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{{Redirect|Playing|the jazz album by Old and New Dreams|Playing (album){{!}}''Playing'' (album)|the 2007 film|Playing (film){{!}}''Playing'' (film)}}
{{short description|Voluntary, intrinsically motivated recreation}}▼
[[File:Playfulness by Paul Manship, 1912-1914 - DSC03107.JPG|upright=1.35|thumb|''Playfulness'' by [[Paul Manship]]]]▼
'''Play''' is a range of [[Motivation#Intrinsic|intrinsically motivated]] activities done for [[recreational]] pleasure and enjoyment.<ref>{{cite book|last=Garvey|first=C.|year=1990|title=Play|location=Cambridge, Mass.|publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> Play is commonly associated with children and juvenile-level activities, but may be engaged in at any life stage, and among other higher-functioning animals as well, most notably [[mammals]] and [[birds]].▼
▲[[File:Playfulness by Paul Manship, 1912-1914 - DSC03107.JPG|upright=1.35|thumb|''Playfulness'' by [[Paul Manship]]]]
▲'''Play''' is a range of [[Motivation#Intrinsic and extrinsic|intrinsically motivated]] activities done for [[
Play is often interpreted as frivolous; yet the player can be intently focused on their objective, particularly when play is structured and goal-oriented, as in a [[game]]. Accordingly, play can range from relaxed, free-spirited, spontaneous, and frivolous to planned or even compulsive.<ref name=Huizinga>{{cite book|last1=Huizinga|first1=J.|title=Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture|date=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.|location=London|isbn=978-0-7100-0578-6|edition=3rd|url=http://art.yale.edu/file_columns/0000/1474/homo_ludens_johan_huizinga_routledge_1949_.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701005328/http://art.yale.edu/file_columns/0000/1474/homo_ludens_johan_huizinga_routledge_1949_.pdf|archive-date=2015-07-01|access-date=3 June 2015}}</ref> Play is not just a pastime activity; it has the potential to serve as an important tool in numerous aspects of daily life for adolescents, adults, and cognitively advanced non-human species (such as primates). Not only does play promote and aid in physical development (such as [[hand-eye coordination]]), but it also aids in cognitive development and social skills, and can even act as a stepping stone into the world of integration, which can be a very stressful process. Play is something that most children partake in, but the way play is executed is different between cultures and the way that children engage with play varies.▼
▲Play is often interpreted as frivolous; yet the player can be intently focused on their objective, particularly when play is structured and goal-oriented, as in a [[game]]. Accordingly, play can range from relaxed, free-spirited, spontaneous, and frivolous to planned or even compulsive.<ref name=Huizinga>{{cite book|last1=Huizinga|first1=J.|title=Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture|date=1980|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.|location=London|isbn=978-0-7100-0578-6|edition=3rd|url=http://art.yale.edu/file_columns/0000/1474/homo_ludens_johan_huizinga_routledge_1949_.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701005328/http://art.yale.edu/file_columns/0000/1474/homo_ludens_johan_huizinga_routledge_1949_.pdf|archive-date=2015-07-01|access-date=3 June 2015}}</ref> Play is not just a pastime activity; it has the potential to serve as an important tool in numerous aspects of daily life for adolescents, adults, and cognitively advanced non-human species (such as primates). Not only does play promote and aid in physical development (such as [[hand-eye coordination]]), but it also aids in [[cognitive development]] and social skills, and can even act as a stepping stone into the world of integration, which can be a very stressful process. Play is something that most children partake in, but the way play is executed is different between cultures, and the way that children engage with play varies.
== Definitions ==
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This definition of play as constituting a separate and independent sphere of human activity is sometimes referred to as the "magic circle" notion of play, a phrase also attributed to Huizinga.<ref name=Huizinga/> Many other definitions exist. Jean Piaget stated, "the many theories of play expounded in the past are clear proof that the phenomenon is difficult to understand."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Piaget|first1=Jean|title=Play, Dreams, and Imitation in Childhood|url=https://archive.org/details/playdreamsimitat0000piag|url-access=registration|date=1962|publisher=Norton|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/playdreamsimitat0000piag/page/147/mode/1up 147]|isbn=9780393001716 |translator-first1=C.|translator-last1=Gattegno|translator-first2=F.M.|translator-last2=Hodgson}}</ref>
Another definition of play from the twenty-first century comes from the [[National Playing Fields Association]]. The definition reads as follows: "play is freely chosen, personally directed, intrinsically motivated behaviour that actively engages the child."<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.playengland.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/best-play.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206235115/http://www.playengland.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/best-play.pdf|archive-date=2018-12-06|publisher=National Playing Fields Association|title=Best Play: What Play Provision Should Do For Children|year=2000|access-date=2018-12-06}}</ref> This definition focuses more on the child's freedom of choice and personal motivation related to an activity.
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Free-form play gives children the freedom to decide what they want to play and how it will be played. Both the activity and the rules are subject to change in this form, and children can make any changes to the rules or objectives of the play at any time.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|journal=International Journal of Early Years Education|volume=26|issue=4|pages=335–339|doi=10.1080/09669760.2018.1527278|title=The play's the thing|year=2018|last1=Murray|first1=Jane|doi-access=free}}</ref> Some countries in the twenty-first century have added emphasis of free play into their values for children in early childhood, for example Taiwan and Hungary.<ref name=":14" />
Structured play has clearly defined [[objective (goal)|goals]] and rules. Such play is called a "[[game]]". Other play is unstructured or open-ended. Both types of play promote adaptive behaviors and mental states of [[happiness]].<ref>{{
[[Sports]] with defined rules take place within designated play spaces, such as sports fields—in [[association football]] for example, players kick a ball in a certain direction and push opponents out of their way as they do so. While appropriate within the sport's play space, these same behaviors might be inappropriate or even illegal outside the playing field.<ref name=Huizinga/>
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{{see|Children's games|Children's street culture|Make believe|Street games}}In young children, play is associated with [[cognitive development]] and [[socialization]]. Play that promotes [[learning]] and recreation often incorporates [[toys]], [[theatrical property|props]], [[tools]], or other [[wikt:playmate|playmates]]. Play can consist of an amusing, pretend, or imaginary activity alone or with another. Some forms of play are rehearsals or trials for later life events, such as "play fighting", pretend social encounters (such as parties with dolls), or flirting.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sutton-Smith|first=B.|year=1997|title=The Ambiguity of Play|location=Cambridge, Mass.|publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> Findings in [[neuroscience]] suggest that play promotes flexibility of mind, including adaptive practices such as discovering multiple ways to achieve a desired result, or creative ways to improve or reorganize a given situation.{{cn|reason=previous citation ("Millar, 1967; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000") had full-citation-needed marker for a decade|date=September 2023}}
[[File:Sandbox Lawn Jam Our Community Place Harrisonburg VA June 2008.jpg|thumb|Children playing in a [[Sandpit|sandbox]]
Play is explicitly recognized in Article 31 of the [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]] (adopted by the General Assembly of the [[United Nations]], November 29, 1989), which declares:
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[[File:Pieter Bruegel the Elder - Children’s Games - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''Children's Games'', 1560, [[Pieter Bruegel the Elder]]]]American historian Howard Chudacoff studied the interplay between parental control of [[toy]]s and games and children's drive for freedom to play. In the colonial era, toys were makeshift and children taught each other very simple games with little adult supervision. The market economy of the 19th century enabled the modern concept of childhood as a distinct, happy life stage.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}} Factory-made dolls and doll houses delighted young girls. Organized sports filtered down from adults and colleges, and boys learned to play with a bat, a ball, and an impromptu playing field.
With the rise of motor vehicle traffic in the 20th century, teenagers were increasingly organized into club sports supervised and coached by adults, with swimming taught at [[summer camp]]s and through supervised playgrounds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://somervillearchives.omeka.net/exhibits/show/recreation1|title=What Park Did You Hang Out At?|first=Stephanie|last=Warner|website=Somerville Archives}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=September 2023}}
Under the American [[New Deal]]'s [[Works Progress Administration]], thousands of local playgrounds and ball fields opened, promoting softball especially as a sport for all ages and
== Cultural differences
[[File:Museu do Brinquedo Português 12.JPG|thumb|Museum of toys – Portugal]]
The act of play time is a cross-cultural phenomenon that is universally accepted and encouraged by most communities; however, it can differ in the ways that is performed.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|url=https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1054&context=orpc|title=Cultural Variations in Parental Support of Children's Play|last=Vandermaas-Peeler|first=Maureen|year=2002|journal=Online Readings in Psychology and Culture|volume=6|number=1|doi=10.9707/2307-0919.1054|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Some cultures, such as Euro-American ones, encourage play time in order to stress cognitive benefits and the importance of learning how to care for one's self. Other cultures, such as people of African American or Asian American heritages, stress more group oriented learning and play where kids can learn what they can do with and for others.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://ruby.fgcu.edu/courses/ehyun/10041/culture_and_development_in.htm|chapter=Culture and Development in Children's Play|title=Making sense of developmentally and culturally appropriate practice (DCAP) in early childhood education|first=E.|last=Hyun|year=1998|location=New York|publisher=Peter Lang}}</ref>
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==Sports==
{{see|Street sports}}
Sport activities are one of the most universal forms of play. Different continents have their own popular/dominant sports. For example, [[
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Germany-world-cup-winners.jpg|thumbnail|2014 FIFA World Cup winner (Germany)]] -->
[[Sports]] can be played as a [[leisure]] activity or within a [[competition]]. According to sociologist [[Norbert Elias]] it{{ambiguous|reason=|date=September 2023}} is an important part of "civilization process".<ref name=":8">{{cite journal|last1=Sheed|first1=Wilson|title=Endangered pastimes: Why sports matter|journal=The Wilson Quarterly|year=1995|volume=19|issue=1}}</ref> [[Victory]] and [[Failure|defeat]] in sports can influence one's [[emotions]] to a point where everything else seems irrelevant.<ref name=":8" /> Sport fans can also imagine what it feels like to play for their preferred team.<ref name=":8" /> The feelings people experience can be so surreal that it affects their emotions and behavior.<ref name=":8" />
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|1={{cite book|last1=Larson|first1=R.|last2=Kleiber|first2=D.A.|chapter=Daily experience of adolescents|editor-first1=P.|editor-last1=Tolan|editor-first2=B.|editor-last2=Cohler|title=Handbook of Clinical Research and Practice with Adolescents|year=1993|pages=125–145}}
|2={{cite journal|last1=Weiss|first1=Maureen R.|title=Field of dreams: Sport as a Context for Youth Development|journal=Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport|year=2008|volume=79|issue=4|pages=434–449|doi=10.1080/02701367.2008.10599510|pmid=19177945|s2cid=45415254}}
}}</ref> and these conditions predict a richer personal and [[interpersonal]] development.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal|last1=Larson|first1=R.W.|title=Toward a psychology of positive youth development|journal=American Psychologist|year=2000|volume=55|issue=1|pages=170–183|doi=10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.170|pmid=11392861|citeseerx=10.1.1.468.2523}}</ref> Anxiety, depression and obesity can stem from lack of activity and social interaction.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|first=Karin|last=Bilich|url=http://www.parents.com/fun/sports/exercise/the-importance-of-play/|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424180847/http://www.parents.com/fun/sports/exercise/the-importance-of-play/|archive-date=2017-04-24|title=The Importance of Play|date=2006-10-25|journal=Parents|access-date=2017-04-24}}</ref> There is a high correlation between the amount of time that youth spend playing [[sports]] and [[physical fitness|physical]] (e.g., better general health), [[psychological]] (e.g., subjective well-being), [[academic]] (e.g., school grades), and [[social benefits]] (e.g., making friends).<ref name=":5" /> Electronics are a form of playtime, but researchers have found that most electronic play leads to lack of motivation, no social interaction, and can lead to obesity.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.journalofplay.org/sites/www.journalofplay.org/files/pdf-articles/1-3-article-childrens-pastimes-play-in-sixteen-nations.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024221929/http://www.journalofplay.org/sites/www.journalofplay.org/files/pdf-articles/1-3-article-childrens-pastimes-play-in-sixteen-nations.pdf|archive-date=2013-10-24|title=Children's Pastimes and Play in Sixteen Nations: Is Free-Play Declining?|last1=Singer|first1=Dorothy G.|last2=Singer|first2=Jerome L.|last3=D'Agostino|first3=Heidi|last4=DeLong|first4=Raeka|year=2009|journal=American Journal of Play}}</ref> Play is children using their creativity while developing their imagination, dexterity, and physical, cognitive, and emotional strength. Dramatic play is common in younger children.<ref name=":12" /> For youth to benefit from playtime, the following are recommended:{{By whom|date=September 2023}}
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Figure 6.png|thumbnail|Research findings on benefits of youth playing sports]] -->
* Give children ample, unscheduled time to be creative to reflect and decompress.<ref name=":12" />
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Work and play are mutually supportive. Employees need to experience the sense of newness, [[flow (psychology)|flow]], [[discovery (observation)|discovery]], and liveliness that play provides. This provides the employee with the sense that they are integrated within the organization, and therefore they feel and perform better.{{cn|date=January 2023}}
Incorporating play at work results in more [[productivity]], [[creativity]] and innovation, higher job satisfaction, greater workplace [[morale]], stronger or new social bonds, improved job performance, and a decrease in staff turnover, [[absenteeism]],<ref name="helpguide.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.helpguide.org/articles/mental-health/benefits-of-play-for-adults.htm|title=The Benefits of Play for Adults|website=HelpGuide.org|first1=Lawrence|last1=Robinson|first2=Melinda|last2=Smith|first3=Jeanne|last3=Segal|first4=Jennifer|last4=Shubin}}</ref> and stress. Decreased stress leads to less illness, which results in lower health care costs.<ref>{{
Companies that encourage play at work, whether short breaks throughout the day or during lunch breaks, are more successful because this leads to positive emotion among employees. Risk taking, confidence in presenting novel ideas, and embracing unusual and fresh perspectives are associated with play at work. Play can increase self-reported job satisfaction and well-being. Employees experiencing positive emotions are more cooperative, more social, and perform better when faced with complex tasks.<ref>{{
Contests, team-building exercises, fitness programs, mental health breaks, and other social activities make the work environment fun, interactive, and rewarding.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hrhero.com/hl/articles/2007/02/23/playing-at-work-and-working-at-play/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100217083907/http://www.hrhero.com/hl/articles/2007/02/23/playing-at-work-and-working-at-play/|title=Playing at work and working at play|archive-date=2010-02-17|website=Kansas Employment Law Letter|first=Boyd|last=Byers|date=2007-02-23}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=September 2023}} Playfighting, i.e. playful fights or fictive disputes, may contribute to organizations and institutions, as in youth care settings. Staff tries to down-key playfight invitations to "treatment" or "learning," but playfighting also offers youth and staff identificatory respite from the institutional regime.{{Incomprehensible inline|date=September 2023}} Playfighting is a recurrent pattern in the social life of a youth care institution and sits at the core of what inmates and staff have to deal with<ref>{{cite journal|title=Playfights as Trouble and Respite|first=David|last=Wästerfors|year=2016|journal=Journal of Contemporary Ethnography|volume=45|issue=2|pages=168–197|doi=10.1177/0891241614554087|s2cid=143662339}}</ref>
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==Other animals==
{{image frame|border=no|width=440|content=<gallery mode="packed">
Cocker spaniel tearing at a monkey doll, 2015-01-02 02.jpg|[[Cocker Spaniel|Cocker spaniel]] playing with a monkey doll
Wolves Playing (23879309232).jpg|A group of [[wolf|wolves]] playing
Panthera tigris altaica 31 - Buffalo Zoo.jpg|[[Tiger]] cubs playing with their mother
Two white tigers playing in the water at Singapore Zoo.jpg|Tigers playing in water
</gallery>}}
Evolutionary psychologists believe that there must be an important benefit of play, as there are so many other reasons to avoid it; observations have shown it has arisen independently in such varied groups as mammals,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bekoff |first=Marc |date=1972 |title=The Development of Social Interaction, Play, and Metacommunication in Mammals: An Ethological Perspective |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/407400 |journal=The Quarterly Review of Biology |volume=47 |issue=4|pages=412–434 |doi=10.1086/407400 }}</ref> birds,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ficken |first=S. |date=July 1977 |title=Avian Play |url=https://academic.oup.com/auk/article/94/3/573/5205723 |access-date=2024-07-27 |journal=The Auk |volume=94 |issue=3 |pages=573–582 |doi=10.1093/auk/94.3.573}}</ref> reptiles,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kane |first=Daniel |date=2019-10-01 |title=Play behaviour by captive tree monitors, Varanus macraei and Varanus prasinus |url=https://thebhs.org/publications/the-herpetological-bulletin/issue-number-149-autumn-2019/1962-5-play-behaviour-by-captive-tree-monitors-i-varanus-macraei-i-and-i-varanus-prasinus-i |journal=Herpetological Bulletin |language=en |number=149, Autumn 2019 |pages=28–31 |doi=10.33256/hb149.2831 |issn=1473-0928|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kramer |first1=Matthew |last2=Burghardt |first2=Gordon M. |date=1998 |title=Precocious Courtship and Play in Emydid Turtles |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1998.tb00028.x |journal=Ethology |language=en |volume=104 |issue=1 |pages=38–56 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0310.1998.tb00028.x |bibcode=1998Ethol.104...38K |issn=0179-1613}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barabanov |first1=Valerij |last2=Gulimova |first2=Victoria |last3=Berdiev |first3=Rustam |last4=Saveliev |first4=Sergey |date=May 2015 |title=Object play in thick-toed geckos during a space experiment |journal=Journal of Ethology |language=en |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=109–115 |doi=10.1007/s10164-015-0426-8 |issn=0289-0771|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Burghardt |first1=Gordon M. |last2=Ward |first2=Brian |last3=Rosscoe |first3=Roger |date=1996 |title=Problem of reptile play: Environmental enrichment and play behavior in a captive Nile soft-shelled turtle,Trionyx triunguis |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2361(1996)15:33.0.CO;2-D |journal=Zoo Biology |language=en |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=223–238 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1098-2361(1996)15:3<223::AID-ZOO3>3.0.CO;2-D}}</ref> amphibians,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burghardt |first=Gordon M. |date=January 2015 |title=Play in fishes, frogs and reptiles |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982214013335 |journal=Current Biology |language=en |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=R9–R10 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2014.10.027|pmid=25562306 |bibcode=2015CBio...25...R9B }}</ref> fish,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Eisenbeiser |first1=Sofia |last2=Serbe-Kamp |first2=Étienne |last3=Gage |first3=Gregory J. |last4=Marzullo |first4=Timothy C. |date=2022-06-30 |title=Gills Just Want to Have Fun: Can Fish Play Games, Just like Us? |journal=Animals |language=en |volume=12 |issue=13 |pages=1684 |doi=10.3390/ani12131684 |doi-access=free |issn=2076-2615 |pmc=9265024 |pmid=35804583}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fagen |first=Robert |date=2017-05-30 |title=Salmonid Jumping and Playing: Potential Cultural and Welfare Implications |journal=Animals |language=en |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=42 |doi=10.3390/ani7060042 |doi-access=free |issn=2076-2615 |pmc=5483605 |pmid=28556816}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Burghardt |first1=Gordon M. |last2=Dinets |first2=Vladimir |last3=Murphy |first3=James B. |date=2015 |editor-last=Ebensperger |editor-first=L. |title=Highly Repetitive Object Play in a Cichlid Fish ( Tropheus duboisi ) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/eth.12312 |journal=Ethology |language=en |volume=121 |issue=1 |pages=38–44 |doi=10.1111/eth.12312 |bibcode=2015Ethol.121...38B |issn=0179-1613}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tribelhorn |first=Gunnar Wyn |date=2024-07-16 |title=Probable Play Behavior in a Surgeonfish (Naso vlamingii ) |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/5t83b52p |journal=International Journal of Comparative Psychology |volume=37 |issue=1 |doi=10.46867/IJCP...20283 |issn=2168-3344|doi-access=free }}</ref> and invertebrates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Galpayage Dona |first1=Hiruni Samadi |last2=Solvi |first2=Cwyn |last3=Kowalewska |first3=Amelia |last4=Mäkelä |first4=Kaarle |last5=MaBouDi |first5=HaDi |last6=Chittka |first6=Lars |date=2022 |title=Do bumble bees play? |journal=Animal Behaviour |language=en |volume=194 |pages=239–251 |doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.08.013|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kuba |first1=Michael J. |last2=Byrne |first2=Ruth A. |last3=Meisel |first3=Daniela V. |last4=Mather |first4=Jennifer A. |date=2006 |title=When do octopuses play? Effects of repeated testing, object type, age, and food deprivation on object play in Octopus vulgaris. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0735-7036.120.3.184 |journal=Journal of Comparative Psychology |language=en |volume=120 |issue=3 |pages=184–190 |doi=10.1037/0735-7036.120.3.184 |pmid=16893255 |issn=1939-2087}}</ref> Animals are often injured during play, become distracted from predators, and expend valuable energy. In rare cases, play has even been observed between different species that are natural enemies such as a [[polar bear]] and a [[dog]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ted.com/talks/stuart_brown_says_play_is_more_than_fun_it_s_vital.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090531061622/http://www.ted.com/talks/stuart_brown_says_play_is_more_than_fun_it_s_vital.html|archive-date=2009-05-31|title=Stuart Brown says play is more than fun|website=TED talks}}</ref> Yet play seems to be a normal activity with animals who occupy the higher strata of their own [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|hierarchy of needs]]. Animals on the lower strata, e.g. stressed and starving animals, generally do not play.<ref name=NYT/> However, in wild [[Assamese macaque]]s physically active play is performed also during periods of low food availability and even if it is at the expense of growth, which highlights the developmental and evolutionary importance of play.<ref name = "Berghänel">{{cite journal | last1 = Berghänel | first1 = A. | last2 = Schülke | first2 = O. | last3 = Ostner | first3 = J. | year = 2015 | title = Locomotor play drives motor skill acquisition at the expense of growth: A life history trade-off | journal = Science Advances | volume = 1 | issue = 7| pages = 1–8 | doi = 10.1126/sciadv.1500451 | pmid = 26601237 | pmc = 4643810 | bibcode = 2015SciA....1E0451B }}</ref>
The social cognitive complexity of numerous species, including dogs, have been explored in experimental studies. In one such study, conducted by [[Alexandra Horowitz]] of the University of California, the communication and attention-getting skills of dogs were investigated.<ref>{{
Observing play behavior in various species can tell much about the player's environment (including the welfare of the animal), personal needs, social rank (if any), immediate relationships, and eligibility for mating. Play activity, often observed through action and signals, serves as a tool for communication and expression. Through mimicry, chasing, biting, and touching, animals act out in ways that send messages to one another; whether it's an alert, initiation of play, or expressing intent. When play behavior was observed for a study in [[Tonkean macaque]]s, it was discovered that play signals weren't always used to initiate play; rather, these signals were viewed primarily as methods of communication (sharing information and attention-getting). [[File:Jack Russell Terrier Eddi at the beach.JPG|right|thumb|A [[dog]] plays with a [[ball]].]]
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John Byers, a zoologist at the [[University of Idaho]], discovered that the amount of time spent at play for many mammals (e.g. rats and cats) peaks around puberty, and then drops off. This corresponds to the development of the [[cerebellum]], suggesting that play is not so much about practicing ''exact'' behaviors, as much as building general connections in the brain. Sergio Pellis and colleagues at the [[University of Lethbridge]] in Alberta, Canada, discovered that play may shape the brain in other ways, too. Young mammals have an overabundance of brain cells in their [[cerebrum]] (the outer areas of the brain—part of what distinguishes mammals). There is evidence that play helps the brain clean up this excess of cells, resulting in a more efficient cerebrum at maturity.<ref name=NYT/>{{Multiple image
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| header = Humans and non-human animals playing in water
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| image1 = Porto Covo July 2011-1.jpg
| caption1 = Playing in the surf is among the favorite activities of children at the beach.
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| caption2 = Dolphins playing in the surf
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== Development and learning ==
[[File:Lamantha & Littleteddy I of Littleteddyville 1965.jpg|thumb|Toys are often arranged by children in extraordinary circumstances]]
[[Learning through play]] has been long recognized as a critical aspect of [[childhood]] and [[child development]]. Some of the earliest studies of play started in the 1890s with [[G. Stanley Hall]], the father of the child study movement that sparked an interest in the developmental, mental, and behavioral world of babies and children. Play promotes healthy development of parent-child bonds, establishing social, emotional, and cognitive developmental milestones that help them relate to others, manage stress, and learn resiliency.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal|last1=Ginsburg|first1=Kenneth R.|year=2007|title=The Importance of Play in Promoting Healthy Child Development and Maintaining Strong Parent-Child Bonds|journal=Pediatrics|volume=119|issue=1|pages=182–191|doi=10.1542/peds.2006-2697|pmid=17200287|doi-access=free}}
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Modern research in the field of [[affective neuroscience]] (the neural mechanisms of emotion) has uncovered important links between role play and neurogenesis in the brain.<ref>Panksepp, ''Affective Neuroscience 98''</ref>{{full citation needed|date=September 2023}} For example,{{non sequitur|reason=needs more explanation about how the information in this sentence relates to role play & neurogenesis|date=September 2023}} researcher [[Roger Caillois]] used the word ''[[ilinx]]'' to describe the momentary disruption of perception that comes from forms of physical play that disorient the senses, especially balance.
Play is positively correlated with coping with daily stressors in children.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Raudenská |first1=Jaroslava |last2=Gumančík |first2=Jiří |last3=Raudenský |first3=Martin |last4=Pasqualucci |first4=Alberto |last5=Narvaez Tamayo |first5=Marco Antonio |last6=Varrassi |first6=Giustino |last7=Javůrková |first7=Alena |title=Play as a Stress-Coping Method Among Children in Light of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Review |journal=Cureus |date=15 August 2023 |volume=15 |issue=8 |pages=e43550 |doi=10.7759/cureus.43550|doi-access=free |pmid=37719538 |pmc=10502394 }}</ref><ref>Goldstein & Russ, 2000–2001</ref>{{full citation needed|date=September 2023}}<ref>Campos, Frankel, & Camras, 2004</ref>{{full citation needed|date=September 2023}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Capurso |first1=Michele |last2=Ragni |first2=Benedetta |title=Bridge Over Troubled Water: Perspective Connections between Coping and Play in Children |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |date=26 December 2016 |volume=7 |page=1953 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01953 |pmid=28082926 |pmc=5183588 |doi-access=free }}</ref> By playing, children regulate their emotions. This is important for adaptive functioning because without regulation, emotions could be overwhelming and stressful.
Evolutionary psychologists have begun to explore the [[Phylogenetics|phylogenetic]] relationship between higher intelligence in humans and its relationship to play, i.e., the relationship of play to the progress of whole evolutionary groups as opposed to the psychological implications of play to a specific individual.
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Various forms of play, physical or mental, influence cognitive abilities in individuals. As little as ten minutes of exercise (including physical play), can improve cognitive abilities.<ref name="cognitive:1" >{{Cite book | doi = 10.1145/2207676.2208323 | chapter=The acute cognitive benefits of casual exergame play | year=2012 | title=Proceedings of the 2012 ACM Annual Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems | page=1863 | last1 = Gao | first1 = Yue | author2-link=Regan Mandryk | last2 = Mandryk| first2 = Regan| isbn=978-1-4503-1015-4 | citeseerx=10.1.1.248.3183 | s2cid=14178354 }}</ref> An "exergame" is a game that incorporates some physical movement but is not formal exercise. Such games increase one's heart rate to the level of aerobics exercise and result in significant improvements in mental faculties such as math and recall memory.<ref name="cognitive:1" />
Play can also influence one's social development and social interactions. Much of the research focuses on the influence play has on child social development. There are different forms of play that influence child social development. One study{{r|social:4}} explored the influence of playing styles with mothers versus playing styles with fathers and how it influences child social development. "[I]ntegral to positive development is the child's social competence or, more precisely, the ability to regulate their own emotions and behaviors in the social contexts of early childhood to support the effective accomplishment of relevant developmental tasks."<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sinclair|first1=Jeff|last2=Hingston|first2=Philip|last3=Masek|first3=Martin|year=2009|title=Exergame development using the dual flow model|journal=Proceedings of the Sixth Australasian Conference on Interactive Entertainment|pages=1–7}}</ref>
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* {{cite journal |last1=Gray |first1=P. |title=Play as a Foundation for Hunter-Gatherer Social Existence |journal=American Journal of Play |year=2009 |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=476–522 |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1069037.pdf |issn=1938-0399 |id=ERIC #EJ1069037}}
* {{citation|last=Gray|first=P.|year=2013|title=Free to Learn: Why Unleashing the Instinct to Play Will Make Our Children Happier, More Self-Reliant, and Better Students for Life}}
* {{cite journal|first=Howard|last=Taras|year=2009|journal=Journal of School Health|title=Physical Activity and School Performance|volume=75|number=6|pages=214–218|doi=10.1111/j.1746-1561.2005.00026.x |pmid=16014127 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book | last=Kortmulder | first=Koenraad | title=Play and Evolution: Second Thoughts on the Behaviour of Animals | publisher=International Books | publication-place=Utrecht | year=1998 | isbn=978-90-5727-013-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Stebbins|first=Robert A.|year=2015|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yS6FCwAAQBAJ|url-access=limited|title=The Interrelationship of Leisure and Play: Play as Leisure, Leisure as Play|location=Houndmills, UK|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9781137513038 }}
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