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{{Short description|Plant oil}}
{{main|Argan}}
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}
[[Image:Plantation_arganier_Luc_Viatour.JPG|300px|right|thumb|Plantation of argans]]
{{redirect|Moroccan oil|the Israeli hair care brand|Moroccanoil}}
'''Argan oil''' is an [[Vegetable fats and oils|oil]] produced from the fruits of the [[Argan]] (''[[Argania spinosa]]'') a species of [[tree]] [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to the [[calcareous]] [[semi-desert]] of southwestern [[Morocco]]. It is the sole species in the genus ''[[Argania]]''. The Argan tree now grows only in SW Morocco .It is believed to date back 25,000,000 years and to have once covered N. Africa. Now endangered and under protection of [[UNESCO]], the Argan grows wild in semi-desert soil, its deep root system helping to protect against soil erosion and the northern advance of the Sahara[http://www.wildwoodgroves.com/morocco.htm].
{{Infobox food
| name = Argan oil
| image = Argan paste making in Morocco.jpg
| caption = Argan paste making in Morocco
| alternate_name =
| type = Plant oil
| course =
| country = [[Maghreb]]
| region =
| national_cuisine =
| creator = <!-- or | creators = -->
| year =
| mintime =
| maxtime =
| served =
| main_ingredient = Fruit of the argan tree
| minor_ingredient =
| variations =
| serving_size = 100 g
| calories =
| calories_ref =
| protein =
| fat =
| carbohydrate =
| glycemic_index =
| similar_dish =
| other =
}}
{{Infobox intangible heritage
| ICH = Argan, practices and know-how concerning the argan tree
| State Party = Morocco
| ID = 00955
| Region = AST
| Year = 2014
| Session = 9th
| List = Representative
}}
 
'''Argan oil''' is a [[Vegetable fats and oils|plant oil]] produced from the kernels of the [[argan]] tree (''[[Argania spinosa]]'' L.), which is indigenous to [[Morocco]] and southwestern [[Algeria]].<ref name="grin">{{cite web |title=''Argania spinosa'' (L.) Skeels |url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomydetail?id=3956 |publisher=GRIN Taxonomy, US Department of Agriculture |access-date=6 May 2023 |date=13 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Physicochemical Study and Composition of Argania spinosa Oil from Two Regions of Algeria| journal=Chemistry of Natural Compounds|volume=50|issue=2|pages=346–348|doi=10.1007/s10600-014-0949-1|year = 2014|last1 = Kouidri|first1 = M.|last2=Saadi|first2=A. K.|last3=Noui|first3=A.| s2cid=36309638}}</ref> In Morocco, argan oil is used to dip bread at breakfast or to drizzle on [[couscous]] or pasta. It is also used for [[Argan oil#Cosmetics|cosmetic purposes]].<ref name=Khallouki2003>{{cite journal |pmid=12548113 |year=2003 |last1=Khallouki |first1=F |last2=Younos |first2=C |last3=Soulimani |first3=R |last4=Oster |first4=T |last5=Charrouf |first5=Z |last6=Spiegelhalder |first6=B |last7=Bartsch |first7=H |last8=Owen |first8=RW |title=Consumption of argan oil (Morocco) with its unique profile of fatty acids, tocopherols, squalene, sterols and phenolic compounds should confer valuable cancer chemopreventive effects |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=67–75 |journal=European Journal of Cancer Prevention |doi=10.1097/00008469-200302000-00011 |s2cid=12350686 }}</ref><ref name="onlinelibrary.wiley.com">{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/ejlt.200700220 |title=Argan Oil: Occurrence, Composition and Impact on Human Health |date=2008 |last1=Charrouf |first1=Zoubida |last2=Guillaume |first2=Dominique |journal=European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology |volume=110 |issue=7 |pages=632|doi-access=free }}</ref>
It was first reported by the [[explorer]] [[Leo Africanus]] in 1510. An early [[specimen]] was taken to [[Amsterdam]] and then cultivated by [[Lady Beaufort]] at [[Badminton]] c1711. Now only 8600 square kilometres remain in S.W. Morocco and these are declining at a rate of 500 km² per year. Measures are being put in place to protect this rare and endangered species and in 1999 the argan was listed as a UNESCO [[Biosphere]] Heritage[http://www.wildwoodgroves.com/trees.htm]. There is an argan tree in the temperate house at Kew [http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/].
 
== Properties ==
The most labour intensive part of oil-extraction is removal of the soft pulp (used as [[animal feed]]) and the cracking by hand, between two stones, of the hard nut. The seeds are then removed and gently roasted. This roasting accounts for part of the oil's distinctive, nutty flavour. The traditional technique for oil extraction is to grind the roasted seeds to paste, with a little water, in a stone rotary [[quern]]. The paste is then squeezed between hands to extract the oil. The extracted paste is still oil-rich and is used as animal feed. Oil produced by this method will keep 3-6 months, and will be produced as needed in a family, from a store of the kernels, which will keep for 20 years unopened. Dry-pressing is now increasingly important for oil produced for sale, as the oil will keep 12-18 months and extraction is much faster.
99% of argan oil consists of [[triglycerides]] and related derivatives. These are derived from the following fatty acids:
{| class="wikitable"
! Fatty acid !! Percentage
|-
| [[Oleic acid|Oleic]] || align="right" | 42.8%
|-
| [[Linoleic acid|Linoleic]] || align="right" | 36.8%
|-
| [[Palmitic acid|Palmitic]] || align="right" | 12.0%
|-
| [[Stearic acid|Stearic]] || align="right" | 6.0%
|-
| [[alpha-Linolenic acid|Linolenic]] || align="right" | <0.5%
|}
 
Argan oil has a [[relative density]] at {{convert|20|°C|°F|lk=on}} ranging from 0.906 to 0.919.<ref name="onlinelibrary.wiley.com"/>
[[Goats]] like the pulp of argan fruits and often try to climb the trees to get at them. They will digest the pulp, but shed the undigested seeds in their [[feces]].<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://www.al-bab.com/maroc/env/argan.htm
| title=Argan: the tree of life
| accessdate=2007-01-06
}}</ref> As these have shells that are somewhat softened and easier to crack, they are occasionally used to produce oil for non-culinary purposes. An [[urban legend]] has it that all argan oil is produced this way. This myth seems to be based on the fact that occasionally, shrewd traders would have sold (and may still try to sell) such "non-food grade" argan oil to ignorant travellers or tourists. The fact that the nuts acquire a foul aroma in passing through the animal's digestive tract makes it easy to tell this oil apart from food-grade produce with its rich, [[walnut oil]]-like flavor (Nouaim 2005).
 
Argan oil also contains traces of [[tocopherol]]s (vitamin E), [[phenols]], [[carotene]]s, [[squalene]].<ref name="PMID 21054392">{{cite journal | last1 = Monfalouti | first1 = HE | last2 = Guillaume | first2 = D | last3 = Denhez | first3 = C | last4 = Charrouf | first4 = Z | date = Dec 2010 | title = Therapeutic potential of argan oil: a review | journal = J Pharm Pharmacol | volume = 62 | issue = 12| pages = 1669–75 | doi = 10.1111/j.2042-7158.2010.01190.x | pmid = 21054392 | s2cid = 43157995 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Some trace phenols in argan oil include [[caffeic acid]], [[oleuropein]], [[vanillic acid]], [[tyrosol]], [[catechol]], [[resorcinol]], (−)-[[epicatechin]] and (+)-[[catechin]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zoubida Charrouf, Dominique Guillaume|date=July 31, 2008|title=Argan oil: Occurrence, Composition and impact on human health|url=https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.200700220|journal=European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology|volume=110|issue=7|pages=632–636|doi=10.1002/ejlt.200700220|via=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>
The oil contains 80% [[unsaturated]] [[fatty acids]]:<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://www.dietobio.com/aliments/en/argan.html
| title=Argan oil
| publisher=DietOBio
| accessdate=2006-10-09
}}</ref>
 
Depending on the extraction method, argan oil may be more resistant to [[oxidation]] than [[olive oil]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Autoxydation de l'huile d'argan Argania spinosa L. du Maroc |trans-title=Autoxidation of argan oil Argania spinoza L. from Morocco |language=fr |last1=Chimi |first1=H |last2=Cillard |first2=J |last3=Cillard |first3=P |journal=Sciences des Aliments |issn=0240-8813 |year=1994 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=117–24 |url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=4124059 |access-date=2012-07-22 |archive-date=2016-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118163916/http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=4124059 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! Fatty acid !! Percentage
|-
| [[Palmitic acid|Palmitic]] || align="right" | 12.0%
|-
| [[Stearic acid|Stearic]] || align="right" | 6.0%
|-
| [[Oleic acid|Oleic]] || align="right" | 42.8%
|-
| [[Linoleic acid|Linoleic]] || align="right" | 36.8%
|-
| [[Linolenic acid|Linolenic]] || align="right" | <0.5%
|}
 
==Uses==
It is rich in essential [[fatty acid]]s and is more resistant to [[oxidation]] than [[olive oil]].
[[File:Argan Oil.jpeg|thumb|Containers of argan oil]]
=== Culinary ===
In Morocco, the oil is used for culinary purposes, e.g. dipping bread, as salad dressing or on [[couscous]].<ref name=bbc2020/> [[Amlu]], a thick brown paste with a consistency similar to peanut butter, is used locally as a bread dip. It is produced by grinding roasted almonds and argan oil together using stones, and then mixing the paste with honey.<ref>{{cite web | title = Amlou | author = Michelle Minnaar | date = 10 February 2017 | url = https://www.greedygourmet.com/recipes-by-national-cuisine/moroccan/amlou-recipe/}}</ref>
 
=== Cosmetics ===
Argan oil is used for dipping bread, on [[couscous]], [[salad]]s and similar uses. A dip for bread known as [[amlou]] is made from argan oil, [[almond]]s and [[peanuts]], sometimes sweetened by [[honey]] or sugar. The unroasted oil is traditionally used as a treatment for skin diseases, and has found favour with [[Europe]]an [[cosmetics]] manufacturers.
Since the early 2000s argan oil has been increasingly used in [[cosmetics]] and [[hair care]] preparations.<ref name="GLS" /> {{as of|2020}}, the main cosmetics products containing argan oil are [[face cream]]s, [[lip gloss|lip glosses]], shampoos, [[moisturizer]]s, and soaps.<ref name=bbc2020/>
 
== Extraction ==
Argan oil is sold in Morocco, sometimes to tourists as a £10 per 250 ml luxury item (although difficult to find outside the region of production), sometimes in ordinary shops and supermarkets for £10 per litre, and is of increasing interest to [[cosmetics]] companies in Europe. It was very difficult to buy the oil outside Morocco, but in 2001-2002 argan oil suddenly became a fashionable food in [[Europe]] and [[North America]]. It is now widely available in specialist shops and, sometimes, in [[supermarket]]s. Its price ([[United States Dollar|$]]20-30 for 250 ml) reflects its status as a fashionable [[superfood]], but a little argan oil goes a long way.
[[File:Argane oil production.jpg|thumb|The production of argan oil by traditional methods]]
 
The argan nut contains one to three oil-rich argan kernels. [[Extract|Extraction]] yields from 30% to 50% of the oil in the kernels, depending on the method.<ref name=Skeels1999>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0378-8741(98)00228-1 |title=Ethnoeconomical, ethnomedical, and phytochemical study of Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels |year=1999 |last1=Charrouf |first1=Zoubida |last2=Guillaume |first2=Dominique |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |volume=67 |pages=7–14 |pmid=10616955 |issue=1 }}</ref> It takes about {{convert|40|kg}} of dried argan fruit to produce only one litre of oil.<ref name=bbc2020/>
<gallery>
Image:Maroc_Essaouira_argane_oil_Luc_Viatour_1.JPG
Image:Maroc_Essaouira_argane_oil_Luc_Viatour_2.JPG
Image:Maroc_Essaouira_argane_oil_Luc_Viatour_3.JPG
</gallery>
Artisanal manufacture of argan oil
 
Extraction is key to the production process. To extract the kernels, workers first dry argan fruit in the open air and then remove the fleshy pulp.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Minor oil crops - Individual monographs (Argan-Avocado-Babassu palm) |url=https://www.fao.org/3/x5043e/x5043E04.htm |access-date=2022-05-24 |website=www.fao.org}}</ref> Some producers remove the flesh mechanically without drying the fruit. Moroccans usually use the flesh as animal feed. A tradition in some areas of Morocco allows goats to climb argan trees to feed freely on the fruits. The kernels are then later retrieved from the goat droppings, considerably reducing the labour involved in extraction at the expense of some potential gustatory aversion.<ref>Fortean Times issue 353 May 2017 pages 6 & 7 with photograph</ref> In modern practice, the peels are removed by hand.<ref>{{cite web |website=[[Public Radio International]] |title=Is your beauty oil made from goat turds? Not anymore |date=March 30, 2010 |url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2010-03-30/your-beauty-oil-made-goat-turds-not-anymore}}</ref>
==References==
{{reflist}}
 
Workers gently roast kernels they will use to make culinary argan oil. After the argan kernels cool, workers grind and press them. The brown-coloured mash expels pure, unfiltered argan oil. Finally, they decant unfiltered argan oil into vessels. The remaining press cake is protein-rich and frequently used as cattle feed.<ref name=Skeels1999 />
==General references==
 
*{{cite book | author=Rachida Nouaim | year=2005 | title=L'arganier au Maroc: entre mythes et réalités. Une civilisation née d'un arbreune espèce fruitière-forestière à usages multiples | location=Paris | publisher=L'Harmattan | id=ISBN 2-7475-8453-4}}
==Production==
* Arganoils [http://www.arganoils.com Properties of Argan Oil], [http://www.arganoils.com/epp.html The Uses of Argain Oil], [http://www.arganoils.com/epp.html Bab El Oued D’argan Morocco]- Argan Oil production facility. [http://www.arganoils.com/epp.html ''Argania Spinosa''] Argan Trees. [http://www.wildwoodgroves.com/recipes.htm Recipes] using Argan Oil, including recipes from Anthony Worral Thompson and Providores Restaurant.
[[File:Plantation arganier Luc Viatour.JPG|thumb|Plantation of argans]]
 
After the first sales in the US of the cosmetic product in 2003, demand soared and production increased. In 2012 the [[Moroccan government]] planned for increased production, then around 2,500 tonnes, to 4,000 tonnes by 2020.<ref name="GLS" />
 
It was found that stocks of argan oil were being diluted with oils such as sunflower, as the extraction process for pure argan oil can be difficult, and is costly. In 2012, the Moroccan government started to randomly pull argan shipments and test for purity before exporting.<ref name="GLS" />
 
By 2020, production had greatly increased, especially after studies had suggested health benefits. Almost all of the oil is sourced in Morocco, and is forecast to reach 19,623 US tons (17,802 tonnes) in 2022, up from 4,836 (4387 tonnes) in 2014; in value terms, {{US$|1.79}} billion (£1.4&nbsp;billion).<ref name=bbc2020>{{cite web | last=Rosengren | first=Izabella | title=The women who make argan oil want better pay | website=BBC News | date=6 February 2020 | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-51370010 | access-date=7 February 2020}}</ref>
 
The area of producing the oil is expanding: in 2020 it had started near the city of [[Agadir]], {{convert|175|km}} south of the traditional argan-producing area of [[Essaouira]], and is due to expand north.<ref name=bbc2020/>
 
{{convert|40|kg}} of dried argan fruit produces only one litre of oil. Mechanically extracted oil production has started, with the industrial scale driving down prices, impacting the small co-operatives, where work is mostly done by [[Berbers|Berber]] women in the traditional, labour-intensive way. Mechanically produced oil can cost as little as {{US$|22}} a litre, less than half the cost of oil made by the cooperatives. This can have a great social impact. However, the huge cosmetics company [[L'Oréal]] has pledged to source all of its argan oil from the small co-operatives that sign up to the principles of [[fair trade]].<ref name=bbc2020/>
 
== Effects ==
=== Environmental ===
The argan tree provides food, shelter and protection from [[desertification]]. The trees' deep roots help prevent desert encroachment. The canopy of argan trees also provides shade for other agricultural products, and the leaves and fruit provide feed for animals.<ref name="onlinelibrary.wiley.com" />
 
The argan tree also helps landscape stability, helping to prevent soil erosion, providing shade for pasture grasses, and helping to replenish aquifers.<ref>{{Cite web | title = Biodiversity links to cultural identity in southwest Morocco: The situation, the problems and proposed solutions | author1=Y. Moussouris |author2=A. Pierce | website = Arid Lands Newsletter No. 48, November/December 2000 | url = http://ag.arizona.edu/oals/ALN/aln48/moussouris&pierce.html}}</ref>
 
Producing argan oil has helped to protect argan trees from being cut down. In addition, regeneration of the Arganeraie has also been carried out: in 2009 an operation to plant 4,300 argan plants was launched in Meskala in the province of [[Essaouira]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Lancement d'une opération de reboisement de 13 hectares d'arganier à Essaouira | url = http://www.marocagriculture.com/lancement-dune-operation-de-reboisement-de-13-hectares-darganier-a-essaouira.html | access-date = 2012-07-23 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160816143847/http://www.marocagriculture.com/lancement-dune-operation-de-reboisement-de-13-hectares-darganier-a-essaouira.html | archive-date = 2016-08-16 | url-status = dead }}</ref>
 
The Réseau des Associations de la Réserve de Biosphère Arganeraie (Network of Associations of the Argan Biosphere Reserve, RARBA) was founded in 2002 with the aim of ensuring sustainable development in the Arganeraie.<ref>{{cite web | title = Réseau des Associations de la Réserve de Biosphère Arganeraie RARBA | url = http://www.remess.ma/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=64:rarba-chef-de-fil&catid=39:pole-sud&Itemid=68 | access-date = 2012-07-23 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160914103325/http://www.remess.ma/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=64:rarba-chef-de-fil&catid=39:pole-sud&Itemid=68 | archive-date = 2016-09-14 }}</ref>
 
RARBA has been involved with several major projects, including the Moroccan national anti[[desertification]] programme (Programme National de Lutte contre la desertification, PAN/LCD). The project involved local populations and helped with improvements to basic infrastructure, management of natural resources, revenue-generating activities (including argan oil production), capacity reinforcement, and others.<ref>{{cite web |title=Projet 1: Programme National de Lutte contre la desertification (PAN/LCD) en partenariat avec la coopération technique Allemande (GTZ) |url=http://www.remess.ma/Docs/Projet%20RARBA/projet1.pdf |access-date=2012-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101214101143/http://www.remess.ma/Docs/Projet%20RARBA/projet1.pdf |archive-date=2010-12-14 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
 
=== Social ===
The production of argan oil has always had a socioeconomic function. At present, its production supports about 2.2 million people in the main argan oil–producing region, the Arganeraie.<ref name=GLS>{{cite news | title = The trees of life. Should hairdressers be promoting argan oil? | author = L. Siegle | newspaper = The Observer | date = February 12, 2012 | url = https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/feb/12/lucy-siegle-argan-oil-hairdresers}}</ref>
 
Much of the argan oil produced today is made by a number of women's [[co-operatives]]. Co-sponsored by the Social Development Agency with the support of the European Union, the UCFA ([[Union des Cooperatives des Femmes de l’Arganeraie]]) is the largest union of argan oil co-operatives in Morocco. It comprises 22 co-operatives that are found in other parts of the region.<ref>{{cite web | title = L'UCFA | url = http://www.cooperative-argane.com/ucfa/ | access-date = 2012-07-23 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170115175725/http://www.cooperative-argane.com/ucfa/ | archive-date = 2017-01-15 }}</ref>
 
{{As of|2020|post=,}} there were around 300 small firms, mostly co-operatives, in the area about {{convert|25|km}} inland from [[Essaouira]], on the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coast. The women who harvest the seeds are mostly of the [[Berbers|Berber]] ethnic group, with traditional skills dating from generations ago.<ref name=bbc2020/>
 
The success of the argan co-operatives has also encouraged other producers of agricultural products to adopt the co-operative model.<ref>{{cite news | title = Argan oil helps Moroccan women become breadwinners | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-16460127 | work = BBC News}}</ref> The establishment of the co-operatives has been aided by support from within Morocco, notably the Foundation Mohamed VI pour la Recherche et la Sauvegarde de l’Arganier (Mohammed VI Foundation for Research and Protection of the Argan Tree),<ref>{{cite web|title=La Fondation Mohamed VI pour la recherche et la sauvegarde de l'arganier tient sa première assemblée générale à Essaouira |url=http://www.tanmia.ma/article.php3?id_article=1862&lang=fr |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051029162119/http://www.tanmia.ma/article.php3?id_article=1862 |archive-date=2005-10-29 }}</ref> and from international organisations, including Canada's International Development Research Centre and the [[European Commission]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}
 
However, despite many working a very long day, the women usually make less than {{US$|221}} (£170&nbsp;stg) a month (and even as low as {{US$|50}}), which is below Morocco's recommended national minimum wage. Zoubida Charrouf, a chemistry professor at [[Mohammed V University]] of [[Rabat]] is an advocate for higher salaries, as well as the author of studies into its health benefits. She says that some companies pay drivers to bring tourists to their facilities, to sell them the oil, rather than pay their workers properly. Morocco's minister of agriculture has asked for Charrouf's help in forcing firms to join trade bodies and commit to paying staff the minimum wage.<ref name=bbc2020/>
 
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
 
== External links ==
* {{Commonscat-inline|Argan oil}}
* {{unimelb|Argania.html}}
 
{{fatsandoilsFatsandoils}}
{{Authority control}}
 
[[Category:Cooking oils]]
[[Category:VegetableCosmetics oilschemicals]]
[[Category:MoroccanNut cuisineoils]]
 
[[de:Arganöl]]
[[fr:Huile d'argan]]
[[pl:Olej arganowy]]
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