Satire: Difference between revisions

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{{Literature}}

{{Performing arts}}

 

 

 

Satire is found in many artistic forms of expression, including internet memes, literature, plays, commentary, [[satirical music|music]], [[satire (film and television)|film and television]] shows, and media such as lyrics.

 

==Etymology and roots==

 

 

To Quintilian, the satire was a strict literary form, but the term soon escaped from the original narrow definition. Robert Elliott writes:

 

 

==Humour==

{{rquote|right|The rules of satire are such that it must do more than make you laugh. No matter how amusing it is, it doesn't count unless you find yourself wincing a little even as you chuckle.<ref name="galaxy196806">{{Cite magazine|date=June 1968|title=Forecast|magazine=Galaxy Science Fiction|pages=113}}</ref>}}

 

 

 

==Social and psychological functions==

[[File:Pedro II angelo agostini.jpg|thumb|A satire by [[Angelo Agostini]] to ''[[Revista Illustrada]]'' mocking the lack of interest from Emperor [[Pedro II of Brazil]] in politics toward the end of his reign]]

 

Historically, satire has satisfied the popular [[need]] to [[debunk]] and [[Ridiculous|ridicule]] the leading figures in politics, economy, religion and other prominent realms of [[Power (social and political)|power]].<ref name="Bevere2006p265"/> Satire confronts [[public discourse]] and the [[collective imaginary]], playing as a public opinion counterweight to power (be it political, economic, religious, symbolic, or otherwise), by challenging leaders and authorities. For instance, it forces administrations to clarify, amend or establish their policies. Satire's job is to expose problems and contradictions, and it is not obligated to solve them.<ref name="WieseForbes2010p.xv"/> [[Karl Kraus (writer)|Karl Kraus]] set in the history of satire a prominent example of a satirist role as confronting public discourse.<ref name="Knight2004p254"/>

 

==Classifications==

 

===Horatian, Juvenalian, Menippean===

{{See also|Satires of Juvenal}}

 

 

Following in this tradition, Juvenalian satire addresses perceived social evil through scorn, outrage, and savage ridicule. This form is often pessimistic, characterized by the use of irony, sarcasm, moral indignation and personal invective, with less emphasis on humor. Strongly polarized political satire can often be classified as Juvenalian.

 

 

====Menippean====

 

In the [[history of theatre]] there has always been a conflict between engagement and disengagement on [[politics]] and relevant issue, between satire and [[grotesque]] on one side, and [[jest]] with [[teasing]] on the other.<ref name="Fo1990p9"/> [[Max Eastman]] defined the [[spectrum]] of satire in terms of "degrees of biting", as ranging from satire proper at the hot-end, and "kidding" at the violet-end; Eastman adopted the term kidding to denote what is just satirical in form, but is not really firing at the target.<ref>{{Citation|author-link=Max Eastman|first=Max|last=Eastman|year=1936|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tyd5wwn8acwC&pg=PA236|title=Enjoyment of Laughter|chapter=IV. Degrees of Biting|pages=236–43|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=9781412822626}}</ref> [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel laureate]] satirical playwright [[Dario Fo]] pointed out the difference between satire and teasing (''sfottò'').<ref name="Lorch1997p128">{{Citation|author1-link=Dario Fo|first1=Dario|last1=Fo|first2=Jennifer|last2=Lorch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u12fXi_HDO4C&pg=PA128|title=Dario Fo|page=128|quote=In other writings Fo makes an important distinction between ''sfottò'' and satire.|isbn=9780719038488|year=1997|publisher=Manchester University Press}}</ref> Teasing is the [[reactionary]] side of the [[comic]]; it limits itself to a shallow [[parody]] of physical appearance. The side-effect of teasing is that it humanizes and draws sympathy for the powerful individual towards which it is directed. Satire instead uses the comic to go against power and its oppressions, has a [[subversive]] character, and a [[moral]] dimension which draws judgement against its targets.<ref name="Fo1990p2" /><ref name="Fo1990pn" /><ref name = "Arroyop303">{{Citation|first1=José Luís Blas|last1=Arroyo|first2=Mónica Velando|last2=Casanova|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CxZ_zH44PVkC&pg=PA303|title=Discurso y sociedad: contribuciones al estudio de la lengua en...|volume=1|pages=303–4|isbn=9788480215381|year=2006|publisher=Publicacions de la Universitat Jaume I|language=es}}</ref><ref name="Morson1988p114">{{Citation|last=Morson|first=Gary Saul|year=1988|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PpLiINhO83MC&pg=PA114|title=Boundaries of Genre|page=114|publisher=Northwestern University Press|quote=second, that parodies can be, as Bakhtin observes, "shallow" as well as "deep" (''Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics'', 160), which is to say, directed at superficial as well as fundamental faults of the original. [...] the distinction between shallow and deep [...] [is] helpful in understanding the complex ways in which parodies are used. For instance, shallow parody is sometimes used to pay an author an indirect compliment. The opposite of damning with faint praise, this parody with faint criticism may be designed to show that no more fundamental criticism ''could'' be made.|isbn=9780810108110}}</ref> Fo formulated an [[Operational definition|operational]] criterion to tell real satire from ''sfottò'', saying that real satire arouses an outraged and violent reaction, and that the more they try to stop you, the better is the job you are doing.<ref>{{Citation|author-link=Daniele Luttazzi|first=Daniele|last=Luttazzi|year=2005|url=http://news.danieleluttazzi.it/?q=node/147|archive-date=December 25, 2005|place=[[Italy|IT]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051225171452/http://news.danieleluttazzi.it/?q=node%2F147|title=Matrix|quote=Dario Fo disse a Satyricon: —La satira vera si vede dalla reazione che suscita.|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Fo contends that, historically, people in positions of power have welcomed and encouraged good-humoured buffoonery, while modern day people in positions of power have tried to censor, ostracize and repress satire.<ref name="Fo1990p9"/><ref name="Fo1990p2"/>

 

 

===Classifications by topics===

The type of humour that deals with creating laughter at the expense of the person telling the joke is called reflexive humour.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Zekavat|first=Massih|title=Reflexive humour and satire: a critical review|journal=European Journal of Humour Research|year=2020|volume=7|issue=4|pages=125–136|doi=10.7592/EJHR2019.7.4.zekavat|doi-access=free}}</ref> Reflexive humour can take place at dual levels of directing humour at self or at the larger community the self identifies with. The audience's understanding of the context of reflexive humour is important for its receptivity and success.<ref name=":0" /> Satire is found not only in written literary forms. In [[preliterate culture]]s it manifests itself in [[ritual clown|ritual]] and folk forms, as well as in [[trickster]] tales and [[oral poetry]].<ref name="Test1991p8" />

 

 

==Development==

In the [[Early Middle Ages]], examples of satire were the songs by [[Goliard]]s or [[Clerici vagantes|vagant]]s now best known as an anthology called [[Carmina Burana]] and made famous as texts of a composition by the 20th-century composer [[Carl Orff]]. Satirical poetry is believed to have been popular, although little has survived. With the advent of the [[High Middle Ages]] and the birth of modern [[vernacular literature]] in the 12th century, it began to be used again, most notably by [[Chaucer]]. The disrespectful manner was considered "unchristian" and ignored, except for the '''moral satire''', which mocked misbehaviour in Christian terms. Examples are ''Livre des Manières'' by {{interlanguage link|Étienne de Fougères|fr}} (~1178), and some of Chaucer's ''[[Canterbury Tales]]''. Sometimes [[Epic poetry|epic poetry (epos)]] was mocked, and even feudal society, but there was hardly a general interest in the genre.

 

 

===Early modern western satire===

 

=== Ancient and modern India ===

 

===Age of Enlightenment===

[[File:A Welch wedding. Satire c.1780.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|'A Welch wedding' satirical cartoon {{Circa|1780}}]]

 

 

[[Jonathan Swift]] was one of the greatest of Anglo-Irish satirists, and one of the first to practise modern journalistic satire. For instance, In his ''[[A Modest Proposal]]'' Swift suggests that Irish peasants be encouraged to sell their own children as food for the rich, as a solution to the "problem" of poverty. His purpose is of course to attack indifference to the plight of the desperately poor. In his book ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]'' he writes about the flaws in human society in general and English society in particular. [[John Dryden]] wrote an influential essay entitled "A Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire"<ref>{{Citation | url = http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Texts/drydendiscourse2.html | editor-first = Jack | editor-last = Lynch | publisher = Rutgers | last = Dryden | first = John | title = Discourse | number = 2}}</ref> that helped fix the definition of satire in the literary world. His satirical ''[[Mac Flecknoe]]'' was written in response to a rivalry with [[Thomas Shadwell]] and eventually inspired [[Alexander Pope]] to write his satirical ''[[Dunciad]]''.

Other satirical works by Pope include the ''[[Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot]]''.

 

Novelists such as [[Charles Dickens]] (1812–1870) often used passages of satiric writing in their treatment of social issues.

 

 

 

Later in the nineteenth century, in the United States, [[Mark Twain]] (1835–1910) grew to become American's greatest satirist: his novel ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn|Huckleberry Finn]]'' (1884) is set in the [[Antebellum era|antebellum]] South, where the moral values Twain wishes to promote are completely turned on their heads. His hero, Huck, is a rather simple but goodhearted lad who is ashamed of the "sinful temptation" that leads him to help a [[Fugitive slaves in the United States|fugitive slave]]. In fact his conscience, warped by the distorted moral world he has grown up in, often bothers him most when he is at his best. He is prepared to do good, believing it to be wrong.

 

===20th-century satire===

 

 

In the United States 1950s, satire was introduced into American [[stand-up comedy]] most prominently by [[Lenny Bruce]] and [[Mort Sahl]].<ref name="Test1991p8"/> As they challenged the [[taboo]]s and [[conventional wisdom]] of the time, were ostracized by the mass media establishment as ''[[sick comedian]]s''. In the same period, [[Paul Krassner]]'s magazine ''[[The Realist]]'' began publication, to become immensely popular during the 1960s and early 1970s among people in the [[Counterculture of the 1960s|counterculture]]; it had articles and cartoons that were savage, biting satires of politicians such as [[Lyndon Johnson]] and [[Richard Nixon]], the [[Vietnam War]], the [[Cold War]] and the [[War on Drugs]]. This baton was also carried by the original [[National Lampoon (magazine)|National Lampoon]] magazine, edited by [[Doug Kenney]] and [[Henry Beard]] and featuring blistering satire written by [[Michael O'Donoghue]], [[P.J. O'Rourke]], and [[Tony Hendra]], among others.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Stein|first=Nathaniel|date=2013-07-01|title=Funny Pages: How the National Lampoon made American Humor|language=en|work=The Daily Beast|url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/07/01/funny-pages-how-the-national-lampoon-made-american-humor|access-date=2020-07-22}}</ref> Prominent satiric stand-up comedian [[George Carlin]] acknowledged the influence ''The Realist'' had in his 1970s conversion to a satiric comedian.<ref name="Sullivan2010p94">Sullivan, James (2010) ''Seven Dirty Words: The Life and Crimes of George Carlin'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=y3dzVQ5wX9UC&pg=PA94 p.94]</ref><ref>[[George Carlin]] (2002) ''[http://paulkrassner.com/carlinintro.htm Introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043456/http://paulkrassner.com/carlinintro.htm |date=March 4, 2016 }}'' to ''Murder At the Conspiracy Convention''</ref>

 

A more humorous brand of satire enjoyed a renaissance in the UK in the early 1960s with the [[satire boom]], led by comedians including [[Peter Cook]], [[Alan Bennett]], [[Jonathan Miller]], and [[Dudley Moore]], whose stage show ''[[Beyond the Fringe]]'' was a hit not only in Britain, but also in the United States. Other significant influences in 1960s British satire include [[David Frost]], [[Eleanor Bron]] and the [[television program]] ''[[That Was The Week That Was]]''.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/media/2010/jun/14/david-frost-satire-documentary "David Frost's Q&A on how to be a satirist"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315134203/https://www.theguardian.com/media/2010/jun/14/david-frost-satire-documentary |date=March 15, 2017 }}. ''The Guardian'' (London). Retrieved February 2, 2015</ref>

 

 

[[File:Spitting Image Puppet of Eric Cantona (2956625432).jpg|thumb|upright|left|Puppet of Manchester United striker [[Eric Cantona]] from the British satirical puppet show ''[[Spitting Image]]'']]

 

 

[[Trey Parker]] and [[Matt Stone]]'s ''[[South Park]]'' (1997–ongoing) relies almost exclusively on satire to address issues in American culture, with episodes addressing [[With Apologies to Jesse Jackson|racism]], [[The Passion of the Jew|anti-Semitism]], [[Go God Go|militant atheism]], [[Big Gay Al's Big Gay Boat Ride|homophobia]], [[Eat, Pray, Queef|sexism]], [[Rainforest Shmainforest|environmentalism]], [[Gnomes (South Park)|corporate culture]], [[The Death Camp of Tolerance|political correctness]] and [[Red Hot Catholic Love|anti-Catholicism]], among many other issues.

 

 

[[File:Stephen Colbert by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|[[Stephen Colbert]] satirically impersonated an [[Stephen Colbert (character)|opinionated and self-righteous television commentator]] on his [[Comedy Central]] program in the U.S.]]

In Hong Kong, there was a well-known Australian [[Kim Jong-un]] [[impersonator]] [[Howard X]] whom often utilised satire to show his support for Hong Kong city's pro-democracy movements and liberation of North Korea. He believed that humour is a very powerful weapon and he often made it clear that he imitates the dictator to satirize him, not to glorify him. Throughout his career as a professional impersonator, he had also worked with multiple organisations and celebrities to create parodies and to stir up conversations of politics and human rights.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Meet Howard X, the Dictator Doppelgänger From Hong Kong |url=https://time.com/5549634/howard-x-kim-jung-un-impersonator/ |magazine=Time |publisher=Amy Gunia |date=29 March 2019 }}</ref>

 

 

[[File:2014- 02 - Obama and Putin, by Ranan Lurie.png|thumb|Political satire by [[Ranan Lurie]]]]

 

==Legal status==

 

Since satire belongs to the realm of [[art]] and artistic expression, it benefits from broader lawfulness limits than mere [[freedom of information]] of journalistic kind.<ref name="Pezzella2009p566"/> In some countries a specific "right to satire" is recognized and its limits go beyond the "right to report" of journalism and even the "right to criticize".<ref name="Pezzella2009p566"/> Satire benefits not only of the protection to [[freedom of speech]], but also to that to [[culture]], and that to scientific and artistic production.<ref name="Bevere2006p265"/><ref name="Pezzella2009p566"/>

Some critics of [[Mark Twain]] see [[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (novel)|''Huckleberry Finn'']] as [[racist]] and offensive, missing the point that its author clearly intended it to be satire (racism being in fact only one of a number of Mark Twain's known concerns attacked in ''Huckleberry Finn'').<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Leonard | first1 = James S | first2 = Thomas A | last2 = Tenney | first3 = Thadious M | last3 = Davis | title = Satire or Evasion?: Black Perspectives on Huckleberry Finn | publisher = [[Duke University Press]] |date=December 1992 | page = 224 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=fdrBtpSSCisC&q=hemingway+%22huckleberry+finn%22+%22green+hills%22&pg=RA1-PA116 | isbn = 978-0-8223-1174-4}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | first = Shelley Fisher | last = Fishin | title = Lighting out for the Territory: Reflections on Mark Twain and American Culture | place = New York | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1997}}</ref> This same misconception was suffered by the main character of the 1960s British television comedy satire ''[[Till Death Us Do Part]]''. The character of [[Alf Garnett]] (played by [[Warren Mitchell]]) was created to poke fun at the kind of narrow-minded, racist, [[little Englander]] that Garnett represented. Instead, his character became a sort of [[anti-hero]] to people who actually agreed with his views. (The same situation occurred with [[Archie Bunker]] in American TV show ''[[All in the Family]]'', a character derived directly from Garnett.{{Citation needed|date=November 2021}})

 

 

====Romantic prejudice====

==Satirical prophecy==

Satire is occasionally prophetic: the jokes precede actual events.<ref>{{Citation | author-link = Paul Krassner | first = Paul | last = Krassner | url = http://nypress.com/terminal-velocity-television-is-here/ | title = Terminal velocity television is here | journal = New York Press | volume = 16 | issue = 35 | date = August 26, 2003}}</ref><ref name="LuttazziProphetic">{{Citation | author-link = Daniele Luttazzi | first = Daniele | last = Luttazzi | title = Lepidezze postribolari | year = 2007 | publisher = Feltrinelli | page = 275 | language = it}}</ref> Among the eminent examples are:

* In the 1920s, an English [[cartoonist]] imagined a laughable thing for the time: a hotel for cars. He drew a [[multi-story car park]].<ref name="LuttazziProphetic" />

* The second episode of ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]'', which debuted in 1969, featured a ''[[Sketch comedy|sketch]]'' entitled "[[The Mouse Problem]]" (meant to satirize contemporary media exposés on homosexuality), which depicted a cultural phenomenon similar to some aspects of the modern [[furry fandom]] (which did not become widespread until the 1980s, over a decade after the sketch was first aired).

* In 1975, the first episode of ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' included an ad for a triple blade razor called the Triple-Trac; in 2001, [[Gillette (brand)|Gillette]] introduced the Mach3. In 2004, ''[[The Onion]]'' satirized [[Schick (razors)|Schick]] and Gillette's marketing of ever-increasingly multi-blade razors with a mock article proclaiming Gillette will now introduce a five-blade razor.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fuck Everything, We're Doing Five Blades|date=February 18, 2004 |url=https://www.theonion.com/fuck-everything-were-doing-five-blades-1819584036|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116162510/https://www.theonion.com/fuck-everything-were-doing-five-blades-1819584036|archive-date=November 16, 2017|access-date=October 30, 2020|publisher=The Onion}}</ref> In 2006, Gillette released the [[Gillette Fusion]], a five-blade razor.

* After the [[Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action|Iran nuclear deal]] in 2015, ''[[The Onion]]'' ran an article with the headline "U.S. Soothes Upset Netanyahu With Shipment Of Ballistic Missiles". Sure enough, reports broke the next day of the Obama administration offering military upgrades to Israel in the wake of the deal.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/1.666977 |title=Where Satire Meets Truth: Did The Onion Just Predict a Real Israeli Headline? |newspaper=Haaretz |access-date=January 1, 2016}}</ref>

* ''[[Infinite Jest]]'', published in 1996, described an alternate America following the presidency of Johnny Gentle, a celebrity who had not held prior political office. Gentle's signature policy was the erection of a wall between the United States and Canada for use as a hazardous waste dump. The US territory behind the wall was "given" to Canada, and the Canadian government was forced to pay for the wall. This appeared to parody the signature campaign promise and background of [[Donald Trump]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.pbs.org/weta/washingtonweek/blog-post/donald-trump-wants-build-wall-border-mexico-can-he-do-it |title=Donald Trump wants to build a wall on the border with Mexico. Can he do it? |newspaper=PBS |access-date=August 3, 2020}}</ref>

 

<ref name="Andries2000p10">Lise Andries ''Etat des recherche. Présentation'' in ''Dix-Huitième Siècle'' n.32, 2000, special on ''Rire'' p.10, as quoted in Jean-Michel Racault (2005) ''Voyages badins, burlesques et parodiques du XVIIIe siècle'', p.7, quotation: "Le corps grotesque dans ses modalités clasiques – la scatologie notamment – ..."</ref>

 

 

<ref name="Babcock1984">{{Citation | last = Babcock | first = Barbara A. | year = 1984 | contribution = Arrange Me Into Disorder: Fragments and Reflections on Ritual Clowning | editor-last = MacAloon | title = Rite, Drama, Festival, Spectacle}}. Also collected as {{Citation | last = Babcock | first = Barbara A Grimes | editor-last = Ronald | editor-first = L | year = 1996 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FKZMAAAAYAAJ | title = Readings in ritual studies | page = 5 | publisher = Prentice Hall | isbn = 9780023472534 | quote = Harold Rosenberg has asserted that sociology needs to bring comedy into the foreground, including "an awareness of the comedy of sociology with its disguises", and, like Burke and Duncan, he has argued that comedy provides "the radical effect of self- knowledge which the anthropological bias excludes.}}</ref>

 

 

<ref name="Bloom1979">{{Citation | first1 = Edward Alan | last1 = Bloom | first2 = Lillian D. | last2 = Bloom | year = 1979 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=i5JZAAAAMAAJ | title = Satire's persuasive voice| publisher = Cornell University Press | isbn = 9780801408397 }}.{{Rp| needed = yes|date=October 2012}}</ref>

 

 

 

<ref name="Clark73p20">{{Citation | last1 = Clark | first1 = John R | last2 = Motto | first2 = Anna Lydia | year = 1973 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=A5NZAAAAMAAJ | title = Satire–that blasted art | page = 20| publisher = Putnam | isbn = 9780399110597 }}</ref>

<ref name="Clark80p45">{{Citation | last1 = Clark | first1 = John R | last2 = Motto | first2 = Anna Lydia | year = 1980 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SnwhAQAAIAAJ | title = Menippeans & Their Satire: Concerning Monstrous Leamed Old Dogs and Hippocentaurs | journal = Scholia Satyrica | volume = 6 | issue = 3/4 | page = 45 | quote = [Chapple's book ''Soviet satire of the twenties'']... classifying the very ''topics'' his satirists satirized: housing, food, and fuel supplies, poverty, inflation, "hooliganism", public services, religion, stereotypes of nationals (the Englishman, German, &c), &c. Yet the truth of the matter is that no satirist worth his salt (Petronius, Chaucer, Rabelais, Swift, Leskov, Grass) ever avoids man's habits and living standards, or scants those delicate desiderata: religion, politics, and sex.}}</ref>

 

 

<ref name="Coppola">{{Citation | author-link = Jo Coppola | first = Jo | last = Coppola | year = 1958 | journal = [[The Realist]] | issue = 1 | title=An Angry Young Magazine ...| language=en| url=http://www.ep.tc/realist/01/02.html| quote = Good comedy is social criticism—although you might find that hard to believe if all you ever saw were some of the so-called clowns of videoland.... Comedy is dying today because criticism is on its deathbed... because telecasters, frightened by the threats and pressure of sponsors, blacklists and viewers, helped introduce conformity to this age... In such a climate, comedy cannot flourish. For comedy is, after all, a look at ourselves, not as we pretend to be when we look in the mirror of our imagination, but as we really are. Look at the comedy of any age and you will know volumes about that period and its people which neither historian nor anthropologist can tell you.}}</ref>

 

 

<ref name="Deloria69p146">{{Citation | author-link = Vine Deloria, Jr. | first = Vine | last = Deloria | year = 1969 | title = Custer Died For Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto | chapter = Indian humor | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=eeIazzLJChMC&pg=PA146 | page = 146 | quote = Irony and satire provide much keener insights into a group's collective psyche and values than do years of [conventional] research| title-link = Custer Died For Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto | publisher = University of Oklahoma Press | isbn = 9780806121291 }} as quoted in {{Citation | first = Allan J | last = Ryan | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=EwEDxskm3ycC&pg=PA9 | title = The trickster shift: humour and irony in contemporary native art | page = 9| isbn = 9780774807043 | year = 1999 | publisher = UBC Press }}</ref>

 

 

 

<ref name="Ehrenberg1962p39">{{Citation | author-link = Victor Ehrenberg (historian)| last = Ehrenberg | first = Victor | year = 1962 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=oikOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA39 | title = The people of Aristophanes: a sociology of old Attic comedy | page = 39}}</ref>

 

 

 

 

<ref name="Geisler2005p73">Geisler, Michael E. (2005) ''National Symbols, Fractured Identities: Contesting the National Narrative'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=CLVaSxt-sV0C&pg=PA73 p.73]</ref>

 

 

<ref name="Hodgart2009p39">Hodgart (2009) [https://books.google.com/books?id=dGrCooK63TsC&pg=PA39 p.39]</ref>

}}</ref>

 

 

<ref name="Pollard1970p66">{{Citation | last = Pollard | first = Arthur | year = 1970 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TccOAAAAQAAJ | title = Satire | chapter = 4. Tones | page = [https://books.google.com/books?id=TccOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA66 66]}}</ref>

<ref name="Rosenberg1960p155">{{Citation | author-link = Harold Rosenberg | first = Harold | last = Rosenberg | year = 1960 | title = Community, Values, Comedy | journal = Commentary | volume = 30 | publisher = The [[American Jewish Committee]] | page = 155 | quote = the oldest form of social study is comedy... If the comedian, from Aristophanes to Joyce, does not solve sociology's problem of "the participant observer", he does demonstrate his objectivity by capturing behavior in its most intimate aspects yet in its widest typicality. Comic irony sets whole cultures side by side in a multiple exposure (e.g., ''Don Quixote, Ulysses''), causing valuation to spring out of the recital of facts alone, in contrast to the hidden editorializing of tongue-in-cheek ideologists.}}</ref>

 

<ref name="Test1991p10">Test (1991) [https://books.google.com/books?id=QkhMi6mKmUMC&pg=PA10 p.10]</ref>

<ref name="Test1991p8">Test (1991) [https://books.google.com/books?id=QkhMi6mKmUMC&pg=PA8 pp.8–9]</ref>

 

Satire also taught lessons in democracy. It fit into the July Monarchy's tense political context as a voice in favor of public political debate. Satiric expression took place in the public sphere and spoke from a position of public opinion-that is, from a position of the nation's expressing a political voice and making claims on its government representatives and leadership. Beyond mere entertainment, satire's humor appealed to and exercised public opinion, drawing audiences into new practices of representative government.}}</ref>

 

* {{Citation |title=The Mediaeval Islamic Underworld: The Banu Sasan in Arabic Society and Literature|first= Clifford Edmund |last=Bosworth|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|year=1976|isbn=90-04-04392-6}}.

* {{cite book | contribution-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XrNEns3_yd0C | contributor-last1 = Branham | contributor-first1 = R Bracht | contributor-last2 = Kinney | contributor-first2 = Daniel | year = 1997 | contribution = Introduction| isbn = 9780520211186 | author-link = Petronius | last = Petronius | title = Satyrica | title-link = Satyrica | publisher = University of California Press }}

* {{Citation |last=Corum |first=Robert T. |year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ikGt9gkXv74C&pg=PA175 |contribution=The rhetoric of disgust and contempt in Boileau |editor1-first=Anne Lynn |editor1-last=Birberick |editor2-first=Russell |editor2-last=Ganim |title=The Shape of Change: Essays in Early Modern Literature and La Fontaine in Honor of David Lee Rubin|publisher=Rodopi | isbn=9042014490}}.

* {{Citation | last = Elliott | first = Robert C | section = The nature of satire | title = Encyclopædia Britannica | year=2004}}.

* {{Citation | author-link = Dario Fo| last = Fo | first = Dario | year = 1990 | title = Dialogo provocatorio sul comico, il tragico, la follia e la ragione | format = interview | editor-first = Luigi | editor-last = Allegri | pages = 2, 9 | language = it | url = http://www.arengario.net/poli/poli12.html | contribution = Satira e sfottò}}.

* {{Citation|last=Test|first=George Austin|year=1991|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QkhMi6mKmUMC|title=Elliott's Bind; or, What Is Satire, Anyway? ''in'' Satire: Spirit & Art|publisher=University of South Florida Press|isbn=9780813010878}}

* {{Citation|last=Wilson|first=R Rawdon|year=2002|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BxSMGjkLbyoC&pg=PA14|title=The hydra's tale: imagining disgust|publisher=University of Alberta|isbn=9780888643681}}.

 

==Further reading==

 

==External links==

 

{{Wikiquote}}

{{Commons category|Satire}}

*{{cite EB1911|author=Garnett, Richard|author-link=Richard Garnett (writer)|wstitle=Satire|volume=24|pages=228–229}}

 

{{Fiction writing}}