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| combatant2 = {{flagicon|Empire of Japan}} [[Empire of Japan|Japan]]
| commander1 = {{nowrap|{{flagdeco|United States of America|1912}} [[Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr.|Simon B. Buckner Jr.]]{{KIA}}}}<br />{{flagdeco|United States|1912}} [[Roy Geiger]]<br />{{flagdeco|United States of America|1912}} [[Chester W. Nimitz]]<br />{{nowrap|{{flagdeco|United States of America|1912}} [[Raymond A. Spruance]]}}<br />{{flagdeco|United States of America|1912}} [[William Halsey Jr.]]
<br />
{{flagdeco|United Kingdom|}} [[Sir Bernard Rawlings]]
| commander2 = {{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Mitsuru Ushijima]]{{KIA}}<br />{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Isamu Chō]]{{KIA}}<br />{{nowrap|{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Hiromichi Yahara]]{{POW}}}}<br />{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|naval}} [[Minoru Ōta]]{{KIA}}<br />{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|naval}} [[Seiichi Itō]]{{KIA}}
| units1 = ''Ground units'':<br />{{flagdeco|United States|1912}} [[Tenth United States Army|'''''Tenth Army''''']]
Line 46 ⟶ 48:
{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|naval}} '''''[[Combined Fleet]]'''''
* [[2nd Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)|2nd Fleet]]
| strength1 = {{flagdeco|United States of America|1912}} [[United States Navy]]
| strength1 = ~541,000 in Tenth Army <br />~183,000 combat troops<ref>{{harvnb|Sloan|2007|p=18}}</ref> rising to ~250,000<ref name=Keegan>{{cite book|last=Keegan|first=John|title=The Second World War|publisher=Penguin|year=2005|isbn= 978-0143195085}}</ref>{{rp|567}}▼
*7 [[fleet carrier]]s,
| strength2 = ~76,000+ Japanese soldiers<br />~40,000+ [[Ryukyuan people|Okinawan]] conscripts<ref>{{harvnb|Hastings|2008|p=370}}</ref>▼
*6 [[light carrier]]s,
| casualties1 = {{flagicon|United States|1912}} '''American personnel:'''<br />'''''Battle casualties:'''''<br />~50,000, including ~12,500 dead<ref>"The Second World Wars: How the First Global Conflict Was Fought and Won" p. 302</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/okinawa-costs-victory-last-battle#:~:text=The%20heroism%20of%20US%20Navy,to%20the%2036%20ships%20sunk. |access-date=23 June 2023 |title=Okinawa: The Costs of Victory in the Last Battle |website=The National WWII Museum|date=7 July 2022 }}</ref><br />'''Army:''' 19,929{{efn|3,672 killed in action, 16,027 wounded (of whom 995 died), 58 captured (of whom 37 died), 172 missing (of whom 14 were declared dead as of 31 December 1946).<ref>[https://cgsc.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p4013coll8/id/126/rec/9 Army Battle Casualties and Nonbattle Deaths in World War II. Final Report, 7 December 1941-31 December 1946] p. 95 Retrieved 2/1/2024</ref> The number for wounded only includes those who were hospitalized. Tenth Army's after action report lists a somewhat higher total of 22,564, including 4,549 killed or died of wounds, 18,010 wounded or injured, and 95 missing.<ref>[https://cgsc.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p4013coll8/id/598 Tenth Army After Action Report, Ryukyus, vol. 1] 9-IV-1. Retrieved 2/1/2024</ref>}}<br />'''Navy:''' 10,007 at Okinawa,{{efn|3,803 killed, 219 died of wounds, 5,985 surviving wounded.<ref>[https://ia804705.us.archive.org/11/items/HistoryOfTheMedicalDeptInWWIIV3/History%20of%20the%20Medical%20Dept%20in%20WWII%20v3.pdf History of the Medical Department in World War II, vol. III] Appendix Table 14, see "Bombing and Landing on Okinawa." Retrieved 2/1/2024</ref>}} 1,294 on USS ''Franklin''{{efn|807 killed, 487 wounded.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/infernoepiclifed0000spri/page/316/mode/2up?q=killed Springer, "Inferno: The Epic Life and Death Struggle of the USS Franklin in World War II] p. 317. Retrieved 2/1/2024</ref> Richard B. Frank points out that the Navy's Medical History excludes losses suffered on ''Franklin'' from its total for Okinawa; they are instead recorded under "Bombardment of Kyushu Island and Japan." This largely accounts for the discrepancy with the more commonly cited total of 4,907.<ref>Frank, "Downfall" p. 402</ref>}}<br />'''Marines:''' 19,460{{efn|2,846 killed, 530 died of wounds, 67 missing, presumed dead, and 16,017 wounded. Due to the methodology of casualty accounting practices in World War II, a significant number of those who died of wounds were double counted as wounded in action.<ref>[https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/V/USMC-V-M.html#fn1 Frank and Shaw, "History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II, Appendix M]. Retrieved 2/1/2024</ref>}}<br />'''''Non-battle casualties''''': 26,211 to 33,096 (all causes){{sfn|Frank|1999|p=71}}<br />'''Total casualties:''' ~76,000 to 84,000<br />'''[[Materiel]]:'''<br />375 tanks destroyed<ref>[http://cdm16635.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p16635coll14/id/56035 "Survey of Allied tank casualties in World War II"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717223049/http://cdm16635.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p16635coll14/id/56035 |date=17 July 2019 }}, Technical Memorandum ORO-T-117, Department of the Army, Washington D.C.,Table 1.</ref> <br />13 destroyers sunk<br />15 amphibious ships sunk<br />8 other ships sunk<br />386 ships damaged<br />763 aircraft lost<ref name=Keegan/>{{rp|573}}<ref name=Appleman>{{citation-attribution|1={{cite book|last1=Appleman|first1=Roy|last2=Burns|first2=James|last3=Gugeler|first3=Russel|last4=Stevens|first4=John|year=1948|title=Okinawa: The Last Battle|publisher=[[United States Army Center of Military History]]|isbn=1410222063|url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/okinawa/index.htm|access-date=14 June 2010|archive-date=8 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101108040706/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/okinawa/index.htm|url-status=dead}}}}</ref>{{rp|473}}▼
*18 [[escort carrier]]s,
*8 [[fast battleship]]s,
*10 old [[battleship]]s,
*14 [[heavy cruiser]]s,
*17 [[light cruiser]]s,
*132 [[destroyer]]s,
*45 [[destroyer escort]]s
{{flagicon|United Kingdom|naval}} [[Royal Navy]]
*5 [[fleet carrier]]s
*6 [[escort carrier]]s
*2 [[fast battleship]]s
*4 [[light cruiser]]s
*12 [[destroyer]]s
* 251 [[carrier based aircraft]]
{{flagicon|United Kingdom|naval}} [[Royal Australian Navy]]
*4 [[Destroyer]]s
{{flagicon|United Kingdom|naval}} [[Royal New Zealand Navy]]
*2 [[light Cruiser]]s
{{flagicon|United Kingdom|naval}} [[Royal Canadian Navy]]
*1 [[light Cruiser]]
<ref name=Blumberg>{{cite web|url=https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/the-forgotten-fleet/ |access-date=26 September 2024 |title=The Forgotten Fleet – Warfare History Network |website= warfarehistorynetwork.com |date=2017}}</ref>
{{flagdeco|United States of America|1912}} Ground Forces
▲
| strength2 = {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|naval}} [[Imperial Japanese Navy]]
*1 [[yamato class battleship]]
*1 [[light Cruiser]]
*8 [[destroyer]]s
* 1815 Aircraft of which 1050 Kamikaze
<ref> {{cite web|url=https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okinawa_naval_order_of_battle#/|access-date=26 September 2024 |title=Okinawa naval order of battle |website=wikipedia}} </ref> <ref name="USNIok" />
{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Imperial Japanese Army Air Service]] 850 Kamikaze Aircraft
<ref name="USNIok"> {{cite web|url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1954/may/kamikazes-and-okinawa-campaign|access-date=27 September 2024 |website=United States Naval Institute.org |title=Kamikazes and Okinawa Campaign}}</ref>
{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|army}} Ground Forces
▲
▲| casualties1 = {{flagicon|United States|1912}} '''American personnel:'''<br />'''''Battle casualties:'''''<br />~50,000, including ~12,500 dead<ref>"The Second World Wars: How the First Global Conflict Was Fought and Won" p. 302</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/okinawa-costs-victory-last-battle#:~:text=The%20heroism%20of%20US%20Navy,to%20the%2036%20ships%20sunk. |access-date=23 June 2023 |title=Okinawa: The Costs of Victory in the Last Battle |website=The National WWII Museum|date=7 July 2022 }}</ref><br />'''Army:''' 19,929{{efn|3,672 killed in action, 16,027 wounded (of whom 995 died), 58 captured (of whom 37 died), 172 missing (of whom 14 were declared dead as of 31 December 1946).<ref>[https://cgsc.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p4013coll8/id/126/rec/9 Army Battle Casualties and Nonbattle Deaths in World War II. Final Report, 7 December 1941-31 December 1946] p. 95 Retrieved 2/1/2024</ref> The number for wounded only includes those who were hospitalized. Tenth Army's after action report lists a somewhat higher total of 22,564, including 4,549 killed or died of wounds, 18,010 wounded or injured, and 95 missing.<ref>[https://cgsc.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p4013coll8/id/598 Tenth Army After Action Report, Ryukyus, vol. 1] 9-IV-1. Retrieved 2/1/2024</ref>}}<br />'''Navy:''' 10,007 at Okinawa,{{efn|3,803 killed, 219 died of wounds, 5,985 surviving wounded.<ref>[https://
<ref name=Blumberg/>
'''Total casualties:''' ~76,000 to 84,000<br />'''[[Materiel]]:'''<br />375 tanks destroyed<ref>[http://cdm16635.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p16635coll14/id/56035 "Survey of Allied tank casualties in World War II"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717223049/http://cdm16635.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p16635coll14/id/56035 |date=17 July 2019 }}, Technical Memorandum ORO-T-117, Department of the Army, Washington D.C.,Table 1.</ref> <br />13 destroyers sunk<br />15 amphibious ships sunk<br />8 other ships sunk<br />386 ships damaged<br />763 aircraft lost<ref name=Keegan/>{{rp|573}}<ref name=Appleman>{{citation-attribution|1={{cite book|last1=Appleman|first1=Roy|last2=Burns|first2=James|last3=Gugeler|first3=Russel|last4=Stevens|first4=John|year=1948|title=Okinawa: The Last Battle|publisher=[[United States Army Center of Military History]]|isbn=1410222063|url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/okinawa/index.htm|access-date=14 June 2010|archive-date=8 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101108040706/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/okinawa/index.htm|url-status=dead}}}}</ref>{{rp|473}}
| casualties2 = {{flagicon|Empire of Japan}} '''Japanese personnel:'''<br />'''''Battle & Non-battle casualties:'''''<br />94,136 soldiers and sailors dead (all causes){{efn|65,908 from outside Okinawa, 28,228 from Okinawa. Okinawa number includes civilians drafted into military units.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=iG5MAAAAMAAJ&q=65%2C908 Hirofumi Hayashi, "Okinawa-sen to minshu" (Japanese).] p. 5. Retrieved 2/1/2024</ref>}}<br />4,037 dead from ''Yamato'' task force<ref>Abe 1995, ''Tokko Yamato Kantai.''</ref><br />7,401 captured (by 30 June)<ref>Appleman p. 489</ref>{{efn|Excludes 3,339 laborers and 15 civilian combatants. By the end of November, this total increased to 16,346 across all categories.}}<br />'''Total casualties:''' ~105,000 to 110,000 <br />'''Materiel:'''<br /> [[Japanese battleship Yamato|1 battleship sunk]]<br />[[Japanese cruiser Yahagi (1942)|1 light cruiser sunk]]<br />5 destroyers sunk<br />9 other warships sunk<br />1,430 aircraft lost<ref name=Giangreco>{{cite book|last=Giangreco|first=D.|title=Hell to Pay Operation Downfall and the Invasion of Japan, 1945–47|publisher=Naval Institute Press|year=2009|isbn=978-1591143161|page=91}}</ref><br />27 tanks destroyed<br />743–1,712 artillery pieces, anti-tank guns, mortars and anti-aircraft guns lost<ref name=Appleman/>{{rp|91–92}}
| casualties3 = 40,000–150,000 civilians dead<ref name=mcg/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://nisei.hawaii.edu/object/io_1149316185200.html |title=11: Battle of Okinawa |publisher=Nisei.hawaii.edu |date=1 April 1945 |accessdate=19 July 2022 |archive-date=2 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160902212534/http://nisei.hawaii.edu/object/io_1149316185200.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{efn|Hayashi (cited above) lists, in addition to the 28,228 Okinawan military personnel
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Ryukyus}}
{{Campaignbox Pacific Ocean}}
}}
The {{nihongo|'''Battle of Okinawa'''|沖縄戦|Okinawa-sen|lead=yes}}, codenamed '''Operation Iceberg''',<ref name=Nichols>{{citation-attribution|1={{cite book|last1=Nichols|first1=Charles|last2=Shaw|first2=Henry|title=Okinawa: Victory in the Pacific|publisher=Government Printing Office|year=1955|asin=B00071UAT8|url=https://www.usmcu.edu/Portals/218/OkinawaVictoryInThePacific.pdf|access-date=18 January 2021|archive-date=24 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210324103755/https://www.usmcu.edu/Portals/218/OkinawaVictoryInThePacific.pdf|url-status=live}}}}</ref>{{rp|17}} was a major battle of the [[Pacific War]] fought on the island of [[Okinawa Island|Okinawa]] by [[United States Army]] and [[United States Marine Corps]] forces against the [[Imperial Japanese Army]].<ref>Feifer 2001 pp. xi, 99–106</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-07 |title=Okinawa: The Costs of Victory in the Last Battle |url=https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/okinawa-costs-victory-last-battle |access-date=2024-02-21 |website=The National WWII Museum {{!}} New Orleans |language=en}}</ref> The initial invasion of Okinawa on 1 April 1945 was the largest [[Amphibious warfare|amphibious assault]] in the Pacific Theater of [[World War II]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/wwii/okinawa/default.aspx |title=The United States Navy assembled an unprecedented armada in March and April 1945 |publisher=Militaryhistoryonline.com |access-date=6 May 2012 |archive-date=16 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216031340/http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/wwii/okinawa/default.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historynet.com/magazines/world_war_2/3035101.html |title=The American invasion of Okinawa was the largest amphibious invasion of all time |publisher=Historynet.com |access-date=6 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080328064555/http://www.historynet.com/magazines/world_war_2/3035101.html |archive-date=28 March 2008 }}</ref> The [[Kerama Islands]] surrounding Okinawa were preemptively captured on 26 March by the [[77th Sustainment Brigade|77th Infantry Division]]. The 82-day battle on Okinawa itself lasted from 1 April until 22 June 1945. After a long campaign of [[Leapfrogging (strategy)|island hopping]], the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] were planning to use [[Kadena Air Base]] on the
The United States created the [[Tenth United States Army|Tenth Army]], a cross-branch force consisting of the U.S. Army [[7th Infantry Division (United States)|7th]], [[27th Infantry Division (United States)|27th]], 77th and [[96th Sustainment Brigade (United States)|96th Infantry Divisions]] with the [[1st Marine Division|1st]], [[2nd Marine Division|2nd]], and [[6th Marine Division (United States)|6th Marine Divisions]], to
The battle has been referred to as the "typhoon of steel" in English, known in Japanese as "''tetsu no bōfū''".<ref name="VeteransRH/R">{{cite web |url=http://www.americanveteranscenter.org/magazine/wwiichronicles/wwii-chronicles-issue-xxxix/okinawa-the-typhoon-of-steel/ |title=Okinawa: The Typhoon of Steel |publisher=American Veterans Center |date=1 April 1945 |access-date=12 October 2013 |archive-date=3 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503001230/http://www.americanveteranscenter.org/magazine/wwiichronicles/wwii-chronicles-issue-xxxix/okinawa-the-typhoon-of-steel/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=anniversaryRH>[http://www.stripes.com/news/at-60th-anniversary-battle-of-okinawa-survivors-recall-typhoon-of-steel-1.31175 At 60th anniversary, Battle of Okinawa survivors recall 'Typhoon of Steel' – News – Stripes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200405172705/http://www.stripes.com/news/at-60th-anniversary-battle-of-okinawa-survivors-recall-typhoon-of-steel-1.31175 |date=5 April 2020 }}, Allen, David; ''Stars and Stripes''; 1 April 2005.</ref> The nicknames refer to the ferocity of the fighting, the intensity of Japanese [[Kamikaze#Final phase|''kamikaze'' attacks]] and the sheer numbers of Allied ships and armored vehicles that assaulted the island. The battle was the bloodiest and fiercest of the Pacific War, with some 50,000 Allied and around 100,000 Japanese casualties,<ref name=Huber>{{cite web|url=http://www.cgsc.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/Huber/Huber.asp#118|archive-url=https://www.webharvest.gov/peth04/20041016045157/http://www.cgsc.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/Huber/Huber.asp#118|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 October 2004|title=Japan's battle of Okinawa, April–June 1945|last=Huber|first=Thomas|date=May 1990|website=Combined Arms Research Library}}</ref><ref name=Appleman/>{{rp|473–474}} also including local [[Ryukyuan people|Okinawans]] conscripted into the Japanese Army.<ref name=mcg/> According to local authorities, at least 149,425 Okinawan people were killed, died by [[forced suicide|coerced suicide]] or went missing.<ref name=Prefecture/>
In the naval operations surrounding the battle, both sides lost considerable numbers of ships and aircraft, including the Japanese battleship {{ship|Japanese battleship|Yamato||2}}. After the battle, Okinawa provided the victorious Allies with a fleet anchorage, troop staging areas, and airfields in close proximity to Japan as they planned to invade the Japanese home islands.
==Order of battle==
Line 68 ⟶ 115:
===Allied===
In all, the US Army had over 103,000 soldiers (of these, 38,000+ were non-divisional [[artillery]], combat support and HQ troops, with another 9,000 service troops),<ref name=Rottman>{{cite book|last=Rottman|first=Gordon|year=2002|title=Okinawa 1945: The Last Battle|url=https://archive.org/details/okinawalastbattl00rott|url-access=limited|publisher= Osprey Publishing|isbn=1841765465|page=[https://archive.org/details/okinawalastbattl00rott/page/n47 39]}}</ref>{{rp|39}} over 88,000 Marines and 18,000 Navy personnel (mostly [[Seabees]] and medical personnel).<ref name=Rottman/>{{rp|40}} At the start of the Battle of Okinawa, the [[US Tenth Army]] had 182,821 personnel under its command.<ref name=Rottman/>{{rp|40}} It was planned that [[Lieutenant General (United States)|Lieutenant General]] [[Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr.]] would report to [[Vice Admiral (United States)|Vice Admiral]] [[Richmond K. Turner]] until the amphibious phase was completed, after which he would report directly to [[Admiral (United States)|Admiral]] [[Raymond A. Spruance]]. Total aircraft
The British naval contingent accompanied 251 British naval aircraft and included a [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] fleet with [[Royal Australian Navy|Australian]], [[Royal New Zealand Navy|New Zealand]] and [[Royal Canadian Navy|Canadian]] ships and personnel.<ref name="HobbsUNI">{{cite web|last1=Hobbs|first1=David|title=The Royal Navy's Pacific Strike Force|url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/navalhistory/2013-01/royal-navys-pacific-strike-force|website=US Naval Institute|date=January 2013|access-date=26 April 2018|archive-date=22 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180722131616/https://www.usni.org/magazines/navalhistory/2013-01/royal-navys-pacific-strike-force|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Japanese===
The Japanese land campaign (mainly defensive) was conducted by the 67,000-strong (77,000 according to some sources) [[regular army|regular]] [[Thirty-Second Army (Japan)|32nd Army]] and some 9,000 [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] troops at Oroku Naval Base (only a few hundred of whom had been trained and equipped for ground combat), supported by 39,000 [[Conscription|drafted]] local [[Ryukyuan people]] (including 24,000 hastily drafted [[Rear (military)|rear]] [[militia]] called ''[[Boeitai]]'' and 15,000 non-uniformed laborers). The Japanese had used ''[[kamikaze]]'' tactics since the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]], but now for the first time they became a major
The 32nd Army initially consisted of the [[9th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|9th]], [[24th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|24th]] and [[62nd Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|62nd Divisions]] and the 44th Independent Mixed Brigade. The 9th Division was moved to Taiwan before the invasion, resulting in shuffling of Japanese defensive plans. Primary resistance was to be led in the south by Lieutenant General [[Mitsuru Ushijima]], his [[chief of staff]], Lieutenant General [[Isamu Chō]] and his chief of operations, Colonel [[Hiromichi Yahara]]. Yahara advocated a defensive [[Military strategy|strategy]], whilst Chō advocated an [[Offensive (military)|offensive]] one.
Line 81 ⟶ 128:
====Japanese use of children====
[[File:Childsoldier In Okinawa.jpg|thumb|upright|Tekketsu Kinnōtai child soldiers on Okinawa]]
On Okinawa, the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] mobilized 1,780 schoolboys aged 14–17 years into [[front line]] service as an ''Iron and Blood Imperial Corps'' ({{
Among the 21 male and female secondary schools that made up these student corps, 2,000 students died on the battlefield. Even with the female students acting mainly as nurses to Japanese soldiers, they were still exposed to the harsh conditions of war.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.himeyuri.or.jp/EN/war.html|title=[Official] Himeyuri Peace Museum|website=www.himeyuri.or.jp|access-date=11 January 2023|archive-date=11 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111163642/https://www.himeyuri.or.jp/EN/war.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
Line 136 ⟶ 183:
While the 6th Marine Division cleared northern Okinawa, the US Army [[96th Sustainment Brigade (United States)|96th]] and [[7th Infantry Division (United States)|7th Infantry Divisions]] wheeled south across the narrow isthmus of Okinawa. The 96th Infantry Division began to encounter fierce resistance in west-central Okinawa from Japanese troops holding fortified positions east of Highway No. 1 and about {{convert|5|mi|km|abbr=on|0}} northwest of [[Shuri, Okinawa|Shuri]], from what came to be known as [[Cactus Ridge]].<ref name=Appleman/>{{rp|104–105}} The 7th Infantry Division encountered similarly fierce Japanese opposition from a rocky pinnacle located about {{convert|1000|yd|m|abbr=on}} southwest of Arakachi (later dubbed "[[The Pinnacle, Battle of Okinawa|The Pinnacle]]"). By the night of 8 April, American troops had cleared these and several other strongly fortified positions. They suffered over 1,500 battle casualties in the process while killing or capturing about 4,500 Japanese. Yet the battle had only begun, for it was realized that "these were merely outposts," guarding the Shuri Line.<ref name=Appleman/>{{rp|105–108}}
The next American objective was [[Kakazu Ridge]] ({{Coord|26.259|N|127.737|E|display=inline}}), two hills with a connecting saddle that formed part of Shuri's outer defenses. The Japanese had prepared their positions well and fought tenaciously. The Japanese soldiers hid in fortified caves. American forces often lost personnel before clearing the Japanese out from each cave or other hiding place. The Japanese sent out Okinawans at gunpoint
As the American assault against Kakazu Ridge stalled, Lieutenant General Ushijima—influenced by General Chō—decided to take the offensive. On the evening of 12 April, the 32nd Army attacked American positions across the entire front. The Japanese attack was heavy, sustained, and well organized. After fierce [[close combat]], the attackers retreated, only to repeat their offensive the following night. A final assault on 14 April was again repulsed. The effort led the 32nd Army's staff to conclude that the Americans were vulnerable to night [[infiltration tactics]] but that their superior firepower made any offensive Japanese troop concentrations extremely dangerous, and they reverted to their defensive strategy.<ref name=Appleman/>{{rp|130–137}}
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The [[27th Infantry Division (United States)|27th Infantry Division]], which had landed on 9 April, took over on the right, along the west coast of Okinawa. General [[John R. Hodge]] now had three divisions in the line, with the 96th in the middle and the 7th to the east, with each division holding a front of only about {{convert|1.5|mi|km|abbr=on}}. Hodge launched a new offensive on 19 April with a barrage of 324 guns, the largest ever in the [[Pacific Ocean theater of World War II|Pacific Ocean Theater]]. Battleships, cruisers, and destroyers joined the bombardment, which was followed by 650 Navy and Marine planes attacking the Japanese positions with [[napalm]], rockets, bombs, and machine guns. The Japanese defenses were sited on [[reverse slope defence|reverse slopes]], where the defenders waited out the artillery barrage and aerial attack in relative safety, emerging from the caves to rain [[Mortar (weapon)|mortar]] rounds and grenades upon the Americans advancing up the forward slope.<ref name=Appleman/>{{rp|184–194}}
A tank assault to achieve [[breakthrough (military)|breakthrough]] by [[Flanking maneuver|outflanking]] Kakazu Ridge failed to link up with its infantry support attempting to cross the ridge and therefore failed with the loss of 22 tanks (see [[:ja:嘉数の戦い]]). Although [[flame tank]]s cleared many cave defenses, there was no breakthrough, and the XXIV Corps suffered 720 casualties. The losses might have been greater except for the fact that the Japanese had practically all of their infantry reserves tied up farther south, held there by another [[feint]] off the Minatoga beaches by the 2nd Marine Division that coincided with the attack.<ref name=Appleman/>{{rp|196–207}}
At the end of April, after Army forces had pushed through the Machinato defensive line,<ref>West Point Atlas of American Wars</ref> the [[1st Marine Division (United States)|1st Marine Division]] relieved the 27th Infantry Division and the 77th Infantry Division relieved the 96th. When the 6th Marine Division arrived, the III Amphibious Corps took over the right flank and Tenth Army assumed control of the battle.<ref name=Appleman/>{{rp|265}}
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| style="background:lightpink" |* [[USS Halligan (DD-584)|USS ''Haligan'']]
| Destroyer
| Mine, 3 miles SE of [[Maye Shima]], exploded two forward magazines, bow blown off<ref>Morison, ''Victory'', pp.
| 153
| 39
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| 22 Apr 45
| style="background:lightpink" |* [[Landing Craft Support#Operations|USS ''LCS(L)-15'']]
| Landing Craft
| Air attack
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[[Category:Human shield incidents in World War II]]
[[Category:Japanese war crimes]]
[[Category:War crimes by the United States during World War II]]
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