouts that a military action is being planned against them - the allied Russian and Cuman forces are approaching from several directions
• the Mongols cross the Dnieper where the expected rendezvous with Jochi does not take place - Jochi is supposedly ill in the east and is delayed
• the Mongols send ambassadors to the Princes of Chernigov and Kiev to attempt peace - the Russians kill the ambassadors - a second Mongol embassy arrives to declare war
• the Mongols were still under the Khan’s orders to suppress the Volga Bulgars, but this cannot be safely done with enemies in their rear - the elimination of the Russian threat was a military necessity
• Subutai and Jebe leave 1,000 men under the command of Hamabek on the east bank of the Dnieper to delay the Russian crossing for as long as possible - this rearguard was able to inflict heavy casualties but was eventually overwhelmed and destroyed and Hamabek was captured and executed
• May 1223 - the Mongols are slowly retreating over land they had excellent knowledge of north of the Sea of Azov - their mobility allowed them to easily outpace the Russian forces but they had decided on a confrontation with them - on 31 May 1223 they stopped along the western side of the river Kalka (Kalmyus)
• Battle of the Kalka River - the Mongol forces, numbering at this point perhaps 23,000 - exterminate the combined Cuman-Russian armies - some 40,000 Russian and Cuman soldiers are killed - the Mongol tactics and weaponry, with which the Russians had no prior experience, are superior to the rather unorganized assault by the allied armies - the Mongols pursue the remnants of the allied forces to the Dneiper
• the Prince of Kiev had retreated with his army mostly intact 150 miles back to the Dnieper, not having been part of the reckless charges at Kalka; however they were overtaken by the Mongols and eventually massacred in their fortified camp
• the Prince of Rostov stopped and returned with his army to Suzdal upon the news of the defeat at Kalka to prepare for an attack, but it never came - the Mongols had resumed their march east <ref>John Chambers, The Devil's Horsemen: The Mongol Invasion of Europe, Atheneum, 1979. p. 17-30</ref><ref>Rene Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes, Barnes & Noble with Rutgers Univ. Press, 1970. p. 245-247</ref><ref>David Morgan, The Mongols, Blackwell Cambridge MA & Oxford UK, 1986. p. 71</ref>
▲TheThis Mongol campaign had killed perhaps as many as 200,000 soldiers fromof various nations and , up until this point, had never lost a major battle. At this point in history, the Mongol army was the finest army in the world—itworld - it was professional and, extremely well - trained and equipped ., Aa Mongol rose through the ranks based on his merit rather than his position in Mongol society, and generals such as Jebe , and Subutai , andalong with the Great Khan had developed revolutionary tactics all controlled with iron discipline. ItsIt's mobility was unmatched by any other military force. UsingThe utilization of the [[Mongolian horse ]] (steppe pony) allowed thefor survival of their steeds in areas where other horses would have starvedstarve or otherwise dieddie from conditions. The Mongol commanders also realized the quality of their army and were not impressed by the mere size of the opposing forces of their enemies. TheyIn this way they could stand and hold, and their various tactics would often cause an enemy to break and retreat in a panic that inevitably ledlead to a rout byfrom Mongol mounted archers and lancers. They often employed siege engines and engineers from China and Persia in their ranks to enable them to take fortified cities , although- however, this would not have been practical inon the fast -campaign of Jebe and /Subutai.<ref>Stephen Turnbull, ''GenghisGhenghis Khan & The Mongol Conquests '', 1190-1400, Osprey Publishing, 2003.</ref> This was the army now marching to face the Bulgars on the Volga.
The '''Volga Bolgars/Bulgars''' had built up a powerful state in the second half of the 7th century between the Sea of Azov and the Kuban valley. They were apparently of Turkic origin and related to the Kutrigur Huns. Some of them migrated to Europe, forming an empire there in the Balkans. The rest slowly moved northward in the direction of Kama and Kazan to found Great Bulgaria.<ref>Rene Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes, Barnes & Noble with Rutgers Univ. Press, 170. p. 176</ref> The Volga Bulgars on the Volga-Kama region embraced Islam in 922, becoming an important trade center between the Islamic world and Europe. The Volga Bulgars formed a settled civilisation with towns and Islamic culture till the Mongol invasion. Although there were peaceful relations with Kievan Rus in the 10th and 11th centuries, the principality of Vladimir-Suzdal was expanding its domain on the middle Volga during the 12th century, and their attempts to monopolize the Volga trade resulted in hostilities with the Volga Bulgars. Various Bulgar towns and villages were conquered by the Russians - Brjahimov (old Bulgar), which forced the Bulgars to establish a new capital at Bilar (Biljarsk, Biler), and eventually the most important Bulgar town on the eastern side of the Volga, Osel, was captured.<ref>Zimonyi Istvan: "History of the Turkic speaking peoples in Europe before the Ottomans". The lectures include the history of the Turkic speaking peoples of Eastern Europe from the Huns to Kipchaks 4-14th century.</ref> The Bulgar state had been weakened by these conquests.
==Battle==
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