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[[Image:Korean Confucianism-Chugyedaeje-01.jpg|thumb|230px|''Chugyedaeje'', a Confucian ritual ceremony in autumn in [[Jeju-do|Jeju]], [[South Korea]]]]
{{Confucianism}}
'''Korean Confucianism''' is the form of [[Confucianism]] that emerged and developed in [[Korea]]. One of the most substantial influences in Korean [[intellectual history]] was the introduction of [[Confucius|Confucian]] thought as part of the [[Chinese culture|cultural influence]] from [[China]].
Today the legacy of Confucianism remains a fundamental part of Korean society, shaping the moral system, the way of life, social relations between old and young, high culture, and is the basis for much of the legal system. Confucianism in Korea is sometimes considered a pragmatic way of holding a nation together without the civil wars and internal dissent that were inherited from the [[Goryeo]] dynasty.
==Origins of Confucian thought==
[[Confucius]] (孔夫子 ''Kǒng Fūzǐ'', lit. "Master Kong") is generally thought to have been born in 551
Under the succeeding Han dynasty and [[Tang dynasty]], Confucian ideas gained even more widespread prominence. During the [[Song dynasty]], the scholar [[Zhu Xi]] (AD 1130–1200) added ideas from [[Taoism]] and [[Buddhism]] into Confucianism. In his life Zhu Xi was largely ignored, but not long after his death his ideas became the new orthodox view of what Confucian texts actually meant. Modern historians view Zhu Xi as having created something rather different, and call his way of thinking [[Neo-Confucianism]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Dimensions of Asian Spirituality: Korean Spirituality|last=Baker|first=Donald|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|date=
==Early developments towards Confucianism in Korea==
===Before Goryeo===
[[File:Basket from Lo-lang.jpg|thumb|The "Painted Basket"]]
Confucianism can first be traced to the splitting of Korea into separate states, after which the development of the Korean writing system marked the period in which Confucianism began to be studied and endorsed by the higher classes. Additionally, artifacts that depict Confucian ideals, such as the famous "Painted Basket" and a roof tile imprinted with a Confucian institution's symbols, have been found in the [[Lelang Commandery]] (located in the modern day city of Pyongyang). These artifacts reflect the influence of Han Chinese and the prevalence of Confucianism among foreigners in Korea, rather than Koreans themselves.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Key P. |last2=Henderson |first2=Gregory |date=November 1958 |title=An Outline History of Korean Confucianism: Part I: The Early Period and Yi Factionalism |url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/journal-of-asian-studies/article/18/1/81/322925 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=81–101 |doi=10.2307/2941288 |jstor=2941288 |issn=0021-9118}}</ref>
As the Three Kingdoms Period emerged from the Four Commanderies, each Kingdom sought ideologies under which their populations could be consolidated and authority could be validated.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Traditional Korea a Cultural History|last=Joe|first=Wanne J.|publisher=Chung'ang University Press|date=June 1972|location=Seoul, Korea|pages=46–86}}</ref> From its introduction to the kingdom of [[Baekje]] in 338 AD, [[Korean Buddhism]] spread rapidly to all of the states of the Three Kingdoms Period.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Traditional Korea A Cultural History|last=Joe|first=Wanne J.|publisher=Chung'ang University Press|date=June 1972|location=Seoul, Korea|pages=112–127}}</ref> Though [[Korean Shamanism]] had been an integral part of Korean culture extending back to earliest time, Buddhism was able to strike a balance between the people and their administration by arbitrating the responsibilities of one to the other.▼
▲As the Three Kingdoms Period emerged from the Four Commanderies, each Kingdom sought ideologies under which their populations could be consolidated and authority could be validated.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Traditional Korea a Cultural History|last=Joe|first=Wanne J.|publisher=Chung'ang University Press|date=June 1972|location=Seoul, Korea|pages=46–86}}</ref> From its introduction to the kingdom of [[Baekje]] in 338 AD, [[Korean Buddhism]] spread rapidly to all of the states of the Three Kingdoms Period.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Traditional Korea A Cultural History|last=Joe|first=Wanne J.|publisher=Chung'ang University Press|date=
===Goryeo period===
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[[File:Cho Kwang-jo in 1750.jpg|150px|thumb|Portrait of Jo Gwang-jo]]
By the time of [[Sejong the Great|King Sejong]] (ruled 1418–1450), all branches of learning were rooted in Confucian thought. Korean Confucian schools were firmly established, most with foreign educated scholars, large libraries, patronage of artisans and artists, and a curriculum of 13 to 15 major Confucian works. Branches of [[Buddhism in Korea]] were still tolerated outside of the major political centers. In Ming China (1368–1644), [[Neo-Confucianism]] had been adopted as the state ideology. The new [[Joseon]] Dynasty (1392–1910)<ref name="Baker53" /> followed suit and also adopted Neo-Confucianism as the primary belief system among scholars and administrators. [[Jo Gwangjo]]'s efforts to promulgate Neo-Confucianism among the populace had been followed by the rise of Korea's two most prominent Confucian scholars, [[Yi Hwang]] (1501–1570) and [[Yi I]] (1536–1584), who are often referred to by their pen names ''Toe gye'' and ''Yul gok''. Korean Neo-Confucianist organizations typically did not believe in a [[god]] or [[Deity|gods]], an [[afterlife]], or an eternal [[soul]].<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Seth |first=Michael J. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/1110485163 |title=Korea: A Very Short Introduction |date=2020
Having supplanted all other models for the Korean nation-state, by the start of the 17th century, Neo-Confucian thought experienced first a split between Westerners and Easterners and again, between Southerners and Northerners. Central to these divisions was the question of succession in the Korean monarchy and the manner in which opposing factions should be dealt.
A growing number of Neo-Confucian scholars had also begun to question particular metaphysical beliefs and practices. A movement known as [[Silhak]] (lit. "practical learning") posited that Neo-Confucian thought ought be founded more in reform than in maintaining the status quo. Differences among various Confucian and Neo-Confucian schools of thought grew to conflicts as Western countries sought to force open Korean, Chinese and Japanese societies to Western trade, Western technologies and Western institutions. Of particular concern were the growing number of Catholic and Protestant missionary schools which not only taught a Western pedagogy but also Christian religious beliefs. In 1894, Korean Conservatives, nationalists and Neo-Confucians rebelled at what they viewed as the loss of Korean Society and Culture to alien influences by the abandonment of the Chinese classics and Confucian rites.<ref name=":1" />
The [[Donghak Peasant Revolution|Donghak Rebellion]]—also called the 1894 Peasant War (Nongmin Jeonjaeng)—expanded on the actions of the small groups of the Donghak (lit. Eastern Learning) movement begun in 1892. Uniting into a single peasant guerrilla army (Donghak Peasant Army) the rebels armed themselves, raided government offices and killed rich landlords, traders and foreigners. The defeat of the Dong Hak rebels drove ardent Neo-Confucians out of the cities and into the rural and isolated areas of the country. However, the rebellion had pulled China into the conflict and in direct contention with Japan ([[First Sino-Japanese War]]). With the subsequent defeat of Qing China, Korea was wrested from Chinese influence concerning its administration and development. In 1904, the Japanese defeated Russia ([[Russo-Japanese War]]) ending Russian influence in Korea as well. As a result, Japan annexed Korea as a protectorate in 1910, ending the Joseon kingdom and producing a thirty-year occupation ([[Korea under Japanese rule]]) which sought to substitute Japanese culture for that of Korea. During this period, a Japanese administration imposed Japanese language, Japanese education, Japanese practices and even Japanese surnames on the Korean population predominantly in the large cities and surrounding suburban areas.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Traditional Korea a Cultural History|last=Joe|first=Wanne J.|publisher=Chung'ang University Press|date=June 1972|location=Seoul, Korea|pages=356–378}}</ref>
However, secret Confucian practice and organization still took place, and later took form as the ''Union of Confucian Associations'' in 1945–shortly after the Japanese influence was gone.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Myonggu |first1=Yi |last2=William |first2=Douglas A. |date=Spring–Summer 1967 |title=Korean Confucianism Today |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2754621 |journal=Public Affairs |volume=40 |issue=1/2 |pages=43–59 |jstor=2754621 }}</ref> The organization was founded with the goal to eradicate and prevent further colonialist influence, and also update the once ''Myeongnyun Institute'' into the larger ''[[Sungkyunkwan University|Seong Gyun-gwan College]].'' The update was funded by the offerings given to the ''[[hyanggyo]]'' shrines, but fundings for the ''Union of Confucian Associations''–later transformed into a new Confucian Association, or ''Yohoe'', the following March–came from either membership dues or income from the land of the ''hyanggyo''. All the collected money was then to be split 30/20/50; 30% was to go to the local chapter, 20% to the provincial chapter, and then 50% to the Association.<ref name=":5" /> Unfortunately, after the ravaging of factionalism and struggle swept throughout the country after 1945, many local chapters refused to contribute, which further fueled the battle in maintaining Confucianism with the Association. As it was, there was an estimate of 150,000 members in the Association of South Korea's then population of 26 million. In comparison, Buddhism had over 5,000 monks and roughly 3,500,000 people that actively practiced the religion within South Korea alone.<ref name=":5" />
▲Having supplanted all other models for the Korean nation-state, by the start of the 17th century, Neo-Confucian thought experienced first a split between Westerners and Easterners and again, between Southerners and Northerners. Central to these divisions was the question of succession in the Korean monarchy and the manner in which opposing factions should be dealt.
After the land reform by the [[Syngman Rhee|Rhee government]] in 1949, the Association began losing another significant amount of money as the land previously owned by the ''hyanggyo'' began to dwindle.<ref name=":5" /> The once vast land amounts that the ''hyanggyo'' owned in the [[Yi dynasty]] were forced to be ceded to the government for farmland distribution, or given up for education establishments. Slowly, the local chapters no longer had as much income to fund the upkeep for the ''hyanggyo'' shrines or the activities that occurred throughout the Association.
▲A growing number of Neo-Confucian scholars had also begun to question particular metaphysical beliefs and practices. A movement known as [[Silhak]] (lit. "practical learning") posited that Neo-Confucian thought ought be founded more in reform than in maintaining the status quo. Differences among various Confucian and Neo-Confucian schools of thought grew to conflicts as Western countries sought to force open Korean, Chinese and Japanese societies to Western trade, Western technologies and Western institutions. Of particular concern were the growing number of Catholic and Protestant missionary schools which not only taught a Western pedagogy but also Christian religious beliefs. In 1894, Korean Conservatives, nationalists and Neo-Confucians rebelled at what they viewed as the loss of Korean Society and Culture to alien influences by the abandonment of the Chinese classics and Confucian rites.<ref name=":1" />
But the Association was also struggling with the problem their rapidly aging followers posed. With the decline in popularity, according to a questionnaire conducted in 1963, the average Confucian followers per local chapter were in their forties. In contrast, the average age of the local chairmen was 63, and there were very few followers in their thirties or twenties.<ref name=":5" /> In conjunction, a misconception was arising in Soul at the time that only aristocratic ''[[yangban]]'' families were able to join and follow Confucianism. This was presumably due to the two local chapters–located on remote Korean islands–that had established that only descendents of Confucius were able to join. This was quickly diffused, however, as it contradicts Confucius' own outlook on the hereditary ruling class.
▲The [[Donghak Peasant Revolution|Donghak Rebellion]]—also called the 1894 Peasant War (Nongmin Jeonjaeng)—expanded on the actions of the small groups of the Donghak (lit. Eastern Learning) movement begun in 1892. Uniting into a single peasant guerrilla army (Donghak Peasant Army) the rebels armed themselves, raided government offices and killed rich landlords, traders and foreigners. The defeat of the Dong Hak rebels drove ardent Neo-Confucians out of the cities and into the rural and isolated areas of the country. However, the rebellion had pulled China into the conflict and in direct contention with Japan ([[First Sino-Japanese War]]). With the subsequent defeat of Qing China, Korea was wrested from Chinese influence concerning its administration and development. In 1904, the Japanese defeated Russia ([[Russo-Japanese War]]) ending Russian influence in Korea as well. As a result, Japan annexed Korea as a protectorate in 1910, ending the Joseon kingdom and producing a thirty-year occupation ([[Korea under Japanese rule]]) which sought to substitute Japanese culture for that of Korea. During this period, a Japanese administration imposed Japanese language, Japanese education, Japanese practices and even Japanese surnames on the Korean population predominantly in the large cities and surrounding suburban areas.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Traditional Korea a Cultural History|last=Joe|first=Wanne J.|publisher=Chung'ang University Press|date=June 1972|location=Seoul, Korea|pages=356–378}}</ref> However, in the isolated areas of Korea, and well into Manchuria, Korean nationals continued to wage a guerrilla war against the Japanese and found sympathy for Neo-Confucian goals of reform and economic parity among the growing Communist movement. With the end of the Japanese occupation, Confucian and Neo-Confucian thought continued to experience neglect if not willful repression during the [[Korean War]] as well as the repressive dictatorships which followed.<ref name=":2" />
==Contemporary society and Confucianism==
With the fall of the Joseon Dynasty in 1910, Neo-Confucianism lost much of its influence.<ref name="Baker53">Baker, Don. ''Korean Spirituality'' (University of
The traditional Confucian respect for education remains a vital part of South Korean culture.<ref name="BakerU4">Baker, Donald.
Perhaps some of the strongest evidences of continuing Confucian influence can be found in South Korean family life. It is seen not just in South
In 1980, the
In more recent years, there has been a move away from the traditional Confucian idea of complete respect for and submission to parental authority. It can be seen in how marriage has become less of a family decision, and more of an
The Confucian emphasis on the importance of the family and the group over the individual has been extended to South Korean business, as well. Employees are expected to regard the workplace as a family, with the head of the company as the patriarch who enjoys exclusive privileges while the workers are expected to work harder. The businesses tend to operate on Confucian ethics, such as the importance of harmonious relations among the employees and loyalty to the company. Importance is placed on attributes such as differences in age, kinship status, sex, and sociopolitical status.<ref>Kim, Kwang-ok.
Confucian ethical rhetoric is still used in contemporary South Korea. Other religions will incorporate it into discussions on proper human behavior. It can be found in the government and in the business world being used to encourage people to put the needs of the group above their own individual needs.<ref name="Baker53"/><ref name="Kim44"/><ref>Baker, Donald.
Neo-Confucian philosophy going back to the 15th Century had relegated Korean women to little more than extensions of male dominance and producers of requisite progeny.{{Citation needed|date=March 2015}} This traditional view of the social role of women is fading away.<ref name="BakerU4"/> There is an increasing number of women students holding good positions in universities and the work force, as well as in politics.<ref>Baker, Donald.
The arts still maintain major traditions: [[Korean Pottery]], the [[Korean Tea Ceremony]], [[Korean Gardens]], and [[Korean flower arrangement]] follow Confucian principles and a Confucian aesthetic. Scholarly calligraphy and poetry also continue, in much fewer numbers, this heritage. In films, [[school stories]] of manners and comic situations within educational frames fit well into the satires on Confucianism from earlier writings. Loyalty to school and devotion to teachers is still an important genre in popular comedies.
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In 2006, roughly 1.2% of the South Korean population were Confucian.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Desk Encyclopedia of World History |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7394-7809-7 |editor-last=Wright |editor-first=Edmund |location=New York |pages=356}}</ref>
It is difficult to find accurate information regarding Confucianism in North Korean religion or practices.<ref name=":2">Baker, Don. ''Korean Spirituality'' (University of
=== Women's rights ===
{{See also|History of women in Korea|Women in North Korea|Women in South Korea}}
Traditionally women in Korea were given the role of housewife due to Confucian gender roles. Meaning women were not allowed to work outside the house. This started to change and by 2001 the women's participation in the workforce was at 49.7 percent compared to only 34.4 percent in the 1960s.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Sung |first1=Sirin |title=Women Reconciling Paid and Unpaid Work in a Confucian Welfare State: The Case of South Korea |journal=Social Policy and Administration |date=August 2003 |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=342–360 |doi=10.1111/1467-9515.00344 }}</ref> In 1987 equal opportunity legislation was introduced and been improved by reforms since then to improve the rights of working women.<ref name=":3" /> As Korean feminist organizations gained more influence the government listened, and in 2000 established the Department of Gender Equality to allow women to participate in making policy.<ref name=":3" /> Even though women are gaining by working right, it has not fully changed the roles when at the house. Working women are still expected to be the primary domestic worker in the family.<ref name=":3" /> However, these changes have given women in south Korea more of an option between being a housewife or working outside of the house.
The women who have chosen to work due to the changes in government and legislation had and still have major challenges to face in the workforce. Major companies in South Korea began to change their hiring practices such as Samsung which was one of the first major companies to do so. In 1997 Samsung removed gender discrimination in recruitment and by 2012 had hired 56,000 women employees.<ref name=":4">{{cite news |last1=Lee |first1=B. J. |title=Samsung's Female Executives Shatter South Korea's Glass Ceiling |url=https://www.newsweek.com/samsungs-female-executives-shatter-south-koreas-glass-ceiling-65613 |work=Newsweek |date=30 July 2012 }}</ref> However, before 1997 some women did manage to work at Samsung, and there was discrimination in the patriarchally-ran company. Most of the jobs of the woman who worked at Samsung were low-level workers. When the company tried to offer higher positions to women, many of the top male executives took advantage of the women and gave them menial chores,<ref name=":4" /> not unlike how some husbands may expect of their wives at home. However, this all began to change in 1994 when an open personnel reform from
==Korean Confucian art==
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==See also==
* [[Article 809 of the Korean Civil Code]]
* [[Culture of Korea|Korean culture]]
* [[Korean philosophy]]
* [[Korean Taoism]]
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==Further reading==
* ''Handbook of Korea''; Korean Overseas Information Service, 2003
* Lee, Ki-baik; ''A New History of Korea''; Harvard University Press,1984;
* Lee, Ki-baik; ''A New History of Korea''; Harvard University Press,1984;
* MacArthur, Meher; ''Confucius: A Throneless King''; Pegasus Books, 2011;
* Kimm, He-young; ''Philosophy of Masters''; Andrew Jackson College Press, 2001;
* Palais, James B.; ''Confucian Statecraft and Korean Institutions''; University of Washington Press, 1995
==External links==
{{Commons category|Confucianism in Korea|Korean Confucianism}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050624084230/http://www.hm.tyg.jp/~acmuller/jeong-gihwa/ Introduction and translation of Jeong and Gihwa's texts]
{{Philosophy topics}}
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[[Category:Korean Confucianism| ]]
[[Category:Religion in Korea]]
[[Category:Scholastic Confucianism
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