Empire of Brazil: Difference between revisions

| flag_type = [[Flag of Brazil|Flag]] (1853–1889)

| flag_alt = Flag adopted in 1870 displaying 20 stars representing the country's provinces. Another star was added in 1870. The flag consists of a green field with a golden rhombus and the lesser arms of imperial Brazil.

| coat_alt = <!-- | other_symbol_alt = Coat of arms consisting of a shield with a green field with a golden armillary sphere superimposed on the red and white Cross of the Order of Christ, surrounded by a blue band with 20 silver stars; the bearers are two arms of a wreath, with a coffee branch on the left and a flowering tobacco branch on the right; and above the shield is an arched golden and jeweled crown. -->

| national_motto = {{native name|pt|Independência ou Morte!}}

| englishmotto = Independence or Death!

| national_anthem = ''[[Hino da Independência|Hino da Indepedência do Brasil]]'' <br /> <small>"Anthem of the Independence of Brazil"</small><br />[[File:Hino da Independência.ogg|center]]

| image_map = Brazilian Empire 1828 (orthographic projection).svg

| image_map_caption = Empire of Brazil at its largest territorial extent, 1822–1828,{{dubious|date=January 2023|reason=Enormous territory was acquired along the Peru border after 1828; see talk page and sources cited. Existing map shows this as part of Empire in 1822 which is anachronous.}} including former [[Cisplatina]] province

| common_languages = [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]

| religion = [[Catholic Church in Brazil|Roman Catholicism]]

| demonym = [[Brazilians]]

| government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[parliamentary]] [[constitutional monarchy]]

| event2 = [[Regency period (Empire of Brazil)|Regency]]

| date_event2 = 7 April 1831

| date_event3 = 23 July 1840

| event4 = [[Lei Áurea|Abolition of slavery]]

| today = Brazil<br />[[Uruguay]]

}}

 

 

 

 

 

The territory which would come to be known as Brazil was claimed by Portugal on 22 April 1500, when the navigator [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] landed on its coast.{{sfn|Viana|1994|pp=42–44}} Permanent settlement followed in 1532, and for the next 300 years the Portuguese slowly expanded westwards until they had reached nearly all of the borders of modern Brazil.{{sfn|Viana|1994|pp=59, 65, 66, 78, 175, 181, 197, 213, 300}} In 1808, the army of French Emperor [[Napoleon I]] invaded Portugal, forcing the Portuguese royal family—the [[House of Braganza]], a branch of the thousand-year-old [[Capetian dynasty]]—into exile. They [[Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil|re-established themselves]] in the Brazilian city of Rio de Janeiro, which became the unofficial seat of the [[Portuguese Empire]].{{sfn|Barman|1988|pp=43–44}}

 

 

 

 

 

 

The hamstrung Regency proved unable to resolve disputes and rivalries between national and local political factions. Believing that granting provincial and local governments greater autonomy would quell the growing dissent, the General Assembly passed a constitutional amendment in 1834, called the ''Ato Adicional'' ([[1834 Additional Act|Additional Act]]). Instead of ending the chaos, these new powers only fed local ambitions and rivalries. Violence erupted throughout the country.{{sfn|Barman|1999|p=61}} Local parties competed with renewed ferocity to dominate provincial and municipal governments, as whichever party dominated the provinces would also gain control over the electoral and political system. Those parties which lost elections rebelled and tried to assume power by force, resulting in several rebellions.{{sfn|Barman|1988|pp=179–180}}

 

 

 

 

The abilities of the Emperor and the newly appointed conservative cabinet were tested by three crises between 1848 and 1852.{{sfn|Barman|1999|p=122}} The first crisis was a confrontation over the illegal importation of slaves. Importing slaves had been banned in 1826 as part of a treaty with Britain.{{sfn|Barman|1999|p=123}} Trafficking continued unabated, however, and the British government's passage of the [[Aberdeen Act]] of 1845 authorized British warships to board Brazilian ships and seize anyone who was found to be involved in the slave trade.{{sfn|Barman|1999|pp=122–123}} While Brazil grappled with this problem, the [[Praieira revolt]], a conflict between local political factions within [[Pernambuco]] province (and one in which liberal and courtier supporters were involved), erupted on 6 November 1848, but was suppressed by March 1849. It was the last rebellion to occur during the monarchy, and its end marked the beginning of forty years of internal peace in Brazil. The [[Eusébio de Queirós Law]] was [[Promulgation|promulgated]] on 4 September 1850 giving the government broad authority to combat the illegal slave trade. With this new tool Brazil moved to eliminate the importation of slaves, and by 1852 this first crisis was over, with Britain accepting that the trade had been suppressed.{{sfn|Barman|1999|p=124}}

* {{harvnb|Skidmore|1999|p=48}}.</ref>

 

 

 

Paraná invited several liberals to join the conservative ranks and went so far as to name some as ministers. The new cabinet, although highly successful, was plagued from the start by strong opposition from ultraconservative members of the Conservative Party who repudiated the new liberal recruits. They believed that the cabinet had become a [[political machine]] infested with converted liberals who did not genuinely share the party's ideals and were primarily interested in gaining public offices.<ref>See:

* {{harvnb|Nabuco|1975|pp=167–169}}.</ref> Despite this mistrust, Paraná showed resilience in fending off threats and overcoming obstacles and setbacks.{{sfn|Barman|1999|p=166}}{{sfn|Nabuco|1975|p=162}} However, in September 1856, at the height of his career, he died unexpectedly, although the cabinet survived him until May 1857.{{sfn|Nabuco|1975|p=313}}

 

 

 

 

This period of calm came to an end in 1863, when the British consul in Rio de Janeiro nearly sparked a war by issuing an abusive ultimatum to Brazil in response to two minor incidents ({{crossreference|see [[Christie Question]]}}).<ref>See:

{{clear}}

 

 

The diplomatic victory over the British Empire and the military victory over Uruguay in 1865, followed by the successful conclusion of the war with Paraguay in 1870, marked the beginning of the "[[golden age]]" of the Brazilian Empire.{{sfn|Lira 1977, Vol 2|p=9}} The Brazilian economy grew rapidly; railroad, shipping and other modernization projects were started; immigration flourished.{{sfn|Barman|1999|p=240}} The Empire became known internationally as a modern and progressive nation, second only to the United States in the Americas; it was a politically stable economy with a good investment potential.{{sfn|Lira 1977, Vol 2|p=9}}

 

 

 

{{See also|Decline and fall of Pedro II of Brazil}}

 

The weaknesses in the monarchy took many years to become apparent. Brazil continued to prosper during the 1880s, with the economy and society both developing rapidly, including the first organized push for [[Women's rights in Brazil|women's rights]] (which would progress slowly over the next decades).<ref>See:

* {{harvnb|Hahner|1978|pp=254–271}};

* {{harvnb|Barman|1999|p=319}};

 

 

A weary emperor who no longer cared for the throne, an heir who had no desire to assume the crown, an increasingly discontented ruling class who were dismissive of the Imperial role in national affairs: all these factors presaged the monarchy's impending doom. The means to achieve the overthrow of the Imperial system would soon appear within the Army ranks. [[Republicanism]] had never flourished in Brazil outside of certain elitist circles,{{sfn|Barman|1999|p=349}}{{sfn|Lira 1977, Vol 3|p=121}} and had little support in the provinces.<ref>See:

* {{harvnb|Ermakoff|2006|p=189}};

* {{harvnb|Carvalho|2007|p=206}};

 

 

* {{harvnb|Barman|1999|pp=348–349}};

* {{harvnb|Carvalho|2007|p=190}};

* {{harvnb|Calmon|1975|p=1611}};

* {{harvnb|Carvalho|2007|p=218}};

* {{harvnb|Calmon|1975|pp=1603–1604}};

* {{harvnb|Carvalho|2007|p=217}};

 

 

 

 

 

During its annual four-month sessions the Assembly conducted public debates. These were widely reported and formed a national forum for the expression of public concerns from all parts of the country. It was frequently a venue for expressing opposition to policies and airing grievances. Legislators enjoyed immunity from prosecution for speeches made from the floor and in the discharge of their offices. Only their own chambers within the Assembly could order the arrest of a member during his tenure. "With no actual responsibility for the actual conduct of affairs, the legislators were free to propose sweeping reforms, advocate ideal solutions, and denounce compromising and opportunistic conduct by the government."{{sfn|Barman|1988|p=133}}

 

 

The emperor was the head of both the [[Moderating power (Empire of Brazil)|moderating]] and executive branches (being aided by the [[Privy council|Council of State]] and the [[Cabinet (government)|Council of Ministers]], respectively); he had the final say and held ultimate control over the national government.{{sfn|Barman|1988|p=132}} He was tasked with ensuring national independence and stability. The Constitution (Article 101) gave him very few avenues for imposing his will upon the General Assembly. His main recourse was the right to dissolve or extend legislative sessions. In the Senate, an emperor's authority to appoint senators did not necessarily give him added influence since senators held their offices for life and were thus freed from government pressure once confirmed. On those occasions when the Chamber of Deputies was dissolved, new elections were required to be held immediately and the new Chamber seated. "This power was effective when held in reserve as a threat. It could not be employed repeatedly, nor would its use work to the emperor's advantage."{{sfn|Barman|1988|p=133}}

 

 

A new element was added when the office of "president of the Council of Ministers" was formally created in 1847—although the role had existed informally since 1843. The president of the Council owed his position to both his party and to the Emperor and these could sometimes come into conflict. 19th-century abolitionist leader and historian [[Joaquim Nabuco]] said that the "president of the Council in Brazil was no Russian [[Chancellor (Russia)|chancellor]], Sovereign's creature, nor a [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British prime minister]], made only by the trust of the [House of] [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|Commons]]: the [[delegation]] of the Crown was to him as necessary and important as the delegation of the Chamber, and, to exert with safety his functions, he had to dominate the caprice, the oscillations and ambitions of the Parliament, as well as to preserve always unalterable the favor, the good will of the emperor."{{sfn|Nabuco|1975|p=712}}

 

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When enacted in 1824, the Imperial Constitution created the ''Conselho Geral de Província'' (Provincial General Council), the legislature of the [[Provinces of Brazil|provinces]].{{sfn|Dolhnikoff|2005|p=59}} This council was composed of either 21 or 13 elected members, depending on the size of a province's population.{{sfn|Dolhnikoff|2005|p=60}} All "resolutions" (laws) created by the councils required approval by the General Assembly, with no right of appeal.{{sfn|Dolhnikoff|2005|p=60}} Provincial Councils also had no authority to raise revenues, and their budgets had to be debated and ratified by the General Assembly.{{sfn|Dolhnikoff|2005|p=60}} Provinces had no autonomy and were entirely subordinate to the national government.{{sfn|Dolhnikoff|2005|p=59}}

 

The {{lang|pt|câmara municipal}} (town council) was the governing body in towns and cities and had existed in Brazil since the beginning of the colonial period in the 16th century. The Chamber was composed of ''vereadores'' (councilmen), the number of which depended on the size of the town.{{sfn|Dolhnikoff|2005|p=118}} Unlike the Provincial General Council, the Constitution gave town councils great autonomy. However, when the Provincial Assembly replaced the Provincial General Council in 1834, many of the powers of town councils (including the setting of municipal budgets, oversight of expenditures, creation of jobs, and the nomination of civil servants) were transferred to the provincial government. Additionally, any laws enacted by the town council had to be ratified by the Provincial Assembly—but not by Parliament.{{sfn|Dolhnikoff|2005|p=83}} While the 1834 Additional Act granted greater autonomy to the provinces from the central government, it transferred the towns' remaining autonomy to the provincial governments.{{sfn|Dolhnikoff|2005|pp=118–119}} There was no office of mayor, and towns were governed by a town council and its president (who was the councilman who won the most votes during elections).{{sfn|Rodrigues|1863|pp=134–135}}

 

 

 

 

* {{harvnb|Carvalho|1993|p=46}};

* {{harvnb|Carvalho|2008|p=30}};

Although [[electoral fraud]] was common, it was not ignored by the Emperor, politicians or observers of the time. The problem was considered a major issue and attempts were made to correct abuses,{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=223}}{{sfn|Carvalho|2007|p=180}} with legislation (including the electoral reforms of 1855, 1875 and 1881) repeatedly being enacted to combat fraud.{{sfn|Carvalho|2008|p=33}} The 1881 reforms brought significant changes: they eliminated the two-stage electoral system, introduced direct and facultative voting,{{sfn|Carvalho|1993|p=51}} and allowed the votes of former slaves and enfranchised non-Catholics.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=224}} Conversely, illiterate citizens were no longer allowed to vote.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=224}} Participation in elections dropped from 13% to only 0.8% in 1886.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=224}} In 1889, about 15% of the Brazilian population could read and write, so disenfranchising the illiterate does not solely explain the sudden fall in voting percentages.{{sfn|Carvalho|2002|p=84–85}} The discontinuation of mandatory voting and [[voter apathy]] may have been significant factors contributing to the reduction in the number of voters.{{sfn|Carvalho|2002|p=91}}

 

 

 

The military was organized along similar lines to the British and American armed forces of the time, in which a small standing army could quickly augment its strength during emergencies from a reserve militia force (in Brazil, the National Guard). Brazil's first line of defense relied upon a large and powerful navy to protect against foreign attack. As a matter of policy, the military was to be [[Civilian control of the military|completely obedient]] to civilian governmental control and to remain at arm's length from involvement in political decisions.{{sfn|Pedrosa|2004|p=289}}

 

 

 

The Armada was constantly being modernized with the latest developments in naval warfare. It adopted steam navigation in the 1830s, ironclad plate armor in the 1860s, and torpedoes in the 1880s. By 1889, Brazil had the fifth or sixth most powerful navy in the world,{{sfn|Calmon|2002|p=265}} and the most powerful battleships in the [[western hemisphere]].{{sfn|Parkinson|2008|p=128}} The Army, despite its highly experienced and battle-hardened officer corps, was plagued during peacetime by units which were badly paid, inadequately equipped, poorly trained and thinly spread across the vast Empire.{{sfn|Lira 1977, Vol 3|p=70}}

 

 

Dissatisfaction became more evident during the 1880s, and some officers began to display open insubordination. The Emperor and the politicians did nothing to improve the military nor meet their demands.{{sfn|Barman|1999|p=321}} The dissemination of [[Positivism|positivist]] ideology among young officers brought further complications, as positivism opposed the monarchy under the belief that a dictatorial republic would bring improvements.{{sfn|Barman|1999|p=353}} A coalition between a mutinous Army faction and the positivist camp was formed and directly led to the republican coup on 15 November 1889.{{sfn|Carvalho|2007|p=196}} Battalions and even full regiments of soldiers loyal to the Empire, who shared the ideals of the older generation of leaders, attempted to restore the monarchy. Attempts at a restoration proved futile and supporters of the Empire were executed, arrested or forcibly retired.{{sfn|Topik|2000|pp=64, 66, 235}}

 

 

Upon independence from Portugal, the immediate focus of Brazil's foreign policy was to gain widespread [[Diplomatic recognition|international recognition]]. There is no consensus about which countries were the first to recognize the independence of Brazil. According to historian Toby Green, they were the African states of [[Dahomey]] and [[History of Lagos|Onim]] in 1822 and 1823 respectively{{sfn|Green|2020|p=309}} while researcher Rodrigo Wiese Randig argues that it was the [[United Provinces of the Río de la Plata]] around June 1823,{{sfn|Wiese Randig|2017|p=505}} followed by the United States in May 1824,{{sfn|Wiese Randig|2017|p=518}} and the [[Kingdom of Benin]] in July 1824.{{sfn|Wiese Randig|2017|p=519}} Other nations followed in establishing diplomatic relations over the next few years.{{sfn|Rodrigues|1975|pp=174, 177, 180, 181, 182}} Portugal recognized the separation in August 1825.{{sfn|Rodrigues|1975|p=148}} The Brazilian government subsequently made it a priority to establish its international borders through treaties with its neighbors. The task of securing recognized frontiers was complicated by the fact that, between 1777 and 1801, Portugal and Spain had annulled their previous treaties setting out the borders between their American colonial empires.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=301}} However, the Empire was able to sign several bilateral treaties with neighbors, including Uruguay (1851), Peru (1851 and 1874), the [[Republic of New Granada]] (later Colombia, 1853), Venezuela (1859), Bolivia (1867) and Paraguay (1872).{{sfn|Viana|1994|p=525}}{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=302}} By 1889, most of its borders were firmly established. The remaining issues—including the purchase of the region of [[Acre (state)|Acre]] from Bolivia which would give Brazil its present-day configuration{{sfn|Viana|1994|p=578}}—were only finally resolved after the country became a republic.{{sfn|Viana|1994|p=575}}

A number of conflicts occurred between the Empire and its neighbors. Brazil experienced no serious conflicts with its neighbors to the north and west, due to the buffer of the nearly impenetrable and sparsely populated Amazonian rainforest.{{efn-ua|The only exceptions regarding border disputes in the north and west were minor diplomatic disputes with France and Britain in the northern region. During the 1830s, both countries occupied and unsuccessfully attempted to claim some areas in the north as part of their colonial empires. See {{harvnb|Viana|1994|p=575}}.}} In the south, however, the colonial disputes inherited from Portugal and Spain over the control of the navigable rivers and plains which formed the frontiers continued after independence.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=329}} The lack of mutually agreed borders in this area led to several international conflicts, from the [[Cisplatine War]] to the [[Paraguayan War]].{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|pp=323–324}}

 

 

 

 

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{{Further|Rail transport in Brazil}}

 

 

 

Since the second half of the 18th century, when Brazil was still a colony, the government had attempted to gather data regarding the population. However, few captaincies (later called provinces) collected the requested information.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=131}} After independence the government instituted a commission for statistics in an 1829 decree with a mandate to hold a national census.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=131}} The commission was a failure and was disbanded in 1834. In the ensuing years, provincial governments were tasked with collecting census information, but their census reports were often incomplete or not submitted at all.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=131}} In 1851, another attempt at a nationwide census failed when rioting broke out. This was the result of the erroneous belief among Brazilians of mixed-race descent that the survey was a subterfuge designed to enslave anyone having African blood.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=132}}

 

Among the free population 23.4% of males and 13.4% of females were considered literate.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=133}} Men represented 52% (5,123,869) of the total population.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=133}} Figures for the population by age showed 24.6% were children younger than 10 years old; 21.1% were between 11 and 20; 32.9% were between 21 and 40; 8.4% were between 41 and 50; 12.8% were between 51 and 70; and lastly, only 3.4% were over 71.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=133}} The residents in the combined northeast and southeast regions comprised 87.2% of the nation's population.{{sfn|Baer|2002|p=341}} The second national census was held in 1890 when the Brazilian republic was only a few months old. Its results showed that the population had grown to 14,333,915 inhabitants since the 1872 census.{{sfn|Ramos|2003|p=82}}

 

{{See also|Multiracialism#Brazil}}

 

* {{harvnb|Adas|2004|p=268}};

* {{harvnb|Azevedo|1971|pp=2–3}};

* {{harvnb|Vesentini|1988|p=117}}.</ref>

 

The ''caboclos'' formed the majority of the population in the [[Northern Region, Brazil|Northern]], [[Northeast Region, Brazil|Northeastern]] and [[Central-West Region, Brazil|Central-Western]] regions.<ref>See:

* {{harvnb|Ramos|2003|p=84}};

* {{harvnb|Barsa 1987, Vol 4|pp=254–255, 258, 265}}.</ref> A large mulatto population inhabited the eastern coast of the northeastern region from Bahia to Paraíba{{sfn|Moreira|1981|p=108}}{{sfn|Azevedo|1971|pp=74–75}} and were also present in northern Maranhão,{{sfn|Barsa 1987, Vol 10|p=355}}{{sfn|Azevedo|1971|p=74}} southern Minas Gerais,{{sfn|Azevedo|1971|p=161}} eastern Rio de Janeiro and in [[Espírito Santo]].{{sfn|Moreira|1981|p=108}}{{sfn|Azevedo|1971|p=161}} The ''cafuzos'' were the smallest and most difficult to distinguish from the two other mixed-race subgroups since the descendants of ''caboclos'' and mulattoes also fell into this category and were found in the northeast ''sertão'' ([[hinterland]]). These groups may still be found in the same areas today.{{sfn|Ramos|2003|p=84}}

 

 

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Because of the existence of distinct racial and cultural communities, 19th century Brazil developed as a multi-ethnic nation. However, there is no reliable information available for the years prior to 1872. The first official national census was compiled by the government in 1872 showing that out of 9,930,479 inhabitants there were 38.1% whites, 38.3% browns, 19.7% blacks and 3.9% Indians.{{sfn|Ramos|2003|p=82}} The second official national census in 1890 revealed that in a population of 14,333,915, 44% were whites, 32.4% browns, 14.6% blacks and 9% Indians.{{sfn|Ramos|2003|p=82}}

 

 

Prior to 1808, the Portuguese were the only European people to settle Brazil in significant numbers. Although Italians, British, Germans and Spanish had previously immigrated to Brazil, they had only done so as a small number of individuals or in very small groups. These earliest non-Portuguese settlers did not have a significant impact on the culture of Portugal's Brazilian colony.{{sfn|Viana|1994|p=511}} The situation changed after 1808 when King John VI began to encourage immigration from European countries outside Portugal.{{sfn|Viana|1994|p=511}}{{sfn|Ramos|2003|p=37}}

 

 

Immigrant numbers soared during the 1870s in what came to be called the "great immigration". Up to that point, around 10,000 Europeans arrived in Brazil annually, but after 1872, their numbers increased dramatically.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=351}} It is estimated by the [[Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics]] that 500,000 Europeans immigrated to Brazil between 1808 and 1883.{{sfn|Viana|1994|p=633}} The figure for European settlers arriving between 1884 and 1893 climbed to 883,668.{{sfn|Viana|1994|p=633}} The number of Europeans immigrating continued to rise in the following decades, with 862,100 between 1894 and 1903; and 1,006,617 between 1904 and 1913.{{sfn|Viana|1994|p=633}}

From 1872 until 1879, the nationalities forming the bulk of the new settlers were composed of Portuguese (31.2%), Italians (25.8%), Germans (8.1%) and Spanish (1.9%).{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=351}} In the 1880s, Italians would surpass the Portuguese (61.8% to 23.3% respectively), and the Spanish would displace the Germans (6.7% to 4.2% respectively).{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=351}} Other, smaller groups also arrived, including Russians, Poles and Hungarians.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=353}} Since nearly all European immigrants settled in the southeastern and southern areas of the Empire, ethnic distribution, already unequal before the mass immigration, became even more divergent between regions.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|pp=351–352}} For a nation that had a small, widely scattered population (4,000,000 in 1823 and 14,333,915 in 1890), the immigration of more than 1,380,000 Europeans had a tremendous effect upon the country's ethnic composition. In 1872, the year of the first reliable national census, white Brazilians represented just over a third (38.1%) of the total population; in 1890, they had increased to a little under half (44.0%) of all Brazilians.{{sfn|Ramos|2003|p=82}}

 

 

In 1823, a year after independence, slaves made up 29% of the population of Brazil, a figure which fell throughout the lifetime of the Empire: from 24% in 1854, to 15.2% in 1872, and finally to less than 5% in 1887—the year before slavery was completely abolished.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|pp=18, 239}} Slaves were mostly adult males from southwestern Africa.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|pp=237–238}} Slaves brought to Brazil differed ethnically, religiously and linguistically, each identifying primarily with his or her own nation of origin, rather than by a shared African ethnicity.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=29}} Some of the [[Atlantic slave trade|slaves brought to the Americas]] had been captured while fighting intertribal wars in Africa and had then been sold to slave dealers.{{sfn|Boxer|2002|pp=113–114, 116}}{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=30}}

Most slaves worked as plantation laborers.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=239}} Relatively few Brazilians owned slaves and most small and medium-sized farms employed free workers.{{sfn|Fausto|1995|pp=238–239}} Slaves could be found scattered throughout society in other capacities: some were used as house servants, farmers, miners, prostitutes, gardeners and in many other roles.{{sfn|Olivieri|1999|p=43}} Many emancipated slaves went on to acquire slaves and there were even cases of slaves who had their own slaves.{{sfn|Barman|1988|p=194}}{{sfn|Carvalho|2007|p=130}} While slaves were usually black or mulatto there were reported cases of slaves who appeared to be of European descent—the product of generations of inter-ethnic sexual relations between male slave owners and their female mulatto slaves.{{sfn|Alencastro|1997|pp=87–88}} Even the harshest slave owners adhered to a long-established practice of selling slaves along with their families, taking care not to separate individuals.{{sfn|Besouchet|1985|p=170}} Slaves were regarded by law as properties. The ones who were freed immediately became citizens with all [[civil rights]] guaranteed—the only exception being that, until 1881, freed slaves were barred from voting in elections, although their children and descendants could vote.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=239}}

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The Constitution did allow followers of other, non-Catholic, faiths to practice their religious beliefs, albeit only in private. The construction of non-Catholic [[places of worship]] was officially forbidden.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=450}} From the outset these restrictions were ignored by both the citizenry and authorities. In [[Belém]], Pará's capital, the first synagogue was built in 1824.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=450}} [[History of the Jews in Brazil|Jews migrated to Brazil]] soon after its independence and settled mainly in the northeastern provinces of Bahia and Pernambuco and in the northern provinces of Amazonas and Pará.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=450}} Other Jewish groups came from the [[Alsace–Lorraine]] region of Germany and from Russia.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|pp=450–451}} By the 1880s, there were several Jewish communities and synagogues scattered throughout Brazil.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=451}}

 

 

Among African slaves, Catholicism was the religion of the majority. Most slaves came originally from the midwestern and southwestern portions of the African coast. For over four centuries this region had been the subject of Christian mission activities.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=31}} Some Africans and their descendants, however, held onto elements of [[Traditional African religions|polytheistic religious traditions]] by merging them with Catholicism. This resulted in the creation of [[Syncretism|syncretic]] creeds such as [[Candomblé]].{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|pp=114–115}} [[Islam in Brazil|Islam]] was also practiced among a small minority of African slaves, although it was harshly repressed and by the end of the 19th century had been completely extinguished.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|pp=30–31}} By the beginning of the 19th century, the Indians in most of eastern Brazil had been either assimilated or decimated. Some tribes resisted assimilation and either fled farther west, where they were able to maintain their diverse polytheistic beliefs, or were restricted to ''aldeamentos'' (reservations), where they eventually converted to Catholicism.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|pp=170}}

 

 

 

According to historian Ronald Raminelli, "visual arts underwent huge innovations in the Empire in comparison to the colonial period."{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=83}} With independence in 1822, painting, sculpture and architecture were influenced by national symbols and the monarchy, as both surpassed religious themes in their importance. The previously dominant [[Baroque architecture in Portugal|old Baroque style]] was superseded by [[Neoclassicism]].{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=83}} New developments appeared, such as the use of iron in architecture and the appearance of [[lithography]] and photography, which revitalized the visual arts.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=83}}

The government's creation of the [[Imperial Academy of Fine Arts (Brazil)|Imperial Academy of Fine Arts]] in the 1820s played a pivotal role in influencing and expanding the visual arts in Brazil, mainly by educating generations of artists but also by serving as a stylistic guideline.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=84}} The academy's origins lay in the foundation of the ''Escola Real das Ciências, Artes e Ofícios'' (Royal School of the Sciences, Arts and Crafts) in 1816 by the Portuguese King John VI. Its members—of whom the most famous was [[Jean-Baptiste Debret]]—were French [[émigré]]es who worked as painters, sculptors, musicians and engineers.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|pp=21–22}} The school's main goal was to encourage French [[aesthetics]] and the Neoclassical style to replace the prevalent baroque style.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=22}} Plagued by a lack of funds since its inception, the school was later renamed as the Academy of Fine Arts in 1820, and in 1824 received its final name under the Empire: Imperial Academy of Fine Arts.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=22}}

 

 

 

 

In the first years after independence, Brazilian literature was still heavily influenced by Portuguese literature and its predominant Neoclassical style.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=482}} In 1837, [[Gonçalves de Magalhães, Viscount of Araguaia|Gonçalves de Magalhães]] published the first work of Romanticism in Brazil, beginning a new era in the nation.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=661}} The next year, 1838, saw the first play performed by Brazilians with a national theme, which marked the birth of Brazilian theater. Until then themes were often based on European works even if not performed by foreign actors.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=661}} Romanticism at that time was regarded as the literary style that best fitted Brazilian literature, which could reveal its uniqueness when compared to foreign literature.{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|pp=482–483}} During the 1830s and 1840s, "a network of newspapers, journals, book publishers and printing houses emerged which together with the opening of theaters in the major towns brought into being what could be termed, but for the narrowness of its scope, a national culture".{{sfn|Barman|1988|p=237}}

 

 

 

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