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{{Redirect|Playing|the jazz album by Old and New Dreams|Playing (album){{!}}''Playing'' (album)|the 2007 film|Playing (film){{!}}''Playing'' (film)}}
{{short description|Voluntary, intrinsically motivated recreation}}▼
[[File:Playfulness by Paul Manship, 1912-1914 - DSC03107.JPG|upright=1.35|thumb|''Playfulness'' by [[Paul Manship]]]]▼
'''Play''' is a range of [[Motivation#Intrinsic|intrinsically motivated]] activities done for [[recreational]] pleasure and enjoyment.<ref>{{cite book|last=Garvey|first=C.|year=1990|title=Play|location=Cambridge, Mass.|publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> Play is commonly associated with children and juvenile-level activities, but may be engaged in at any life stage, and among other higher-functioning animals as well, most notably [[mammals]] and [[birds]].▼
▲[[File:Playfulness by Paul Manship, 1912-1914 - DSC03107.JPG|upright=1.35|thumb|''Playfulness'' by [[Paul Manship]]]]
▲'''Play''' is a range of [[Motivation#Intrinsic and extrinsic|intrinsically motivated]] activities done for [[
Play is often interpreted as frivolous; yet the player can be intently focused on their objective, particularly when play is structured and goal-oriented, as in a [[game]]. Accordingly, play can range from relaxed, free-spirited, spontaneous, and frivolous to planned or even compulsive.<ref name=Huizinga>{{cite book|last1=Huizinga|first1=J.|title=Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture|date=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.|location=London|isbn=978-0-7100-0578-6|edition=3rd|url=http://art.yale.edu/file_columns/0000/1474/homo_ludens_johan_huizinga_routledge_1949_.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701005328/http://art.yale.edu/file_columns/0000/1474/homo_ludens_johan_huizinga_routledge_1949_.pdf|archive-date=2015-07-01|access-date=3 June 2015}}</ref> Play is not just a pastime activity; it has the potential to serve as an important tool in numerous aspects of daily life for adolescents, adults, and cognitively advanced non-human species (such as primates). Not only does play promote and aid in physical development (such as [[hand-eye coordination]]), but it also aids in cognitive development and social skills, and can even act as a stepping stone into the world of integration, which can be a very stressful process. Play is something that most children partake in, but the way play is executed is different between cultures, and the way that children engage with play varies.▼
▲Play is often interpreted as frivolous; yet the player can be intently focused on their objective, particularly when play is structured and goal-oriented, as in a [[game]]. Accordingly, play can range from relaxed, free-spirited, spontaneous, and frivolous to planned or even compulsive.<ref name=Huizinga>{{cite book|last1=Huizinga|first1=J.|title=Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture|date=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.|location=London|isbn=978-0-7100-0578-6|edition=3rd|url=http://art.yale.edu/file_columns/0000/1474/homo_ludens_johan_huizinga_routledge_1949_.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701005328/http://art.yale.edu/file_columns/0000/1474/homo_ludens_johan_huizinga_routledge_1949_.pdf|archive-date=2015-07-01|access-date=3 June 2015}}</ref> Play is not just a pastime activity; it has the potential to serve as an important tool in numerous aspects of daily life for adolescents, adults, and cognitively advanced non-human species (such as primates). Not only does play promote and aid in physical development (such as [[hand-eye coordination]]), but it also aids in [[cognitive development]] and social skills, and can even act as a stepping stone into the world of integration, which can be a very stressful process. Play is something that most children partake in, but the way play is executed is different between cultures, and the way that children engage with play varies.
== Definitions ==
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This definition of play as constituting a separate and independent sphere of human activity is sometimes referred to as the "magic circle" notion of play, a phrase also attributed to Huizinga.<ref name=Huizinga/> Many other definitions exist. Jean Piaget stated, "the many theories of play expounded in the past are clear proof that the phenomenon is difficult to understand."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Piaget|first1=Jean|title=Play, Dreams, and Imitation in Childhood|url=https://archive.org/details/playdreamsimitat0000piag|url-access=registration|date=1962|publisher=Norton|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/playdreamsimitat0000piag/page/147/mode/1up 147]|isbn=9780393001716 |translator-first1=C.|translator-last1=Gattegno|translator-first2=F.M.|translator-last2=Hodgson}}</ref>
Another definition of play from the twenty-first century comes from the [[National Playing Fields Association]]. The definition reads as follows: "play is freely chosen, personally directed, intrinsically motivated behaviour that actively engages the child."<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.playengland.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/best-play.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206235115/http://www.playengland.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/best-play.pdf|archive-date=2018-12-06|publisher=National Playing Fields Association|title=Best Play: What Play Provision Should Do For Children|year=2000|access-date=2018-12-06}}</ref> This definition focuses more on the child's freedom of choice and personal motivation related to an activity.
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{{see|Children's games|Children's street culture|Make believe|Street games}}In young children, play is associated with [[cognitive development]] and [[socialization]]. Play that promotes [[learning]] and recreation often incorporates [[toys]], [[theatrical property|props]], [[tools]], or other [[wikt:playmate|playmates]]. Play can consist of an amusing, pretend, or imaginary activity alone or with another. Some forms of play are rehearsals or trials for later life events, such as "play fighting", pretend social encounters (such as parties with dolls), or flirting.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sutton-Smith|first=B.|year=1997|title=The Ambiguity of Play|location=Cambridge, Mass.|publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> Findings in [[neuroscience]] suggest that play promotes flexibility of mind, including adaptive practices such as discovering multiple ways to achieve a desired result, or creative ways to improve or reorganize a given situation.{{cn|reason=previous citation ("Millar, 1967; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000") had full-citation-needed marker for a decade|date=September 2023}}
[[File:Sandbox Lawn Jam Our Community Place Harrisonburg VA June 2008.jpg|thumb|Children playing in a [[Sandpit|sandbox]]]]As children get older, they engage in [[board
Play is explicitly recognized in Article 31 of the [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]] (adopted by the General Assembly of the [[United Nations]], November 29, 1989), which declares:
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[[File:Pieter Bruegel the Elder - Children’s Games - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''Children's Games'', 1560, [[Pieter Bruegel the Elder]]]]American historian Howard Chudacoff studied the interplay between parental control of [[toy]]s and games and children's drive for freedom to play. In the colonial era, toys were makeshift and children taught each other very simple games with little adult supervision. The market economy of the 19th century enabled the modern concept of childhood as a distinct, happy life stage.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}} Factory-made dolls and doll houses delighted young girls. Organized sports filtered down from adults and colleges, and boys learned to play with a bat, a ball, and an impromptu playing field.
With the rise of motor vehicle traffic in the 20th century, teenagers were increasingly organized into club sports supervised and coached by adults, with swimming taught at [[summer camp]]s and through supervised playgrounds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://somervillearchives.omeka.net/exhibits/show/recreation1|title=What Park Did You Hang Out At?|first=Stephanie|last=Warner|website=Somerville Archives}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=September 2023}}
Under the American [[New Deal]]'s [[Works Progress Administration]], thousands of local playgrounds and ball fields opened, promoting softball especially as a sport for all ages and genders.{{citation needed|date=August 2012}} By the 21st century, Chudacoff notes, the old tension between parental controls and a child's individual freedom was being played out in [[cyberspace]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Chudacoff|first=Howard|title=Children at Play: An American History|year=2008|publisher=NYU Press|location=New York}}</ref>
== Cultural differences
[[File:Museu do Brinquedo Português 12.JPG|thumb|Museum of toys – Portugal]]
The act of play time is a cross-cultural phenomenon that is universally accepted and encouraged by most communities; however, it can differ in the ways that is performed.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|url=https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1054&context=orpc|title=Cultural Variations in Parental Support of Children's Play|last=Vandermaas-Peeler|first=Maureen|year=2002|journal=Online Readings in Psychology and Culture|volume=6|number=1|doi=10.9707/2307-0919.1054|doi-access=free}}</ref>
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|1={{cite book|last1=Larson|first1=R.|last2=Kleiber|first2=D.A.|chapter=Daily experience of adolescents|editor-first1=P.|editor-last1=Tolan|editor-first2=B.|editor-last2=Cohler|title=Handbook of Clinical Research and Practice with Adolescents|year=1993|pages=125–145}}
|2={{cite journal|last1=Weiss|first1=Maureen R.|title=Field of dreams: Sport as a Context for Youth Development|journal=Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport|year=2008|volume=79|issue=4|pages=434–449|doi=10.1080/02701367.2008.10599510|pmid=19177945|s2cid=45415254}}
}}</ref> and these conditions predict a richer personal and [[interpersonal]] development.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal|last1=Larson|first1=R.W.|title=Toward a psychology of positive youth development|journal=American Psychologist|year=2000|volume=55|issue=1|pages=170–183|doi=10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.170|pmid=11392861|citeseerx=10.1.1.468.2523}}</ref> Anxiety, depression and obesity can stem from lack of activity and social interaction.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|first=Karin|last=Bilich|url=http://www.parents.com/fun/sports/exercise/the-importance-of-play/|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424180847/http://www.parents.com/fun/sports/exercise/the-importance-of-play/|archive-date=2017-04-24|title=The Importance of Play|date=2006-10-25|journal=Parents|access-date=2017-04-24}}</ref> There is a high correlation between the amount of time that youth spend playing [[sports]] and [[physical fitness|physical]] (e.g., better general health), [[psychological]] (e.g., subjective well-being), [[academic]] (e.g., school grades), and [[social benefits]] (e.g., making friends).<ref name=":5" /> Electronics are a form of playtime, but researchers have found that most electronic play leads to lack of motivation, no social interaction, and can lead to obesity.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.journalofplay.org/sites/www.journalofplay.org/files/pdf-articles/1-3-article-childrens-pastimes-play-in-sixteen-nations.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024221929/http://www.journalofplay.org/sites/www.journalofplay.org/files/pdf-articles/1-3-article-childrens-pastimes-play-in-sixteen-nations.pdf|archive-date=2013-10-24|title=Children's Pastimes and Play in Sixteen Nations: Is Free-Play Declining?|last1=Singer|first1=Dorothy G.|last2=Singer|first2=Jerome L.|last3=D'Agostino|first3=Heidi|last4=DeLong|first4=Raeka|year=2009|journal=American Journal of Play}}</ref> Play is children using their creativity while developing their imagination, dexterity, and physical, cognitive, and emotional strength. Dramatic play is common in younger children.<ref name=":12" /> For youth to benefit from playtime, the following are recommended:{{By whom|date=September 2023}}
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Figure 6.png|thumbnail|Research findings on benefits of youth playing sports]] -->
* Give children ample, unscheduled time to be creative to reflect and decompress.<ref name=":12" />
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Two white tigers playing in the water at Singapore Zoo.jpg|Tigers playing in water
</gallery>}}
Evolutionary psychologists believe that there must be an important benefit of play, as there are so many other reasons to avoid it; observations have shown it has arisen independently in such varied groups as mammals,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bekoff |first=Marc |date=1972 |title=The Development of Social Interaction, Play, and Metacommunication in Mammals: An Ethological Perspective |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/407400 |journal=The Quarterly Review of Biology |volume=47 |issue=4|pages=412–434 |doi=10.1086/407400 }}</ref> birds,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ficken |first=S. |date=July 1977 |title=Avian Play |url=https://academic.oup.com/auk/article/94/3/573/5205723 |access-date=2024-07-27 |journal=The Auk |volume=94 |issue=3 |pages=573–582 |doi=10.1093/auk/94.3.573}}</ref> reptiles,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kane |first=Daniel |date=2019-10-01 |title=Play behaviour by captive tree monitors, Varanus macraei and Varanus prasinus |url=https://thebhs.org/publications/the-herpetological-bulletin/issue-number-149-autumn-2019/1962-5-play-behaviour-by-captive-tree-monitors-i-varanus-macraei-i-and-i-varanus-prasinus-i |journal=Herpetological Bulletin |language=en |number=149, Autumn 2019 |pages=28–31 |doi=10.33256/hb149.2831 |issn=1473-0928|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kramer |first1=Matthew |last2=Burghardt |first2=Gordon M. |date=1998 |title=Precocious Courtship and Play in Emydid Turtles |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1998.tb00028.x |journal=Ethology |language=en |volume=104 |issue=1 |pages=38–56 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0310.1998.tb00028.x |bibcode=1998Ethol.104...38K |issn=0179-1613}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barabanov |first1=Valerij |last2=Gulimova |first2=Victoria |last3=Berdiev |first3=Rustam |last4=Saveliev |first4=Sergey |date=May 2015 |title=Object play in thick-toed geckos during a space experiment |journal=Journal of Ethology |language=en |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=109–115 |doi=10.1007/s10164-015-0426-8 |issn=0289-0771|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Burghardt |first1=Gordon M. |last2=Ward |first2=Brian |last3=Rosscoe |first3=Roger |date=1996 |title=Problem of reptile play: Environmental enrichment and play behavior in a captive Nile soft-shelled turtle,Trionyx triunguis |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2361(1996)15:33.0.CO;2-D |journal=Zoo Biology |language=en |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=223–238 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1098-2361(1996)15:3<223::AID-ZOO3>3.0.CO;2-D}}</ref> amphibians,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burghardt |first=Gordon M. |date=January 2015 |title=Play in fishes, frogs and reptiles |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982214013335 |journal=Current Biology |language=en |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=R9–R10 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2014.10.027|pmid=25562306 |bibcode=2015CBio...25...R9B }}</ref> fish,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Eisenbeiser |first1=Sofia |last2=Serbe-Kamp |first2=Étienne |last3=Gage |first3=Gregory J. |last4=Marzullo |first4=Timothy C. |date=2022-06-30 |title=Gills Just Want to Have Fun: Can Fish Play Games, Just like Us? |journal=Animals |language=en |volume=12 |issue=13 |pages=1684 |doi=10.3390/ani12131684 |doi-access=free |issn=2076-2615 |pmc=9265024 |pmid=35804583}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fagen |first=Robert |date=2017-05-30 |title=Salmonid Jumping and Playing: Potential Cultural and Welfare Implications |journal=Animals |language=en |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=42 |doi=10.3390/ani7060042 |doi-access=free |issn=2076-2615 |pmc=5483605 |pmid=28556816}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Burghardt |first1=Gordon M. |last2=Dinets |first2=Vladimir |last3=Murphy |first3=James B. |date=2015 |editor-last=Ebensperger |editor-first=L. |title=Highly Repetitive Object Play in a Cichlid Fish ( Tropheus duboisi ) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/eth.12312 |journal=Ethology |language=en |volume=121 |issue=1 |pages=38–44 |doi=10.1111/eth.12312 |bibcode=2015Ethol.121...38B |issn=0179-1613}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tribelhorn |first=Gunnar Wyn |date=2024-07-16 |title=Probable Play Behavior in a Surgeonfish (Naso vlamingii ) |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/5t83b52p |journal=International Journal of Comparative Psychology |volume=37 |issue=1 |doi=10.46867/IJCP...20283 |issn=2168-3344|doi-access=free }}</ref> and invertebrates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Galpayage Dona |first1=Hiruni Samadi |last2=Solvi |first2=Cwyn |last3=Kowalewska |first3=Amelia |last4=Mäkelä |first4=Kaarle |last5=MaBouDi |first5=HaDi |last6=Chittka |first6=Lars |date=2022 |title=Do bumble bees play? |journal=Animal Behaviour |language=en |volume=194 |pages=239–251 |doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.08.013|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kuba |first1=Michael J. |last2=Byrne |first2=Ruth A. |last3=Meisel |first3=Daniela V. |last4=Mather |first4=Jennifer A. |date=2006 |title=When do octopuses play? Effects of repeated testing, object type, age, and food deprivation on object play in Octopus vulgaris. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0735-7036.120.3.184 |journal=Journal of Comparative Psychology |language=en |volume=120 |issue=3 |pages=184–190 |doi=10.1037/0735-7036.120.3.184 |pmid=16893255 |issn=1939-2087}}</ref> Animals are often injured during play, become distracted from predators, and expend valuable energy. In rare cases, play has even been observed between different species that are natural enemies such as a [[polar bear]] and a [[dog]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ted.com/talks/stuart_brown_says_play_is_more_than_fun_it_s_vital.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090531061622/http://www.ted.com/talks/stuart_brown_says_play_is_more_than_fun_it_s_vital.html|archive-date=2009-05-31|title=Stuart Brown says play is more than fun|website=TED talks}}</ref> Yet play seems to be a normal activity with animals who occupy the higher strata of their own [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|hierarchy of needs]]. Animals on the lower strata, e.g. stressed and starving animals, generally do not play.<ref name=NYT/> However, in wild [[Assamese macaque]]s physically active play is performed also during periods of low food availability and even if it is at the expense of growth, which highlights the developmental and evolutionary importance of play.<ref name = "Berghänel">{{cite journal | last1 = Berghänel | first1 = A. | last2 = Schülke | first2 = O. | last3 = Ostner | first3 = J. | year = 2015 | title = Locomotor play drives motor skill acquisition at the expense of growth: A life history trade-off | journal = Science Advances | volume = 1 | issue = 7| pages = 1–8 | doi = 10.1126/sciadv.1500451 | pmid = 26601237 | pmc = 4643810 | bibcode = 2015SciA....1E0451B }}</ref>
The social cognitive complexity of numerous species, including dogs, have been explored in experimental studies. In one such study, conducted by [[Alexandra Horowitz]] of the University of California, the communication and attention-getting skills of dogs were investigated.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Horowitz |first1=Alexandra |title=Attention to attention in domestic dog (Canis familiaris) dyadic play |journal=Animal Cognition |date=January 2009 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=107–118 |doi=10.1007/s10071-008-0175-y|pmid=18679727 |s2cid=207050813 }}</ref> In a natural setting, dyadic play behavior was observed; head-direction and posture was specifically noted. When one of the two dogs was facing away or otherwise preoccupied, attention-getting behaviors and signals (nudging, barking, growling, pawing, jumping, etc.) were used by the other dog to communicate the intent and/or desire to continue on with the dyadic play. Stronger or more frequent signaling was used if the attention of the other dog was not captured. These observations tell us that these dogs know how play behavior and signaling can be used to capture attention, communicate intent and desire, and manipulate one another. This characteristic and skill, called the "attention-getting skill" has generally only been seen in humans, but is now being researched and seen in many different species.
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