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{{Short description|High German-derived language used by Ashkenazi Jews}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Yiddish
| altname =
| nativename = {{lang|yi|ייִדיש}}, {{lang|yi|יידיש}}, {{lang|yi|אידיש}}<br>''yidish'', ''idish''
| pronunciation = {{IPA|yi|ˈ(j)ɪdɪʃ|}}
| states =
| region =
| ethnicity = [[Ashkenazi Jews]]
| speakers =
| date = 2021
| ref = <ref name="2021 stats"/>
| familycolor = Indo-European
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* Edited by Manfred Treml and Josef Kirmeier with assistance by Evamaria Brockhoff: ''Geschichte und Kultur der Juden in Bayern: Aufsätze.'' 1988, p. 522</ref>
| nation = {{plainlist|
Israel▼
*[[Russia]] ([[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]])<ref name=jao-ustav>{{cite web|url=http://constitution.garant.ru/region/ustav_evreis/chapter/1/|title=Устав Еврейской автономной области от 8 октября 1997 г. N 40-ОЗ (с изменениями и дополнениями) Глава I. Общие положения. Статья 6.2 [Charter of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast N 40-ОЗ (with the Amendments and Additions of 8 October 1997): Chapter I. General situation. Article 6.2]|website=Сайт Конституции Российской Федерации [Site of the Constitution of the Russian Federation]|publisher=Garant|access-date=2023-06-16|archive-date=2015-02-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221205825/http://constitution.garant.ru/region/ustav_evreis/chapter/1/#block_1000|url-status=live|quote=В области создаются условия для сохранения, изучения и развития языков еврейского народа и других народов, проживающих на территории области.|trans-quote=In the oblast the conditions will be created for the protection, stidy and growth of the languages of the Jewish peoples and other peoples living on the territory of the oblast.}}</ref>
}}
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* [[Belarus]]{{cn|date=September 2022}}
* {{nowrap|[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]}}
* [[Germany]]{{cn|date=October 2024}}
▲* [[Israel]]
* [[Netherlands]]
* [[Poland]]
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| glottoname2 = Western Yiddish
| map = Lang Status 80-VU.svg
| mapcaption = {{center|{{small|Yiddish is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]'' (2023)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wal.unesco.org/languages/eastern-yiddish|title=World Atlas of Languages: Eastern Yiddish|website=en.wal.unesco.org|access-date=2023-04-23}}</ref>}}}}
| dia1 = Eastern Yiddish
| dia2 = Western Yiddish
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[[File:BelohnteTugend.jpg|thumb|The opening page of the 1828 Yiddish-written Jewish holiday of [[Purim]] play ''Esther, oder die belohnte Tugend'' from [[Fürth]] (by Nürnberg), [[Bavaria]].]]
{{Contain special characters|Hebrew}}
'''Yiddish''',{{efn|{{lang|yi|ייִדיש}}, {{lang|yi|יידיש}} or {{lang|yi|אידיש}}, [[romanized]] as {{translit|yi|yidish}} or {{translit|yi|idish}}, {{IPA|yi|ˈ(j)ɪdɪʃ|pron}}; {{lit|Jewish}}}}
Prior to [[World War II]], there were
The earliest surviving references date from the 12th century and call the language {{Script/Hebrew|לשון־אַשכּנז|rtl=yes}} (''loshn-ashknaz''; {{lit|language of Ashkenaz}}) or {{Script/Hebrew|טײַטש|rtl=yes}} (''taytsh''), a variant of ''tiutsch'', the contemporary name for [[Middle High German]]. Colloquially, the language is sometimes called {{Script/Hebrew|מאַמע־לשון|rtl=yes}} (''mame-loshn''; {{lit|mother tongue}}), distinguishing it from {{Script/Hebrew|לשון־קודש|rtl=yes}} (''[[Lashon Hakodesh|loshn koydesh]]''; {{lit|holy tongue}}), meaning 'Hebrew and Aramaic'.{{efn|In particular, [[L. L. Zamenhof]], a Litvak Jew from [[Congress Poland]] and the initiator of [[Esperanto]], often mentioned his fondness for what he called his ''mama-loshen'' (it had not yet been called ''Yiddish'' but usually ''jargon'' at that time and place) in his correspondence.}} The term "Yiddish", short for "Yidish-Taitsh" ('Jewish German'), did not become the most frequently used designation in the literature until the 18th century. In the late 19th and into the 20th century, the language was more commonly called "Jewish", especially in non-Jewish contexts, but "Yiddish" is again the most common designation today.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Yiddish |url=https://www.jewishlanguages.org/yiddish |access-date=2023-12-25 |website=Jewish Languages |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":5"
▲Prior to [[World War II]], there were 22 million speakers.<ref name="yivoyiddish" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cal.org/heritage/yiddish.html |publisher=Center for Applied Linguistics |title=Yiddish Language |date=2012}}</ref> approximately 8 million Jews who were murdered in the [[Holocaust]] were Yiddish speakers,<ref name="Sprache 1984 p. 3">[[Solomon Birnbaum]], ''Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache'' (4., erg. Aufl., Hamburg: Buske, 1984), p. 3.</ref> leading to a massive decline in the use of the language following World War II, today the number of Yiddish speakers is increasing mostly in hasidic communities.<ref name="2021 stats">{{cite web|url=https://jewishstudies.rutgers.edu/yiddish/102-department-of-jewish-studies/yiddish/159-yiddish-faqs|title=Yiddish FAQs|publisher=Rutgers University|access-date=February 9, 2021|archive-date=February 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215015918/https://jewishstudies.rutgers.edu/yiddish/102-department-of-jewish-studies/yiddish/159-yiddish-faqs|url-status=dead}}</ref>
▲The earliest surviving references date from the 12th century and call the language {{Script/Hebrew|לשון־אַשכּנז|rtl=yes}} (''loshn-ashknaz''; {{lit|language of Ashkenaz}}) or {{Script/Hebrew|טײַטש|rtl=yes}} (''taytsh''), a variant of ''tiutsch'', the contemporary name for [[Middle High German]]. Colloquially, the language is sometimes called {{Script/Hebrew|מאַמע־לשון|rtl=yes}} (''mame-loshn''; {{lit|mother tongue}}), distinguishing it from {{Script/Hebrew|לשון־קודש|rtl=yes}} (''[[Lashon Hakodesh|loshn koydesh]]''; {{lit|holy tongue}}), meaning 'Hebrew and Aramaic'.{{efn|In particular, [[L. L. Zamenhof]], a Litvak Jew from [[Congress Poland]] and the initiator of [[Esperanto]], often mentioned his fondness for what he called his ''mama-loshen'' (it had not yet been called ''Yiddish'' but usually ''jargon'' at that time and place) in his correspondence.}} The term "Yiddish", short for "Yidish-Taitsh" ('Jewish German'), did not become the most frequently used designation in the literature until the 18th century. In the late 19th and into the 20th century, the language was more commonly called "Jewish", especially in non-Jewish contexts, but "Yiddish" is again the most common designation today.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Yiddish |url=https://www.jewishlanguages.org/yiddish |access-date=2023-12-25 |website=Jewish Languages |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |author-link=YIVO |date=2014 |title=Basic Facts about Yiddish |url=https://www.yivo.org/cimages/basic_facts_about_yiddish_2014.pdf |access-date=December 24, 2023 |website=YIVO}}</ref>
Modern Yiddish has [[Yiddish dialects|two major dialect groups]]: Eastern and Western. Eastern Yiddish is far more common today. It includes Southeastern (Ukrainian–Romanian), Mideastern (Polish–Galician–Eastern Hungarian) and Northeastern (Lithuanian–Belarusian) dialects. Eastern Yiddish differs from Western both by its far greater size and by the extensive inclusion of words of Slavic origin. Western Yiddish is divided into Southwestern (Swiss–Alsatian–Southern German), Midwestern (Central German), and Northwestern (Netherlandic–Northern German) dialects. Yiddish is used in a number of Haredi Jewish communities worldwide; it is the first language of the home, school, and in many social settings among many Haredi Jews, and is used in most [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] [[yeshiva]]s.
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Yiddish changed significantly during the 20th century. [[Michael Wex]] writes, "As increasing numbers of Yiddish speakers moved from the Slavic-speaking East to Western Europe and the Americas in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, they were so quick to jettison Slavic vocabulary that the most prominent Yiddish writers of the time—the founders of modern Yiddish literature, who were still living in Slavic-speaking countries—revised the printed editions of their oeuvres to eliminate obsolete and 'unnecessary' Slavisms."<ref>{{cite book |title=Born to Kvetch: Yiddish Language and Culture in All Its Moods |last=Wex |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Wex |year=2005 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/borntokvetchyidd00wexm/page/29 29] |isbn=0-312-30741-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/borntokvetchyidd00wexm/page/29 }}</ref> The vocabulary used in Israel absorbed many Modern Hebrew words, and there was a similar but smaller increase in the English component of Yiddish in the United States and, to a lesser extent, the United Kingdom.{{citation needed|date=March 2014}} This has resulted in some difficulty in communication between Yiddish speakers from Israel and those from other countries.
[[Names of the Holocaust#Khurban and destruction| Khurbn]] Yiddish, as discussed by Professor Hannah Pollin-Galay, refers to the [[sociolect]] shaped by Yiddish speakers' experience during the Holocaust. Prisoners developed new words and slang, particularly relating to theft, protest, and sexuality.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pollin-Galay |first1=Hannah |title=Occupied Words: What the Holocaust Did to Yiddish |date=September 3, 2024 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=9781512825916}}</ref>
== Phonology ==
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{{see also|High German consonant shift}}
In vocabulary of Germanic origin, the differences between Standard German and Yiddish pronunciation are mainly in the [[vowel]]s and [[diphthong]]s. All varieties of Yiddish lack the German [[front rounded vowel]]s {{IPA|/œ, øː/}} and {{IPA|/ʏ, yː/}}, having merged them with {{IPA|/ɛ, e:/}} and {{IPA|/ɪ, i:/}}, respectively. In many respects, particularly with vowels and vowel diphthongs, and even how it forms diminutives, Yiddish is closer to [[Swabian German]] than to standard High German.
Diphthongs have also undergone divergent developments in German and Yiddish. Where Standard German has merged the [[Middle High German]] diphthong ''ei'' and long vowel ''î'' to {{IPA|/aɪ/}}, Yiddish has maintained the distinction between them; and likewise, the Standard German {{IPA|/ɔʏ/}} corresponds to both the MHG diphthong ''öu'' and the long vowel ''iu'', which in Yiddish have merged with their unrounded counterparts ''ei'' and ''î'', respectively. Lastly, the Standard German {{IPA|/aʊ/}} corresponds to both the MHG diphthong ''ou'' and the long vowel ''û'', but in Yiddish, they have not merged. Although Standard Yiddish does not distinguish between those two diphthongs and renders both as {{IPA|/ɔɪ/}}, the distinction becomes apparent when the two diphthongs undergo [[Germanic umlaut]], such as in forming plurals:
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| {{IPA|/a/}}
| {{IPA|/a/}}
| {{IPA|/
| {{lang|gmh|machen, glat}}
| {{lang|de|machen, glatt}} {{IPA|/ˈmaxən, ɡlat/}}
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[[File:Yiddish.png|thumb|Map of the Yiddish dialects between the 15th and the 19th centuries (Western dialects in orange / Eastern dialects in green)]]
{{Quote box|width=246px|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|align=right|quote=Ghosts love Yiddish and as far as I know, they all speak it.|3= – [[Isaac Bashevis Singer]] upon receiving the [[Nobel Prize for Literature]], 1978.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bashevis Singer |first1=Isaac |title=Isaac Bashevis Singer's banquet speech upon receiving the Nobel Prize for Literature 1978 |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1978/singer/speech/ |publisher=[[Nobel Foundation]] |access-date=1 February 2023 |date=10 December 1978}}</ref>}}
On the eve of [[World War II]], there were 11 to 13 million Yiddish speakers.<ref name=yivoyiddish/> [[The Holocaust]], however, led to a dramatic, sudden decline in the use of Yiddish, as the extensive Jewish communities, both secular and religious, that used Yiddish in their day-to-day life were largely destroyed. Around five million of those killed{{snd}}85 percent of the Jews murdered in the Holocaust{{snd}}were speakers of Yiddish.<ref name="Sprache 1984 p. 3"/> Although millions of Yiddish speakers survived the war (including nearly all Yiddish speakers in the Americas), further assimilation in countries such as the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]], in addition to the strictly monolingual stance of the [[Haskalah]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Katz |first1=Dovid |title=Words on Fire: The Unfinished Story of Yiddish |date=2007 |publisher=Basic Books |location=London | isbn=978-0-465-03730-8}}</ref> and later [[Zionist]] movements, led to a decline in the use of Eastern Yiddish.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Halperin |first1=Liora R. |title=Babel in Zion: Jews, Nationalism, and Language Diversity in Palestine, 1920-1948 |date=2015 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=London |isbn=978-0-300-19748-8 |page=9}}</ref> However, the number of speakers within the widely dispersed Haredi (mainly Hasidic) communities is now increasing. Although used in various countries, Yiddish has attained official recognition as a [[minority language]] only in [[Moldova]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], the [[Netherlands]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/erkende-talen/vraag-en-antwoord/erkende-talen-nederland |title=Welke erkende talen heeft Nederland? |publisher=Rijksoverheid.nl |date=July 2, 2010 |access-date=June 5, 2019}}</ref> and [[Sweden]].
Reports of the number of current Yiddish speakers vary significantly. ''[[Ethnologue]]'' estimates, based on publications through 1991, that there were at that time 1.5 million speakers of Eastern Yiddish,<ref name=Ethnologue>{{e18|ydd|Eastern Yiddish}}</ref> of which 40% lived in Ukraine, 15% in Israel, and 10% in the United States. The [[Modern Language Association]] agrees with fewer than 200,000 in the United States.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060619224705/http://www.mla.org/cgi-shl/docstudio/docs.pl?map_data_results Most spoken languages in the United States], Modern Language Association. Retrieved October 17, 2006.</ref> Western Yiddish is reported by ''Ethnologue'' to have had an ethnic population of 50,000 in 2000, and an undated speaking population of 5,400, mostly in Germany.<ref name=Ethnologue-western>{{e18|yih|Western Yiddish}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Did you know Western Yiddish is threatened? |url=http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/2990 |access-date=2024-02-04 |website=Endangered Languages |language=en}}</ref> A 1996 report by the [[Council of Europe]] estimates a worldwide Yiddish-speaking population of about two million.<ref>Emanuelis Zingeris, [http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/WorkingDocs/doc96/EDOC7489.htm Yiddish culture] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330161904/http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/WorkingDocs/doc96/EDOC7489.htm |date=March 30, 2012}}, Council of Europe Committee on Culture and Education Doc. 7489, February 12, 1996. Retrieved October 17, 2006.</ref> Further [[demographics|demographic]] information about the recent status of what is treated as an Eastern–Western dialect continuum is provided in the YIVO ''Language and Cultural Atlas of Ashkenazic Jewry''.
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In the six years since the 2000 census, the 2006 [[American Community Survey]] reflected an estimated 15 percent decline of people speaking Yiddish at home in the U.S. to 152,515.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov |title=U.S. Census website |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |access-date=October 18, 2009 }}</ref> In 2011, the number of persons in the United States above the age of five speaking Yiddish at home was 160,968.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acs-22.pdf#page=12&zoom=auto,-265,62 |title=Camille Ryan: ''Language Use in the United States: 2011'', Issued August 2013 |access-date=January 21, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205101044/http://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acs-22.pdf#page=12&zoom=auto,-265,62 |archive-date=February 5, 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> 88% of them were living in four [[metropolitan area]]s – New York City and another metropolitan area [[Poughkeepsie–Newburgh–Middletown metropolitan area|just north of it]], Miami, and Los Angeles.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Basu |first1=Tanya |title=Oy Vey: Yiddish Has a Problem |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2014/09/yiddish-has-a-problem/379658/ |work=The Atlantic |date=September 9, 2014}}</ref>
There are a few predominantly [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] communities in the United States in which Yiddish remains the majority language including concentrations in the [[Crown Heights, Brooklyn|Crown Heights]], [[Borough Park, Brooklyn|Borough Park]], and [[Williamsburg, Brooklyn|Williamsburg]] neighborhoods of Brooklyn. In [[Kiryas Joel, New York|Kiryas Joel]] in [[Orange County, New York]], in the 2000 census, nearly 90% of residents of Kiryas Joel reported speaking Yiddish at home.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mla.org/census_data_results&state_id=36&place_id=39853|title=Data center results] Modern Language Association]|access-date=April 3, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923112824/http://www.mla.org/census_data_results%26state_id%3D36%26place_id%3D39853|archive-date=September 23, 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/11/28/opinion/yiddish-hebrew-language-thriving.html |website=[[The New York Times]] |title=Opinion | Yiddish is a Supposedly Dying Language That's Thrillingly Alive |date=November 28, 2024 |last1=McWhorter |first1=John }}</ref>
=== United Kingdom ===
There are well over 30,000 Yiddish speakers in the United Kingdom, and several thousand children now have Yiddish as a first language. The largest group of Yiddish speakers in Britain reside in the [[Stamford Hill]] district of North London, but there are sizable communities in northwest London, [[Leeds]], Manchester and [[Gateshead]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/faith/article2097943.ece |title=Yiddish once again speaks for itself |first=Jack |last=Shamash |date= March 6, 2004}}</ref> The Yiddish readership in the UK is mainly reliant upon imported material from the United States and Israel for newspapers, magazines and other periodicals. However, the London-based weekly ''[[Jewish Tribune (UK)|Jewish Tribune]]'' has a small section in Yiddish called {{lang|yi|אידישע טריבונע|rtl=yes}} {{lang|yi-Latn|Yidishe Tribune}}. From the 1910s to the 1950s, London had a daily Yiddish newspaper called {{lang|yi|די צײַט}} ({{lang|yi-Latn|Di Tsayt}}, {{IPA
=== Canada ===
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[[File:Brooklyn Posters 1.jpg|thumb|A typical poster-hung wall in a Jewish section of [[Brooklyn]], New York]]
Major exceptions to the decline of spoken Yiddish are found in [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] communities all over the world. In some of the more closely knit such communities, Yiddish is spoken as a home and schooling language, especially in Hasidic, [[Lithuanian Jews|Litvish]], or Yeshivish communities, such as [[Brooklyn]]'s [[Borough Park, Brooklyn|Borough Park]], [[Williamsburg, Brooklyn|Williamsburg]], and [[Crown Heights, Brooklyn|Crown Heights]], and in the communities of [[Monsey, New York|Monsey]], [[Kiryas Joel, New York|Kiryas Joel]], and [[New Square, New York|New Square]] in New York (over 88% of the population of Kiryas Joel is reported to speak Yiddish at home.<ref>[http://www.mla.org/census_data_results&state_id=36&place_id=39853 MLA Data Center Results: Kiryas Joel, New York] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016053859/http://www.mla.org/census_data_results%26state_id%3D36%26place_id%3D39853 |date=October 16, 2015 }}, Modern Language Association. Retrieved October 17, 2006.</ref>) Also in [[New Jersey]], Yiddish is widely spoken mostly in [[Lakewood Township, New Jersey|Lakewood Township]], but also in smaller towns with [[yeshiva]]s, such as [[Passaic, New Jersey|Passaic]], [[Teaneck, New Jersey|Teaneck]], and elsewhere. Yiddish is also widely spoken in the Jewish community in [[History of the Jews in Antwerp|Antwerp]], and in Haredi communities such as the ones in [[London]], [[Manchester]], and [[Montreal]]. Yiddish is also spoken in many Haredi communities throughout Israel. Among most Ashkenazi Haredim, Hebrew is generally reserved for prayer, while Yiddish is used for religious studies, as well as a home and business language. In Israel, however, Haredim commonly speak [[modern Hebrew]], with the notable exception of many Hasidic communities. However, many Haredim who use Modern Hebrew also understand Yiddish. There are some who send their children to schools in which the primary language of instruction is Yiddish. Members of anti-Zionist Haredi groups such as the [[Satmar (Hasidic dynasty)|Satmar Hasidim]], who view the commonplace use of Hebrew as a form of Zionism, use Yiddish almost exclusively.
Hundreds of thousands of young children around the globe have been, and are still, taught to translate the texts of the [[Torah]] into Yiddish. This process is called {{lang|yi|טײַטשן|rtl=yes}} ({{lang|yi-Latn|taytshn}}) – 'translating'. Many Ashkenazi yeshivas' highest level lectures in Talmud and [[Halakha]] are delivered in Yiddish by the [[rosh yeshiva]]s as well as ethical talks of the [[Musar movement]]. Hasidic [[rebbe]]s generally use only Yiddish to converse with their followers and to deliver their various Torah talks, classes, and lectures. The linguistic style and vocabulary of Yiddish have influenced the manner in which many [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jews]] who attend yeshivas speak English. This usage is distinctive enough that it has been dubbed "[[Yeshivish]]".
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== Influence on other languages ==
In addition to [[Modern Hebrew]] and [[New York English]], especially as spoken by [[yeshivah]] students (sometimes known as [[Yeshivish]]), Yiddish has influenced [[Cockney English|Cockney]] in [[England]], the city dialect of [[Amsterdam]] and to some degree the city dialects of [[Vienna]] and [[Berlin]]. [[French language|French]] [[argot]] has some words coming from Yiddish.<ref name="Nahon 2017 pp. 139–155">{{cite journal |last1=Nahon |first1=Peter |title=Notes lexicologiques sur des interférences entre yidich et français moderne |trans-title=Lexicological notes on interferences between Yidish and modern French |url=https://www.e-periodica.ch/digbib/view?pid=rlr-001%3A2017%3A81%3A%3A4#144 |journal=Revue de Linguistique Romane |language=fr |publisher=SARL ELiPhi |publication-place=Strasbourg |publication-date=January–June 2017 |volume=81 |issue=321–322 |pages=139–155 |issn=0035-1458 |oclc=1114334924 |via=ETH-Bibliothek Zuerich |access-date=2023-01-25}}</ref>
[[Paul Wexler (linguist)|Paul Wexler]] proposed that [[Esperanto]] was not an arbitrary pastiche of major European languages but a Latinate [[relexification]] of Yiddish, a native language of its [[L. L. Zamenhof|founder]].<ref name="Wexler">
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