Plastic pollution: Difference between revisions

'''Plastic pollution''' is the accumulation of [[plastic]] objects and particles (e.g. plastic bottles, bags and [[microbead]]s) in the Earth's environment that adversely affects humans, wildlife and their habitat.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1589019/plastic-pollution |title=Plastic pollution |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=1 August 2013}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/06/plastic-planet-waste-pollution-trash-crisis |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516224226/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/06/plastic-planet-waste-pollution-trash-crisis/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 May 2018 |title=We Depend on Plastic. Now We're Drowning in It. |author=Laura Parker |date=June 2018 |website=[[NationalGeographic.com]] |access-date=25 June 2018}}</ref> Plastics that act as [[pollutant]]s are categorized by size into micro-, meso-, or macro debris.<ref name="plastics in marine environment">{{Cite book |last1=Hammer|first1=J|last2=Kraak|first2=MH|last3=Parsons|first3=JR|title=Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology|chapter=Plastics in the Marine Environment: The Dark Side of a Modern Gift|date=2012|volume=220|pages=1–44|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-3414-6_1|pmid=22610295|isbn=978-1461434139|s2cid=5842747}}</ref> Plastics are inexpensive and durable, making them very adaptable for different uses; as a result, manufacturers choose to use plastic over other materials.<ref>Hester, Ronald E.; Harrison, R. M. (editors) (2011). [https://books.google.com/books?id=TCfYfIDymd8C&pg=PA84 Marine Pollution and Human Health]. Royal Society of Chemistry. pp. 84–85. {{ISBN|184973240X}}</ref> However, the chemical structure of most plastics renders them resistant to many natural processes of [[environmental degradation|degradation]] and as a result they are slow to degrade.<ref name="Plastic Pollution">{{cite web |title=When The Mermaids Cry: The Great Plastic Tide|last1=Le Guern|first1=Claire|date=March 2018|website=Coastal Care|url=https://coastalcare.org/2020/01/plastic-pollution-when-the-mermaids-cry-the-great-plastic-tide-by-claire-le-guern/ }}</ref> Together, these two factors allow large volumes of plastic to enter the environment as mismanaged [[waste]] which persists in the [[ecosystem]] and travels throughout [[Food web|food webs]].<ref name="Worm"/><ref name="Ong"/>

Plastic pollution can afflict [[land]], [[Waterway|waterways]] and [[Ocean|oceans]]. It is estimated that 1.1 to 8.8 ''&nbsp;''million tonnes of plastic waste enters the ocean from coastal communities each year.<ref name="Science2015">{{Cite journal|last1=Jambeck|first1=Jenna R.|last2=Geyer|first2=Roland|last3=Wilcox|first3=Chris|last4=Siegler|first4=Theodore R.|last5=Perryman|first5=Miriam|last6=Andrady|first6=Anthony|last7=Narayan|first7=Ramani|last8=Law|first8=Kara Lavender|date=2015-02-13|title=Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean|url=https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.1260352|journal=Science|volume=347|issue=6223|pages=768–771|language=EN|doi=10.1126/science.1260352|pmid=25678662|bibcode=2015Sci...347..768J|s2cid=206562155}}</ref> It is estimated that there is a stock of 86 ''&nbsp;''million tons of plastic [[marine debris]] in the worldwide ocean as of the end of 2013, with an assumption that 1.4% of global plastics produced from 1950 to 2013 has entered the ocean and has accumulated there.<ref name="kci.go.kr">Jang, Y. C., Lee, J., Hong, S., Choi, H. W., Shim, W. J., & Hong, S. Y. 2015. "Estimating the global inflow and stock of plastic marine debris using material flow analysis: a preliminary approach". ''Journal of the Korean Society for Marine Environment and Energy'', 18(4), 263–273.[https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiOrteView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART002050087]</ref> Global plastic production has surged from 1.5''&nbsp;''million tons in the 1950s to 335''&nbsp;''million tons in 2016, resulting in environmental concerns. A significant issue arises from the inefficient treatment of 79% of plastic products, leading to their release into landfills or natural environments.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Penghui |last2=Wang |first2=Xiaodan |last3=Su |first3=Min |last4=Zou |first4=Xiaoyan |last5=Duan |first5=Linlin |last6=Zhang |first6=Hongwu |date=2021-10-01 |title=Characteristics of Plastic Pollution in the Environment: A Review |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-020-02820-1 |journal=Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology |language=en |volume=107 |issue=4 |pages=577–584 |doi=10.1007/s00128-020-02820-1 |pmid=32166334 |bibcode=2021BuECT.107..577L |s2cid=212681362 |issn=1432-0800}}</ref>

{{See also|Timeline of plastic development}}[[File:Pathway-of-plastic-to-ocean.png|thumb|400px|The pathway by which plastics enters the world's oceans]]There are differing estimates of how much plastic waste has been produced in the last century. By one estimate, one billion tons of plastic waste have been discarded since the 1950s.<ref>{{cite book |title=The world without us |vauthors=Weisman A |date=2007 |publisher=Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-1443400084 |location=New York}}</ref> Others estimate a cumulative human production of 8.3 ''&nbsp;''billion tons of plastic, of which 6.3 ''&nbsp;''billion tons is waste, with only 9% getting recycled.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What Percentage of Plastic is Recycled Globally? |url=https://bren.ucsb.edu/news/international-statistic-year-91-plastic-has-never-been-recycled |access-date=2024-01-23 |website=UCSB Bren School of Environmental Science & Management |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Geyer R, Jambeck JR, Law KL |date=July 2017 |title=Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made |journal=Science Advances |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=e1700782 |bibcode=2017SciA....3E0782G |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1700782 |pmc=5517107 |pmid=28776036}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite web |last=Environment |first=U.N. |date=2021-10-21 |title=Drowning in Plastics – Marine Litter and Plastic Waste Vital Graphics |url=http://www.unep.org/resources/report/drowning-plastics-marine-litter-and-plastic-waste-vital-graphics |access-date=2022-03-21 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref>

It is estimated that this waste is made up of 81% [[Synthetic resin|polymer resin]], 13% [[polymer fibresfibre]]s and 32% additives[[polymer additive]]s. In 2018 more than 343 ''&nbsp;''million tonnes of plastic waste were generated, 90% of which was composed of post-consumer plastic waste (industrial, agricultural, commercial and municipal plastic waste). The rest was pre-consumer waste from resin production and manufacturing of plastic products (e.g. materials rejected due to unsuitable colour, hardness, or processing characteristics).<ref name=":11" />

A large proportion of post-consumer plastic waste consists of [[plastic packaging]]. In the United States plastic packaging has been estimated to make up 5% of MSW. This packaging includes plastic bottles, pots, tubs and trays, plastic films shopping bags, rubbish bags, bubble wrap, and plastic or stretch wrap and plastic foams e.g. expanded polystyrene (EPS). Plastic waste is generated in sectors including agriculture (e.g. irrigation pipes, greenhouse covers, fencing, pellets, mulch; construction (e.g. pipes, paints, flooring and roofing, insulants and sealants); transport (e.g. abraded tyres, road surfaces and road markings); electronic and electric equipment (e-waste); and pharmaceuticals and healthcare. The total amounts of plastic waste generated by these sectors is uncertain.<ref name=":11" />

Several studies have attempted to quantify plastic leakage into the environment at both national and global levels which have highlight the difficulty of determining the sources and amounts of all plastic leakage. One global study has estimated that between 60 and 99 ''&nbsp;''million tonnes of mismanaged plastic waste were produced in 2015. Borrelle et al. 2020 has estimated that 19–23 ''&nbsp;''million tonnes of plastic waste entered aquatic ecosystems in 2016. while the Pew Charitable Trusts and SYSTEMIQ (2020) have estimated that 9–14 ''&nbsp;''million tonnes of plastic waste ended up in the oceans the same year.

Despite global efforts to reduce the generation of plastic waste, losses to the environment are predicted to increase. Modelling indicates that, without major interventions, between 23 and 37 ''&nbsp;''million tonnes per year of plastic waste could enter the oceans by 2040 and between 155 and 265 ''&nbsp;''million tonnes per year could be discharged into the environment by 2060. Under a business as usual scenario, such increases would likely be attributable to a continuing rise in production of plastic products, driven by consumer demand, accompanied by insufficient improvements in waste management. As the plastic waste released into the environment already has a significant impact on ecosystems, an increase of this magnitude could have dramatic consequences.<ref name=":11" />

[[File:Plastic bottle stuck on edge of river.jpg|thumb|Plastic bottle stuck on edge of river.]]

Plastic debris is categorized as either primary or secondary. Primary plastics are in their original form when collected. Examples of these would be bottle caps, cigarette butts, and microbeads.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2016.02.025|title = A Canadian policy framework to mitigate plastic marine pollution| journal=Marine Policy| volume=68| pages=117–122|year = 2016|last1 = Pettipas|first1 = Shauna| last2=Bernier| first2=Meagan| last3=Walker| first3=Tony R.| bibcode=2016MarPo..68..117P }}</ref> Secondary plastics, on the other hand, account for smaller plastics that have resulted from the degradation of primary plastics.<ref name="Driedger">{{cite journal |last1=Driedger|first1=Alexander G.J.|last2=Dürr|first2=Hans H.|last3=Mitchell|first3=Kristen|last4=Van Cappellen|first4=Philippe|title=Plastic debris in the Laurentian Great Lakes: A review|journal=Journal of Great Lakes Research|date=March 2015|volume=41|issue=1|pages=9–19|doi=10.1016/j.jglr.2014.12.020|bibcode=2015JGLR...41....9D |url=https://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/bitstream/10012/11956/1/PVC-06.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[File:Microplastics in the surface ocean, OWID.svg|thumb|Microplastics in the surface ocean 1950–2000 and projections beyond, in million metric tonnes.]]

[[Plastic resin pellet pollution|Nurdles]] enter the ocean by means of spills during transportation or from land based sources. The [[Ocean Conservancy]] reported that China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam dump more plastic in the sea than all other countries combined.<ref name="Forbes">{{cite news |last1=Hannah Leung |title=Five Asian Countries Dump More Plastic into Oceans Than Anyone Else Combined: How You Can Help |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/hannahleung/2018/04/21/five-asian-countries-dump-more-plastic-than-anyone-else-combined-how-you-can-help/#1d663de71234 |access-date=23 June 2019 |work=[[Forbes]] |date=21 April 2018 |language=en |quote=China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam are dumping more plastic into oceans than the rest of the world combined, according to a 2017 report by Ocean Conservancy}}</ref> It is estimated that 10% of the plastics in the ocean are nurdles, making them one of the most common types of plastic pollution, along with plastic bags and food containers.<ref name="Knight2">Knight 2012, p. 11.</ref><ref name="Knight4">Knight 2012, p. 13.</ref> These micro-plastics can accumulate in the oceans and allow for the accumulation of Persistent Bio-accumulating Toxins such as [[bisphenol A|bisphenol''&nbsp;''A]], [[polystyrene]], DDT, and PCB's which are hydrophobic in nature and can cause adverse health affects.<ref name="Knight3">Knight 2012, p. 12.</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nurdlehunt.org.uk/whats-the-problem/small-plastics.html|title=Small, Smaller, Microscopic!|access-date=30 November 2017|language=en-gb|archive-date=1 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201043531/https://www.nurdlehunt.org.uk/whats-the-problem/small-plastics.html |website=The Great Nurdle Hunt |url-status=dead}}</ref>

A 2004 study by Richard Thompson from the [[University of Plymouth]], UK, found a great amount of microdebris on beaches and in waters in Europe, the Americas, Australia, Africa, and Antarctica.<ref name="Plastic Pollution" /> Thompson and his associates found that plastic pellets from both domestic and industrial sources were being broken down into much smaller plastic pieces, some having a diameter smaller than human hair.<ref name="Plastic Pollution" /> If not ingested, this microdebris floats instead of being absorbed into the marine environment. Thompson predicts there may be 300,000 plastic items per square kilometre of sea surface and 100,000 [[Plastic particle water pollution|plastic particles]] per square kilometre of [[seabed]].<ref name="Plastic Pollution" /> International Pellet Watch collected samples of polythene pellets from 30 beaches in 17 countries which were analysed for organic micro-pollutants. It was found that pellets found on beaches in the US, Vietnam and southern Africa contained compounds from pesticides suggesting a high use of pesticides in the areas.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Otaga | first1 = Y. | year = 2009 | title = International Pellet Watch: Global monitoring of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in coastal waters. 1. Initial phase data on PCBs, DDTs, and HCHs | url = http://psasir.upm.edu.my/id/eprint/40332/1/International%20Pellet%20Watch%20global%20monitoring%20of%20persistent%20organic%20pollutants%20%28POPs%29%20in%20coastal%20waters.%201.%20Initial%20phase%20data%20on%20PCBs%2C%20DDTs%2C%20and%20HCHs.pdf| journal = Marine Pollution Bulletin | volume = 58 | issue = 10| pages = 1437–1446 | doi = 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.06.014 | pmid = 19635625 | bibcode = 2009MarPB..58.1437O }}</ref> In 2020 scientists created what may be the first scientific estimate of how much microplastic currently resides in Earth's seafloor, after investigating six areas of ~around {{Convert|3&nbsp;|km|abbr=on}} depth ~about {{Convert|300&nbsp;|km|abbr=on}} off the Australian coast. They found the highly variable microplastic counts to be proportionate to plastic on the surface and the angle of the seafloor slope. By averaging the microplastic mass per cm³, they estimated that Earth's seafloor contains ~14about 14''&nbsp;''million tons of microplastic – about double the amount they estimated based on data from earlier studies – despite calling both estimates "conservative" as coastal areas are known to contain much more microplastic. These estimates are about one to two times the amount of plastic thought – per Jambeck et al., 2015 – to currently enter the oceans annually.<ref>{{cite news |last1=May |first1=Tiffany |title=Hidden Beneath the Ocean's Surface, Nearly 16 Million Tons of Microplastic |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/07/world/australia/microplastics-ocean-floor.html |access-date=30 November 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=7 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=14 million tonnes of microplastics on sea floor: Australian study |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-10-million-tonnes-microplastics-sea-floor.html |access-date=9 November 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Barrett|first1=Justine|last2=Chase|first2=Zanna|author-link2=Zanna Chase|last3=Zhang|first3=Jing|last4=Holl|first4=Mark M. Banaszak|last5=Willis|first5=Kathryn|last6=Williams|first6=Alan|last7=Hardesty|first7=Britta D.|last8=Wilcox|first8=Chris|date=2020|title=Microplastic Pollution in Deep-Sea Sediments From the Great Australian Bight|journal=Frontiers in Marine Science|language=en|volume=7|doi=10.3389/fmars.2020.576170|issn=2296-7745|doi-access=free|s2cid=222125532}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50x50px]] Available under [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|CC BY 4.0]].</ref>

| align = right

| total_width = 320

| image1 = Plastikmüll Im Meer (150229847).jpeg

| image2 = Macroplastics in the surface ocean, OWID.svg

| caption1 = Plastic bags are an example of macrodebris.

| caption2 = Macroplastics at the surface ocean 1950–2000 and projections beyond, in million metric tonnes.

Plastics themselves contribute to approximately 10% of discarded waste. Many kinds of plastics exist depending on their precursors and the method for their [[polymerization]]. Depending on their chemical composition, plastics and resins have varying properties related to contaminant [[Absorption (chemistry)|absorption]] and [[adsorption]]. [[Polymer degradation]] takes much longer as a result of [[Saline water|saline]] environments and the cooling effect of the sea. These factors contribute to the persistence of plastic debris in certain environments.<ref name="Barnes" /> Recent studies have shown that plastics in the ocean decompose faster than was once thought, due to exposure to sun, rain, and other environmental conditions, resulting in the release of toxic chemicals such as [[bisphenol A]]. However, due to the increased volume of plastics in the ocean, decomposition has slowed down.<ref name="ScienceDaily">{{cite web |last1=Chemical Society|first1=American|title=Plastics in Oceans Decompose, Release Hazardous Chemicals, Surprising New Study Says|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/08/090819234651.htm|website=Science Daily|access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> The Marine[[Ocean Conservancy]] has predicted the decomposition rates of several plastic products. It is estimated that a foam [[plastic cup]] will take 50 years, a plastic beverage holder will take 400 years, a [[disposable nappy]] will take 450 years, and [[fishing line]] will take 600 years to degrade.<ref name="Plastic Pollution" />

It was estimated that global production of plastics is approximately 250 mt/yrMt per year. Their abundance has been found to transport [[persistent organic pollutant]]s, also known as POPs. These pollutants have been linked to an increased distribution of algae associated with [[red tide]]s.<ref name="Barnes">{{cite journal |last1=Barnes|first1=D. K. A.|last2=Galgani|first2=F.|last3=Thompson|first3=R. C.|last4=Barlaz|first4=M.|title=Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|date=14 June 2009|volume=364|issue=1526|pages=1985–1998|doi=10.1098/rstb.2008.0205|pmid=19528051|pmc=2873009}}</ref>

In 2019, the group Break Free From Plastic organized over 70,000 volunteers in 51 countries to collect and identify plastic waste. These volunteers collected over "59,000 plastic bags, 53,000 sachets and 29,000 plastic bottles," as reported by ''The Guardian''. Nearly half of the items were identifiable by consumer brands. The most common brands were [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca-Cola]], [[Nestlé]], and [[PepsiCo|Pepsico]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2019/nov/09/coca-cola-world-biggest-plastics-polluter-again-datablog|title=Coca-Cola is world's biggest plastics polluter – again|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=9 November 2019|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-11-18|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.breakfreefromplastic.org/globalbrandauditreport2019/|title=Global Brand Audit Report 2019|website=Break Free From Plastic| date=18 October 2019 |language=en-US|access-date=18 November 2019}}</ref> According to the global campaign coordinator for the project Emma Priestland in 2020, the only way to solve the problem is stopping production of single use plastic and using reusable products instead.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Priestland |first=Emma |date=2020-11-05 |title=Quick to commit but slow to change, Corporations are making little progress upscaling towards a circular economy for plastics |url=https://www.breakfreefromplastic.org/2020/11/05/upscaling-circular-economy-for-plastics/ |access-date=2022-04-01 |website=Break Free From Plastic |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-12-11 |title=Coca-Cola, PepsiCo, Nestlé Are Worst Plastic Polluters of 2020, Have Made 'Zero Progress,' New Report Finds |url=https://www.ecowatch.com/new-report-shows-worlds-top-plastic-polluters-have-made-zero-progress-to-reduce-plastic-waste-2649435793.html |access-date=2022-04-01 |website=EcoWatch |language=en-US}}</ref> China is the biggest consumer of single-use plastics.<ref name=ORVI />

Pepsico responded that they want to decrease "virgin plastic in our beverage business by 35% by 2025" and also expanding reuse and refill practices what should prevent 67 ''&nbsp;''billion single use bottles by 2025.<ref name=":5">{{cite news |last1=McVeigh |first1=Karen |title=Coca-Cola, Pepsi and Nestlé named top plastic polluters for third year in a row |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/dec/07/coca-cola-pepsi-and-nestle-named-top-plastic-polluters-for-third-year-in-a-row |access-date=20 December 2020 |agency=The Guardian |date=7 December 2020}}</ref>

The United States is the world leader in generating plastic waste, producing an annual 42 ''&nbsp;''million metric tons of plastic waste.<ref>The Guardian, 1 Dec. 2021 [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/dec/01/deluge-of-plastic-waste-us-is-worlds-biggest-plastic-polluter?CMP=Share_iOSApp_Other "‘Deluge of Plastic Waste’: US Is World’s Biggest Plastic Polluter; At 42m Metric Tons of Plastic Waste a Year, The US Generates More Waste than All EU Countries Combined"]</ref><ref>2021 Consensus Study Report of the Committee of Experts of the United States National Academies of Engineering, Sciences and Medicine [https://www.nap.edu/catalog/26132/reckoning-with-the-us-role-in-global-ocean-plastic-waste "Reckoning with the U.S. Role in Global Ocean Plastic Waste"]</ref> Per capita generation of plastic waste in the United States is higher than in any other country, with the average American producing 130.09 kilograms of plastic waste per year. Other high-income countries, such as those of the EU-28 (annual per capita generation 58.56&nbsp;kg), also have a high per capita plastic waste generation rate. Some high-income countries, such as Japan (annual per capital generation 38.44&nbsp;kg), produce far less plastic waste per capita.<ref>Statista, Ian Tiseo, 14 Apr. 2021 [https://www.statista.com/statistics/1228043/plastic-waste-generation-per-capita-in-select-countries/ "Per capita plastic waste generation in select countries worldwide in 2016(in kilograms a year)"]</ref><ref>Science, 30 Oct. 2020 [https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abd0288 "The United States’ Contribution of Plastic Waste to Land and Ocean"]</ref>

The United States [[National Academy of Sciences]] estimated in 2022 that the worldwide entry of plastic into the ocean was 8 ''&nbsp;''million metric tons of plastic per year.<ref>{{cite book |author1=((National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine)) |title=Reckoning with the U.S. Role in Global Ocean Plastic Waste |date=2022 |publisher=The National Academies Press |location=Washington |isbn=978-0-309-45885-6 |page=1 |url=https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26132/reckoning-with-the-us-role-in-global-ocean-plastic-waste |access-date=20 June 2022 |language=en |chapter=Summary |quote=An estimated 8 million metric tons (MMT) of plastic waste enter the world’s ocean each year}}</ref> A 2021 study by [[The Ocean Cleanup]] estimated that rivers convey between 0.8 and 2.7 ''&nbsp;''million metric tons of plastic into the ocean, and ranked these river's countries. The top ten were, from the most to the least: Philippines, India, Malaysia, China, Indonesia, Myanmar, Brazil, Vietnam, Bangladesh, and Thailand.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaz5803 | title=More than 1000 rivers account for 80% of global riverine plastic emissions into the ocean | year=2021 | last1=Meijer | first1=Lourens J. J. | last2=Van Emmerik | first2=Tim | last3=Van Der Ent | first3=Ruud | last4=Schmidt | first4=Christian | last5=Lebreton | first5=Laurent | journal=Science Advances | volume=7 | issue=18 | pmid=33931460 | pmc=8087412 | bibcode=2021SciA....7.5803M }}</ref>

In 2018 approximately 513 ''&nbsp;''million tonnes of plastics wind up in the oceans every year out of which the 83,1% is from the following 20 countries: [[China]] is the most mismanaged plastic waste polluter leaving in the sea the 27.7% of the world total, second [[Indonesia]] with the 10.1%, third [[Philippines]] with 5.9%, fourth [[Vietnam]] with 5.8%, fifth [[Sri Lanka]] 5.0%, sixth [[Thailand]] with 3.2%, seventh [[Egypt]] with 3.0%, eighth [[Malaysia]] with 2.9%, ninth [[Nigeria]] with 2.7%, tenth [[Bangladesh]] with 2.5%, eleventh [[South Africa]] with 2.0%, twelfth [[India]] with 1.9%, thirteenth [[Algeria]] with 1.6%, fourteenth [[Turkey]] with 1.5%, fifteenth [[Pakistan]] with 1.5%, sixteenth [[Brazil]] with 1.5%, seventeenth [[Myanmar]] with 1.4%, eighteenth [[Morocco]] with 1.0%, nineteenth [[North Korea]] with 1.0%, twentieth [[United States]] with 0.9%. The rest of world's countries combined wind up the 16.9% of the mismanaged plastic waste in the oceans, according to a study published by ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' in 2015.<ref name=Science2015 /><ref name="earthday.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.earthday.org/2018/04/06/top-20-countries-ranked-by-mass-of-mismanaged-plastic-waste/|title=Top 20 Countries Ranked by Mass of Mismanaged Plastic Waste|date=4 June 2018|website=[[Earth Day]].org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/countries-putting-the-most-plastic-waste-into-the-oceans.html|title=Countries Putting The Most Plastic Waste Into The Oceans|date=18 September 2019|author=Kushboo Sheth|website=worldatlas.com}}</ref>

Around 275 ''&nbsp;''million tonnes of plastic waste is generated each year around the world; between 4.8 million and 12.7 ''&nbsp;''million tonnes is dumped into the sea.<ref name="Worm">{{cite journal |last1=Worm |first1=Boris |last2=Lotze |first2=Heike K. |last3=Jubinville |first3=Isabelle |last4=Wilcox |first4=Chris |last5=Jambeck |first5=Jenna |title=Plastic as a Persistent Marine Pollutant |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |date=17 October 2017 |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-102016-060700 |language=en |issn=1543-5938|doi-access=free }}</ref> About 60% of the plastic waste in the ocean comes from the top 5five countries: China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.futureagenda.org/foresights/plastic-oceans/|title=Plastic Oceans|website=futureagenda.org|location=London}}</ref> The table below list the top 20 plastic waste polluting countries in 2010 according to a study published by ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', Jambeck ''et al'' (2015).<ref name=Science2015 /><ref name="earthday.org" />

|+Top plastic polluters {{as of|2010|lc=y}}.

In a study published by ''[[Environmental Science & Technology]]'', Schmidt ''et al'' (2017) calculated that 10ten rivers: two in Africa (the [[Nile]] and the [[Niger River|Niger]]) and eight in Asia (the [[Ganges]], [[Indus River|Indus]], [[Yellow River|Yellow]], [[Yangtze]], [[Hai He]], [[Pearl River (China)|Pearl]], [[Mekong]] and [[Amur River|Amur]]) "transport 88–95% of the global plastics load into the sea.".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theweathernetwork.com/news/articles/ninety-five-percent-of-plastic-in-sea-comes-from-just-ten-rivers/89034|title=STUDY: 95% of plastic in the sea comes from 10 rivers|author=Cheryl Santa Maria|date=8 November 2017|website=[[The Weather Network]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.euronews.com/2018/04/20/what-plastic-objects-cause-the-most-waste-in-the-sea-|title=What plastic objects cause the most waste in the sea?|author1=Duncan Hooper|author2=Rafael Cereceda|date=20 April 2018|website=[[Euronews]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Christian Schmidt |last2=Tobias Krauth |last3=Stephan Wagner |title=Export of Plastic Debris by Rivers into the Sea |journal=[[Environmental Science & Technology]] |date=11 October 2017 |volume=51 |issue=21 |pages=12246–12253 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.7b02368 |pmid=29019247 |quote=The 10 top-ranked rivers transport 88–95% of the global load into the sea|bibcode=2017EnST...5112246S |url=http://oceanrep.geomar.de/43169/4/es7b02368_si_001.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Harald Franzen |title=Almost all plastic in the ocean comes from just 10 rivers |url=https://p.dw.com/p/2oTF6 |access-date=18 December 2018 |work=[[Deutsche Welle]] |date=30 November 2017 |quote=It turns out that about 90 percent of all the plastic that reaches the world's oceans gets flushed through just 10 rivers: The Yangtze, the Indus, Yellow River, Hai River, the Nile, the Ganges, Pearl River, Amur River, the Niger, and the Mekong (in that order).}}</ref>

Plastic pollution has also greatly negatively affected our environment. "The pollution is significant and widespread, with plastic debris found on even the most remote coastal areas and in every marine habitat".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hardesty|first=Britta Denise|title=Plastic Pollution Challenges in Marine and Coastal Environments: From Local to Global Governance.|journal=Restoration Ecology|year=2017|volume=25|issue=1 |pages=123–128|doi=10.1111/rec.12388|bibcode=2017ResEc..25..123V | s2cid=55423492 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/rec.12388}}</ref> This information tells us about how much of a consequential change plastic pollution has made on the ocean and even the coasts.

The problem of ocean plastic debris is ubiquitous. It is estimated that 1.5–4% of global plastics production ends up in the oceans every year, mainly as a result of poor waste management infrastructure and practices combined with irresponsible attitudes to the use and disposal of plastics. The weathering of plastic debris causes its fragmentation into particles that even small marine invertebrates may ingest hence contaminating the food chain. Their small size renders them untraceable to their source and extremely difficult to remove from open ocean environments.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=De Matteis |first1=Alessandro |last2=Turkmen Ceylan |first2=Fethiye Burcu |last3=Daoud |first3=Mona |last4=Kahuthu |first4=Anne |date=2022 |title=A systemic approach to tackling ocean plastic debris |journal=Environment Systems and Decisions |language=en |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=136–145 |doi=10.1007/s10669-021-09832-0 |s2cid=238208588 |issn=2194-5403|doi-access=free |bibcode=2022EnvSD..42..136D }}</ref> In the marine environment, plastic pollution causes "Entanglement, toxicological effects via ingestion of plastics, suffocation, starvation, dispersal, and rafting of organisms, provision of new habitats, and introduction of invasive species are significant ecological effects with growing threats to [[biodiversity]] and trophic relationships. Degradation (changes in the ecosystem state) and modifications of marine systems are associated with loss of [[ecosystem service]]s and values. Consequently, this emerging contaminant affects the socio-economic aspects through negative impacts on tourism, fishery, shipping, and human health".<ref name="10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04709">{{cite journal |last1=Thushari |first1=G. G. N. |last2=Senevirathna |first2=J. D. M. |title=Plastic pollution in the marine environment |journal=Heliyon |date=1 August 2020 |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=e04709 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04709 |doi-access=free |pmid=32923712 |pmc=7475234 |bibcode=2020Heliy...604709T |language=English |issn=2405-8440}}</ref>

In 2019 a new report "Plastic and Climate" was published. According to the report, in 2019, production and incineration of plastic will contribute [[greenhouse gas]]es in the equivalent of 850 ''&nbsp;''million tonnes of [[carbon dioxide]] ({{CO2}}) to the atmosphere. In current trend, annual emissions from these sources will grow to 1.34 ''&nbsp;''billion tonnes by 2030. By 2050 plastic could emit 56 ''&nbsp;''billion tonnes of [[greenhouse]] gas emissions, as much as 14 percent of the earth's remaining [[carbon budget]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Sweeping New Report on Global Environmental Impact of Plastics Reveals Severe Damage to Climate |url=https://www.ciel.org/news/plasticandclimate/ |website=Center for International Environmental Law (CIEL) |access-date=16 May 2019}}</ref> By 2100 it will emit 260 ''&nbsp;''billion tonnes, more than half of the carbon budget. Those are emission from production, transportation, incineration, but there are also releases of [[methane]] and effects on [[phytoplankton]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Plastic & Climate: The Hidden Costs of a Plastic Planet |date=May 2019 |url=https://www.ciel.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Plastic-and-Climate-Executive-Summary-2019.pdf |access-date=28 May 2019}}</ref>

The emissions of methane from plastic decomposition and impact on phytoplankton, were still not known well when the report was released. According to one estimate, plastic floating in the ocean can emit annually 76 Mt methane equal to 2,129 Mt CO2e, based on the 100 years [[global warming potential]] of methane. But these numbers are very preliminary. From one side, it can be an overestimate as it is based on the emissions of LDPE in powder form, the most emission intensive type of plastic in this case and in tropical water where intense radiation increases decomposition. But from the other side it can be an underestimate, as it is not including the decomposition of plastic on land which is probably more emission intensive, the effects on phytoplankton which can be significant, the emissions from submerged plastic. Therefore, the authors prefer to not include them in the official estimate, but to write them in the full report, as a base for further discussion noting the high importance of the problem.<ref>{{cite book |title=Plastic & Climate The Hidden Costs of a Plastic Planet |date=2019 |publisher=Center for International Environmental Law (CIEL), Environmental Integrity Project (EIP), FracTracker Alliance, Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives (GAIA), 5Gyres, Break free from plastic |pages=69-7769–77 |url=https://www.ciel.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Plastic-and-Climate-FINAL-2019.pdf |access-date=7 February 2024}}</ref>

Plastic pollution on land poses a threat to the plants and animals – including humans who are based on the land.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/02/180205125728.htm |title=An underestimated threat: Land-based pollution with microplastics |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=5 February 2018 |website=sciencedaily.com |access-date=19 July 2019}}</ref> Estimates of the amount of plastic concentration on land are between four and twenty three times that of the ocean. The amount of plastic poised on the land is greater and more concentrated than that in the water.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/plastic-planet-how-tiny-plastic-particles-are-polluting-our-soil |title=Plastic planet: How tiny plastic particles are polluting our soil |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=3 April 2019 |website=unenvironment.org |access-date=19 July 2019}}</ref> Mismanaged plastic waste ranges from 60 percent in East Asia and Pacific to one percent in North America.<ref Thename="Kibria">{{cite percentagejournal of|last1=Kibria mismanaged|first1=Md. plasticGolam waste|last2=Masuk reaching|first2=Nahid theImtiaz ocean|last3=Safayet annually|first3=Rafat and|last4=Nguyen thus|first4=Huy becomingQuoc plastic|last5=Mourshed marine|first5=Monjur debris|title=Plastic isWaste: betweenChallenges oneand thirdOpportunities to Mitigate Pollution and oneEffective halfManagement the|journal=International totalJournal mismanagedof wasteEnvironmental forResearch that|date=20 year.<ref>{{citeJanuary journal2023 |urlvolume=https://ourworldindata.org/plastic-pollution#mismanaged-plastic-waste17 |titleissue=Mismanaged1 plastic waste|pages=20 |authordoi=<!10.1007/s41742-023-Not stated00507-->z |datepmid=201036711426 |journalbibcode=Our2023IJEnR..17...20K World in Data|language=en |accessissn=2008-date2304|pmc=19 July 20199857911 }}</ref> It is estimated that between 1 million and 1.7 million tonnes of mismanaged plastic is transported to the ocean each year.<ref>{{cite webjournal |last1=Ritchie |first1=Hannah |last2=Roser |first2=Max |title=How much plastic waste ends up in the ocean? |url=https://wwwourworldindata.statista.comorg/chart/12211/thehow-countriesmuch-pollutingplastic-thewaste-oceansends-up-in-the-most/ocean |titlejournal=TheOur CountriesWorld Pollutingin The Oceans The MostData |lastaccess-date=McCarthy30 |first=NiallApril |website=statista.com2024 |access-date=19 July28 2019December 2023}}</ref>

However, plastic tap water pollution remains under-studied, as are the links of how pollution transfers between humans, air, water, and soil.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=httphttps://time.com/4928759/plastic-fiber-tap-water-study/|title=Plastic Fibers Are Found in '83% of the World's Tap Water'|last=Lui|first=Kevin|magazine=Time|access-date=15 September 2017}}</ref>

[[Effluent]] and sludge of wastewater contain large amounts of plastics. Wastewater treatment plants don'tdo not have a treatment process to remove microplastics which results in plastics being transferred into water and soil when effluent and sludge are applied to land for agricultural purposes.<ref name=":10"/> Several researchers have found plastic microfibers that are released when fleece and other polyester textiles are cleaned in washing machines.<ref name=":12">Yang, J., Li, L., Li, R., Xu, L., Shen, Y., Li, S., Tu, C., Wu, L., Christie, P., & Luo, Y. (2021). Microplastics in an agricultural soil following repeated application of three types of sewage sludge: A field study. Environmental Pollution, 289, 117943. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117943</ref> These fibers can be transferred through effluent to land which pollutes soil environments.<ref name=":9"/>

Plastics also release toxic chemicals into the environment and cause physical, chemical harm and biological damage to organisms. Ingestion of plastic doesn'tdoes not only lead to death in animals through intestinal blockage but it can also travel up the food chain which affects humans.<ref name=":7"/>

{{excerptmain|Plastic soup|paragraphs=1-2|file=no}}[[Marine life]] is one of the most important when one is affected by plastic pollution. Plastic pollution puts animals' lives in danger and is in constant fear of extinction. Marine wildlife such as seabirds, whales, fish and turtles mistake plastic waste for prey; most then die of starvation as their stomachs become filled with plastic. They also suffer from lacerations, infections, reduced ability to swim, and internal injuries.<ref>{{Cite web|date=November 17, 2021|title=Marine Plastic Pollution.|url=https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/marine-plastic-pollution.|access-date=December 14, 2021|website=IUCN}}</ref> This evidence tells us how damaged marine wildlife is being affected by plastic pollution, they bring up how many animals mistake plastic for prey and eat it without knowing. "Globally, 100,000 marine mammals die every year as a result of plastic pollution. This includes whales, dolphins, porpoises, seals and sea lions".<ref>{{Cite web|date=July 1, 2021|title=Plastic in Our Oceans Is Killing Marine Mammals|url=https://www.wwf.org.au/news/blogs/plastic-in-our-oceans-is-killing-marine-mammals.|access-date=December 14, 2021|website=WWF|archive-date=17 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217025818/https://www.wwf.org.au/news/blogs/plastic-in-our-oceans-is-killing-marine-mammals.|url-status=dead}}</ref> This evidence tells us the statistics of how many marine mammals really are negatively affected enough to die from plastic pollution.

Research into freshwater plastic pollution has been largely ignored over marine ecosystems, comprising only 13% of published papers on the topic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Blettler |first1=Martín C.M. |last2=Abrial |first2=Elie |last3=Khan |first3=Farhan R. |last4=Sivri |first4=Nuket |last5=Espinola |first5=Luis A. |date=2018 |title=Freshwater plastic pollution: Recognizing research biases and identifying knowledge gaps |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0043135418304597 |journal=Water Research |language=en |volume=143 |pages=416–424 |doi=10.1016/j.watres.2018.06.015|pmid=29986250 |bibcode=2018WatRe.143..416B |s2cid=51617474 |hdl=11336/88691 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Plastics make their way into bodies of freshwater, underground aquifers, and moving freshwaters through runoff and erosion of mismanaged plastic waste (MMPW). In some areas, the direct waste disposal into rivers is a remaining factor of historical practices, and has only been somewhat limited by modern legislation.<ref name=":04">{{Cite journal |last1=Azevedo-Santos |first1=Valter M. |last2=Brito |first2=Marcelo F. G. |last3=Manoel |first3=Pedro S. |last4=Perroca |first4=Júlia F. |last5=Rodrigues-Filho |first5=Jorge Luiz |last6=Paschoal |first6=Lucas R. P. |last7=Gonçalves |first7=Geslaine R. L. |last8=Wolf |first8=Milena R. |last9=Blettler |first9=Martín C. M. |last10=Andrade |first10=Marcelo C. |last11=Nobile |first11=André B. |date=2021 |title=Plastic pollution: A focus on freshwater biodiversity |journal=Ambio |language=en |volume=50 |issue=7 |pages=1313–1324 |doi=10.1007/s13280-020-01496-5 |issn=0044-7447 |pmc=8116388 |pmid=33543362|bibcode=2021Ambio..50.1313A }}</ref> Rivers are the primary transport of plastics into marine ecosystems, sourcing potentially 80% of the plastic pollution in the oceans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Winton |first1=Debbie J. |last2=Anderson |first2=Lucy G. |last3=Rocliffe |first3=Stephen |last4=Loiselle |first4=Steven |date=2020 |title=Macroplastic pollution in freshwater environments: Focusing public and policy action |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=704 |pages=135242 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135242|pmid=31812404 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.704m5242W |s2cid=208955699 |doi-access=free |hdl=11365/1128793 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Ritchie">{{cite journal |last1=Ritchie |first1=Hannah |last2=Roser |first2=Max |title=Where does the plastic in our oceans come from? |url=https://ourworldindata.org/ocean-plastics |journal=Our World in Data |date=May 1, 2021 |access-date=30 April 2024}}</ref> Research on the top ten river catchments ranked by annual amount of MMPW showed that some rivers contribute as high as 88–95% of ocean-bound plastics, the highest being the [[Yangtze]] River into the East China Sea.<ref name="10.1021/acs.est.7b02368">{{Cite journal |last1=Schmidt |first1=Christian |last2=Krauth |first2=Tobias |last3=Wagner |first3=Stephan |date=2017-11-07 |title=Export of Plastic Debris by Rivers into the Sea |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.7b02368 |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |language=en |volume=51 |issue=21 |pages=12246–12253 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.7b02368 |pmid=29019247 |bibcode=2017EnST...5112246S |issn=0013-936X}}</ref> Asian rivers contribute nearly 67% of plastic waste found in the ocean annually, largely influenced by the high density coastal populations all throughout the continent as well as relatively intense bouts of seasonal rainfall.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lebreton |first1=Laurent C. M. |last2=van der Zwet |first2=Joost |last3=Damsteeg |first3=Jan-Willem |last4=Slat |first4=Boyan |last5=Andrady |first5=Anthony |last6=Reisser |first6=Julia |date=2017 |title=River plastic emissions to the world's oceans |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=15611 |doi=10.1038/ncomms15611 |pmid=28589961 |pmc=5467230 |bibcode=2017NatCo...815611L |issn=2041-1723}}</ref>

A study analyzing ingestion of plastics across a variety of previously published experiments showed that out of the 206 species covered, the majority of papers documented ingestion in fish.<ref name=":04" /> This doesn'tdoes not quite mean that fish ingest plastic more than other organisms, but instead highlights the underrepresentation of plastic effects in equally important organisms, like aquatic plants, amphibians and invertebrates. Despite this disparity, controlled experiments analyzing microplastic impact on aquatic plants like the algae ''Chlorella spp'' and common duckweed ''Lemna minor'' have yielded significant results. Between microplastics of polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), PVC demonstrated greater toxicity to ''Chlorella pyrenoidosa'', overall negatively impacting their photosynthetic ability. This effect on photosynthesis is likely due to the 60% reduction of algal [[Chlorophyll a|chlorophyll ''a'']] associated with high PVC concentrations found in the same study.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Yanmei |last2=Guo |first2=Peiyong |last3=Zhang |first3=Xiaoyan |last4=Zhang |first4=Yuxuan |last5=Xie |first5=Shuting |last6=Deng |first6=Jun |date=2019 |title=Effect of microplastics exposure on the photosynthesis system of freshwater algae |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0304389419304674 |journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials |language=en |volume=374 |pages=219–227 |doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.04.039|pmid=31005054 |bibcode=2019JHzM..374..219W |s2cid=125204296 }}</ref> When analyzing the effect of polyethylene microbeads (origin: cosmetic exfoliants) on the aquatic macrophyte ''L. &nbsp;minor'', no effect on photosynthetic pigments &and productivity was found, but root growth and root cell viability decreased.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kalčíková |first1=Gabriela |last2=Žgajnar Gotvajn |first2=Andreja |last3=Kladnik |first3=Aleš |last4=Jemec |first4=Anita |date=2017 |title=Impact of polyethylene microbeads on the floating freshwater plant duckweed Lemna minor |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0269749117311247 |journal=Environmental Pollution |language=en |volume=230 |pages=1108–1115 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2017.07.050|pmid=28783918 |bibcode=2017EPoll.230.1108K }}</ref> These results are concerning as plants and algae are integral to nutrient and gas cycling within an aquatic system, and have the capacity to create significant changes in water composition due to their sheer density. Crustaceans have also been analyzed for their response to plastic presence. There is proof that freshwater crustaceans, specifically European crabs and crayfish, suffer entanglement in polyamide ghost nets used in lake fishing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Spirkovski |first1=Z. |last2=Ilik-Boeva |first2=D. |last3=Ritterbusch |first3=D. |last4=Peveling |first4=R. |last5=Pietrock |first5=M. |date=2019 |title=Ghost net removal in ancient Lake Ohrid: A pilot study |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2018.10.023 |journal=Fisheries Research |volume=211 |pages=46–50 |doi=10.1016/j.fishres.2018.10.023 |bibcode=2019FishR.211...46S |s2cid=92803175 |issn=0165-7836}}</ref> When exposed to plastic [[nanoparticle]]s of polystyrene, ''[[Daphnia galeata]]'' (common water flea) experienced reduced survival within 48 hours as well as reproductive issues. Over a span of 5 days, the amount of pregnant Daphnia decreased by nearly 50%, and less than 20% of exposed embryos survived without any immediate repercussions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cui |first1=Rongxue |last2=Kim |first2=Shin Woong |last3=An |first3=Youn-Joo |date=2017-09-21 |title=Polystyrene nanoplastics inhibit reproduction and induce abnormal embryonic development in the freshwater crustacean Daphnia galeata |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-12299-2 |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=7 |issue=1 |page=12095 |doi=10.1038/s41598-017-12299-2 |pmid=28935955 |pmc=5608696 |bibcode=2017NatSR...712095C |issn=2045-2322}}</ref> Other arthropods, like juvenile stages of insects are susceptible to similar plastic exposure as some spend part of their adolescence fully submerged in a freshwater resource. This similarity in lifestyle to other aquatic invertebrates indicates that insects may experience similar side effects of plastic exposure.

Plastic exposure in amphibians has mostly been studied in adolescent life stages, when the test subjects are still dependent on an aquatic environment where it can be easier to manipulate variables experimentally. Studies on a common South American freshwater frog, ''[[Physalaemus cuvieri]]'' indicated that plastics may have the potential to induce mutagenic and cytotoxic morphological changes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Araújo |first1=Amanda Pereira da Costa |last2=Malafaia |first2=Guilherme |date=2020 |title=Can short exposure to polyethylene microplastics change tadpoles' behavior? A study conducted with neotropical tadpole species belonging to order anura (Physalaemus cuvieri) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122214 |journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials |volume=391 |pages=122214 |doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122214 |pmid=32044637 |bibcode=2020JHzM..39122214A |s2cid=211079532 |issn=0304-3894}}</ref> Much more research needs to be done on amphibian response to plastic pollution, especially since amphibians can serve as initial [[Bioindicator|indicator species]] of environmental decline.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Niemi |first1=Gerald J. |last2=McDonald |first2=Michael E. |date=2004-12-15 |title=Application of Ecological Indicators |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.112202.130132 |journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=89–111 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.112202.130132 |issn=1543-592X}}</ref> Freshwater mammals and birds have long been known to have negative interactions with plastic pollution, often resulting in entanglement or suffocation/choking after ingesting. While inflammation within the gastrointestinal tract in both groups has been noted, unfortunately there is little to no data on the toxicological effects of plastic pollutants in these organisms.<ref name=":04" /> Fish have been studied the most regarding plastic pollution in freshwater organisms, with the majority of studies indicating evidence of plastic ingestion in wild-caught samples and lab specimens.<ref name=":04" /> There have been some attempts to look at lethality of plastics in a common freshwater model species, ''[[Zebrafish|Danio rerio]]'', aka zebrafish. Increased mucus production and inflammation response in the ''D. &nbsp;rerio'' GI- tract was noted, but additionally, researchers noted a distinct shift in the [[Microbiota|microbial communities]] within the zebrafish intestinal microbiome.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jin |first1=Yuanxiang |last2=Xia |first2=Jizhou |last3=Pan |first3=Zihong |last4=Yang |first4=Jiajing |last5=Wang |first5=Wenchao |last6=Fu |first6=Zhengwei |date=2018 |title=Polystyrene microplastics induce microbiota dysbiosis and inflammation in the gut of adult zebrafish |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.12.088 |journal=Environmental Pollution |volume=235 |pages=322–329 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2017.12.088 |pmid=29304465 |bibcode=2018EPoll.235..322J |issn=0269-7491}}</ref> This finding is significant, as research within the last few decades has increasingly revealed how much power intestinal microbiomes have regarding their host's nutrient absorption and endocrine systems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rastelli |first1=Marialetizia |last2=Cani |first2=Patrice D |last3=Knauf |first3=Claude |date=2019-05-13 |title=The Gut Microbiome Influences Host Endocrine Functions |journal=Endocrine Reviews |volume=40 |issue=5 |pages=1271–1284 |doi=10.1210/er.2018-00280 |pmid=31081896 |s2cid=153306607 |issn=0163-769X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Because of this, plastics may have a far more drastic effect on individual organism health than is currently known so far, thus warranting the need for further research as soon as possible. Many of these findings also have been found in a laboratory setting, so more effort needs to be channeled into measuring plastic abundance &and toxicology in wild populations.

Compounds that are used in manufacturing pollute the environment by releasing chemicals into the air and water. Some compounds that are used in plastics, such as phthalates, bisphenol A (BRABPA), polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE), are under close statute and might be very hurtfulharmful. Even though these compounds are unsafe, they have been used in the manufacturing of [[food packaging]], medical devices, flooring materials, bottles, perfumes, cosmetics and much more. Inhalation of microplastics (MPs) have been shown to be one of the major contributors to MP uptake in humans. MPs in the form of dust particles are circulated constantly through ventilation and air conditioning systems indoors.<ref name=":05">{{Cite journal |last1=Kannan |first1=Kurunthachalam |last2=Vimalkumar |first2=Krishnamoorthi |date=2021-08-18 |title=A Review of Human Exposure to Microplastics and Insights Into Microplastics as Obesogens |journal=Frontiers in Endocrinology |volume=12 |page=724989 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.724989 |pmid=34484127 |pmc=8416353 |issn=1664-2392|doi-access=free }}</ref> The large dosage of these compounds are hazardous to humans, destroying the endocrine system. BRABPA imitates the female's hormone called estrogen. PBD destroys and causes damage to thyroid hormones, which are vital hormone glands that play a major role in the metabolism, growth and development of the human body. MPs can also have a detrimental effect on male reproductive success. MPs such as BPA can interfere with [[Steroid|steroid biosynthesis]] in the male endocrine system and with early stages of [[spermatogenesis]].<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last1=D'Angelo |first1=Stefania |last2=Meccariello |first2=Rosaria |date=2021-03-01 |title=Microplastics: A Threat for Male Fertility |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=2392 |doi=10.3390/ijerph18052392 |pmid=33804513 |pmc=7967748 |issn=1660-4601|doi-access=free }}</ref> MPs in men can also create [[oxidative stress]] and DNA damage in spermatozoa, causing reduced sperm viability.<ref name=":13" /> Although the level of exposure to these chemicals varies depending on age and geography, most humans experience simultaneous exposure to many of these chemicals. Average levels of daily exposure are below the levels deemed to be unsafe, but more research needs to be done on the effects of low dose exposure on humans. A lot is unknown on how severely humans are physically affected by these chemicals. Some of the chemicals used in plastic production can cause [[dermatitis]] upon contact with human skin. In many plastics, these toxic chemicals are only used in trace amounts, but significant testing is often required to ensure that the toxic elements are contained within the plastic by inert material or polymer. Children and women during their reproduction age are at most at risk and more prone to damaging their immune as well as their reproductive system from these hormone-disrupting chemicals. Pregnancy and nursing products such as baby bottles, pacifiers, and plastic feeding utensils place infants and children at a very high risk of exposure.<ref name=":05" />

Human health has also been negatively impacted by plastic pollution. "Almost a third of groundwater sites in the US contain BPA. BPA is harmful at very low concentrations as it interferes with our hormone and reproductive systems.<ref>{{Cite web|date=February 20, 2019|title=Report: Plastic Threatens Human Health at a Global Scale|url=https://www.plasticpollutioncoalition.org/blog/2019/2/20/report-plastic-threatens-human-health-at-a-global-scale.|access-date=December 14, 2021|website=Plastic Pollution Coalition}}</ref> This quote tells us how much of a percentage of our water is [https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/contaminate contaminated] and should not be drunk on a daily basis. "At every stage of its lifecycle, plastic poses distinct risks to human health, arising from both exposure to plastic particles themselves and associated chemicals".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ocean Plastics Pollution.|url=http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/campaigns/ocean_plastics/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120825233910/http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/campaigns/ocean_plastics/index.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 August 2012|access-date=17 May 2019|website=Center for Biological Diversity}}</ref> This quote is an intro to numerous points of why plastic is damaging to us, such as the carbon that is released when it is being made and transported which is also related to how plastic pollution harms our environment.

On 2 March 2022 in Nairobi, representatives of 175 countries pledged to create a legally binding agreement to end plastic pollution. The agreement should address the full lifecycle of plastic and propose alternatives including [[reusability]]. An Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) that should conceive the agreement by the end of the year 2024 was created. The agreement should facilitate the transition to a circular economy, which will reduce GHG emissions by 25%. Inger Andersen, executive director of UNEP called the decision "a triumph by planet earth over single-use plastics".<ref name="unep.org"/><ref>{{cite web |title=End plastic pollution: Towards an international legally binding instrument* |url=https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/38522/k2200647_-_unep-ea-5-l-23-rev-1_-_advance.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |website=United Nations Environmental Programm |access-date=13 March 2022}}</ref>

Also worth noting is the evolution of new enzymes allowing microorganisms living in polluted locations to digest normal, hard-to-degrade plastic.<ref name="Ong">{{cite journal |last1=Ong |first1=Sandy |title=The living things that feast on plastic |journal=Knowable Magazine {{!}} Annual Reviews |date=24 August 2023 |doi=10.1146/knowable-082423-1|doi-access=free |url=https://knowablemagazine.org/article/food-environment/2023/how-to-recycle-plastic-with-enzymes}}</ref> AnA 2021 study looking for [[homologs]] of 95 known plastic-degrading enzymes spanning 17 plastic types found a further 30,000 possible enzymes. Despite their apparent ubiquity, there is no current evidence that these novel enzymes are breaking down any meaningful amount of plastic to reduce pollution.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bugs across globe are evolving to eat plastic, study finds |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/dec/14/bugs-across-globe-are-evolving-to-eat-plastic-study-finds |website=The Guardian |language=en |date=14 December 2021}}</ref>

At a large scale, plastics, paper, and other materials provides [[waste-to-energy]] plants with useful fuel. About 12% of total produced plastic has been incinerated.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our planet is drowning in plastic pollution. This World Environment Day, it's time for a change|url=https://www.unep.org/interactive/beat-plastic-pollution/#:~:text=Because%20right%20now,%20a%20lot,dumps%20or%20the%20natural%20environment.|access-date=2021-03-27|website=www.unep.org}}</ref> Many studies have been done concerning the [[incineration#Gaseous emissions|gaseous emissions]] that result from the incineration process.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|date=2016-01-01|title=Toxic Pollutants from Plastic Waste – A Review|journal=Procedia Environmental Sciences|language=en|volume=35|pages=701–708|doi=10.1016/j.proenv.2016.07.069|issn=1878-0296|doi-access=free|last1=Verma|first1=Rinku|last2=Vinoda|first2=K.S.|last3=Papireddy|first3=M.|last4=Gowda|first4=A.N.S.}}</ref> Incinerated plastics release a number of toxins in the burning process, including [[Dioxindioxin]]s, [[Furanfuran]]s, [[Mercury (element)|Mercurymercury]] and [[Polychlorinatedpolychlorinated biphenyl|Polychlorinated Biphenyls]]s.<ref name=":4" /> When burned outside of facilities designed to collect or process the toxins, this can have significant health effects and create significant air pollution.<ref name=":4" />

Given the significant threat that oceans face, the [[European Investment Bank]] Group aims to increase its funding and advisory assistance for ocean cleanup. For example, the Clean Oceans Initiative (COI) was established in 2018. The European Investment Bank, the German Development Bank, and the [[French Development Agency]] (AFD) agreed to invest a total of €2 ''&nbsp;''billion under the COI from October 2018 to October 2023 in initiatives aimed at reducing pollution discharge into the oceans, with a special focus on plastics.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Bank|first=European Investment|url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-eib-group-climate-bank-roadmap|title=The EIB Group Climate Bank Roadmap 2021–2025|year=2020|publisher=European Investment Bank|isbn=978-9286149085|language=EN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Bank|first=European Investment|url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-ocean-initiative|title=The Clean Oceans Initiative|date=2020-10-14|publisher=European Investment Bank|language=EN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Bank|first=European Investment|url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-eib-and-the-clean-ocean-initiative|title=The EIB and the Clean Oceans Initiative|date=2020-10-09|publisher=European Investment Bank|language=EN}}</ref>

The Clean Ocean Initiative plans to give €4 ''&nbsp;''billion in funding towards decreasing plastic waste at sea by the end of 2025. Improved wastewater treatment in [[Sri Lanka]], [[Egypt]], and [[South Africa]] are some examples, as is solid waste management in [[Togo]] and [[Senegal]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Financing nature and biodiversity |url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/nature-biodiversity-finance |access-date=2023-01-27 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative doubles its commitment to provide €4 billion by 2025 to protect the Oceans and welcomes EBRD as new member {{!}} KfW |url=https://www.kfw.de/About-KfW/Newsroom/Latest-News/News-Details_692992.html |access-date=2023-01-27 |website=www.kfw.de |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Anyiego |first=Beldine |date=2022-08-15 |title=AFRICA: The Clean Oceans initiative will fund twice as many projects as expected? |url=https://www.copip.eu/news/africa-the-clean-oceans-initiative-will-fund-twice-as-many-projects-as-expected/ |access-date=2023-01-27 |website=COPIP}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Shrestha |first=Priyanka |date=2022-02-14 |title=Clean Oceans Initiative doubles commitment to €4bn by 2025 |url=https://www.energylivenews.com/?p=259404 |access-date=2023-01-27 |website=Energy Live News |language=en-US}}</ref>

Differences between countries in environmental policy and costs relating to taxes, disposal, and transport, are important determinants on legal and illegal international traffic in hazardous and nonhazardousnon[[hazardous waste]] and scrap products, including plastics.<ref name="Benson">{{cite news |last1=Benson |first1=Emily |last2=Mortensen |first2=Sarah |title=The Basel Convention: From Hazardous Waste to Plastic Pollution |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/basel-convention-hazardous-waste-plastic-pollution |date=7 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Kellenberg">{{cite journal |last1=Kellenberg |first1=Derek |title=The Economics of the International Trade of Waste |journal=Annual Review of Resource Economics |date=1 October 2015 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=109–125 |doi=10.1146/annurev-resource-100913-012639 |s2cid=155009941 |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-resource-100913-012639 |language=en |issn=1941-1340}}</ref>

In 2022, countries agreed to devise a [[Globalglobal plastic pollution treaty]] by 2024.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Geddie |first1=John |last2=Brock |first2=Joe |title='Biggest green deal since Paris': UN agrees plastic treaty roadmap |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/biggest-green-deal-since-paris-un-agrees-plastic-treaty-roadmap-2022-03-02/ |work=Reuters |date=2 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=UN body weighs a global treaty to fight plastic pollution |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory/body-weighs-global-treaty-fight-plastic-pollution-83110501 |website=ABC News |access-date=3 July 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

According to an analysis of global trade data by the nonprofit Basel Action Network, violations of the [[Basel Convention]], active since January 1, January 2021, have been rampant during 2021. The U.S., Canada, and the European Union have [[Waste management#International waste trade|sent hundreds of millions of tons of plastic]] to countries with insufficient waste management infrastructure, where much of it is landfilled, burned, or littered into the environment.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rich countries are illegally exporting plastic trash to poor countries, data suggests |url=https://grist.org/accountability/rich-countries-illegally-exporting-plastic-trash/ |website=Grist |access-date=3 July 2022 |language=en-us |date=15 April 2022}}</ref>

Standardization of products, especially of packaging<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Qureshi |first1=Muhammad Saad |last2=Oasmaa |first2=Anja |last3=Pihkola |first3=Hanna |last4=Deviatkin |first4=Ivan |last5=Tenhunen |first5=Anna |last6=Mannila |first6=Juha |last7=Minkkinen |first7=Hannu |last8=Pohjakallio |first8=Maija |last9=Laine-Ylijoki |first9=Jutta |title=Pyrolysis of plastic waste: Opportunities and challenges |journal=Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis |date=1 November 2020 |volume=152 |pages=104804 |doi=10.1016/j.jaap.2020.104804 |bibcode=2020JAAP..15204804Q |s2cid=200068035 |language=en |issn=0165-2370}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zorpas |first1=Antonis A. |title=Sustainable waste management through end-of-waste criteria development |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |date=1 April 2016 |volume=23 |issue=8 |pages=7376–7389 |doi=10.1007/s11356-015-5990-5 |pmid=26690583 |bibcode=2016ESPR...23.7376Z |s2cid=36643191 |language=en |issn=1614-7499}}</ref>{{additional citation needed|date=January 2022}} which are, as of 2022, often composed of different materials (each and across products) that are hard or currently impossible to either separate or recycle together in general or in an automated way<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ulrich |first1=Viola |title=Plastikmüll und Recycling: Acht Mythen und Irrtümer |url=https://www.welt.de/kmpkt/article198117915/Plastikmuell-und-Recycling-Acht-Mythen-und-Irrtuemer.html |access-date=26 January 2022 |work=DIE WELT |date=6 November 2019 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Enck |first1=Judith |last2=Dell |first2=Jan |title=Plastic Recycling Doesn't Work and Will Never Work |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/05/single-use-plastic-chemical-recycling-disposal/661141/ |website=The Atlantic |access-date=3 July 2022 |language=en |date=30 May 2022}}</ref> could support recyclability and recycling.

For instance, there are systems that can theoretically [[waste sorting|distinguish between and sort]] 12 types of plastics such as PET using [[hyperspectral imaging]] and algorithms developed via [[machine learning]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Breakthrough in separating plastic waste: Machines can now distinguish 12 different types of plastic |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-01-breakthrough-plastic-machines-distinguish.html |access-date=19 January 2022 |work=Aarhus University |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Henriksen |first1=Martin L. |last2=Karlsen |first2=Celine B. |last3=Klarskov |first3=Pernille |last4=Hinge |first4=Mogens |title=Plastic classification via in-line hyperspectral camera analysis and unsupervised machine learning |journal=Vibrational Spectroscopy |date=1 January 2022 |volume=118 |pages=103329 |doi=10.1016/j.vibspec.2021.103329 |s2cid=244913832 |language=en |issn=0924-2031|doi-access=free }}</ref> while only an estimated 9% of the estimated 6.3 ''&nbsp;''billion tonnes of plastic waste from the 1950s up to 2018 has been recycled (12% has been incinerated and the rest reportedly being "dumped in landfills or the natural environment").<ref name="economist.com"/>

The two common forms of waste collection include curbside collection and the use of drop-off recycling centers. About 87 percent of the population in the United States (273 ''&nbsp;''million people) have access to curbside and drop-off recycling centers. In curbside collection, which is available to about 63 percent of the United States population (193 ''&nbsp;''million people), people place designated plastics in a special bin to be picked up by a public or private hauling company.<ref name="name" /> Most curbside programs collect more than one type of plastic resin, usually both [[PETE]] and [[HDPE]].<ref name="name1" /> At drop-off recycling centers, which are available to 68 percent of the United States population (213 ''&nbsp;''million people), people take their recyclables to a centrally located facility.<ref name="name">{{cite web|title=AF&PA Releases Community Recycling Survey Results|url=http://www.paperrecycles.org/news/press_releases/2010_community_survey_results.html|access-date=3 February 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120602132040/http://paperrecycles.org/news/press_releases/2010_community_survey_results.html|archive-date=2 June 2012}}</ref> Once collected, the plastics are delivered to a [[materials recovery facility]] (MRF) or handler for sorting into single-resin streams to increase product value. The sorted plastics are then [[baler#Industrial balers|baled]] to reduce shipping costs to reclaimers.<ref name="name1">{{cite web |url=http://www.americanchemistry.com/s_plastics/doc.asp?CID=1571&DID=5972 |title=Life cycle of a plastic product |work=[[American Chemistry Council|Americanchemistry.com]] |access-date=3 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100317004747/http://www.americanchemistry.com/s_plastics/doc.asp?CID=1571&DID=5972 |archive-date=17 March 2010 }}</ref>

Reducing plastic waste could support recycling and is often taken together with recycling: the "3R" refer to Reduce, Reuse and Recycle.<ref name="10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04709"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wichai-utcha |first1=N. |last2=Chavalparit |first2=O. |title=3Rs Policy and plastic waste management in Thailand |journal=Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management |date=1 January 2019 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=10–22 |doi=10.1007/s10163-018-0781-y |bibcode=2019JMCWM..21...10W |s2cid=104827713 |language=en |issn=1611-8227}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mohammed |first1=Musa |last2=Shafiq |first2=Nasir |last3=Elmansoury |first3=Ali |last4=Al-Mekhlafi |first4=Al-Baraa Abdulrahman |last5=Rached |first5=Ehab Farouk |last6=Zawawi |first6=Noor Amila |last7=Haruna |first7=Abdulrahman |last8=Rafindadi |first8=Aminu Darda’u |last9=Ibrahim |first9=Muhammad Bello |title=Modeling of 3R (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle) for Sustainable Construction Waste Reduction: A Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) |journal=Sustainability |date=January 2021 |volume=13 |issue=19 |pages=10660 |doi=10.3390/su131910660 |language=en |issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zamroni |first1=M. |last2=Prahara |first2=Rahma Sandhi |last3=Kartiko |first3=Ari |last4=Purnawati |first4=Dia |last5=Kusuma |first5=Dedi Wijaya |title=The Waste Management Program Of 3R (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) By Economic Incentive And Facility Support |journal=Journal of Physics: Conference Series |date=1 February 2020 |volume=1471 |issue=1 |pages=012048 |doi=10.1088/1742-6596/1471/1/012048 |bibcode=2020JPhCS1471a2048Z |s2cid=216235783 |language=en|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In July 2018, [[Albania]] became the first country in Europe to ban lightweight plastic bags.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://rti.rtsh.al/2018/06/13/rama-albania-the-first-country-in-europe-to-ban-plastic-bags-lawfully/|title=Rama: Albania the first country in Europe to ban plastic bags lawfully {{!}} Radio Tirana International|date=13 June 2018|website=rti.rtsh.al|language=en-US|access-date=29 July 2018|archive-date=29 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729171154/http://rti.rtsh.al/2018/06/13/rama-albania-the-first-country-in-europe-to-ban-plastic-bags-lawfully/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":32">{{cite web|url=http://www.tiranatimes.com/?p=137780|title=Albania bans non-biodegradable plastic bags|date=4 July 2018|website=Tirana Times|access-date=21 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://makeresourcescount.eu/balkans-bin-bags/|title=Balkans bans the bag|date=3 July 2017|website=makeresourcescount.eu|language=en-GB|access-date=23 July 2018}}</ref> Albania's environment minister [[Blendi Klosi]] said that businesses importing, producing or trading plastic bags less than 35 microns in thickness risk facing fines between 1 million to 1.5 ''&nbsp;''million lek (€7,900 to €11,800).<ref name=":32" />

An Australian single-use plastic reduction initiative, [[Plastic Free July]], that began in 2011 in Perth, Western Australia has gained a significant global outreach. As of 2022, it had a record 140 ''&nbsp;''million participants making conscious changes and reducing their waste by 2.6 ''&nbsp;''million tonnes in 2022.<ref name=":16" /> In 2022, in recognition of its contributions to promoting single-use plastic pollution solutions, Plastic Free July was one of two finalists in the annual UN Sustainable Development Action Awards.<ref name=":17" />

China is the biggest consumer of single-use plastics.<ref name=ORVI>{{cite web |title=The Macroproblem of Microplastics |url=https://ohiorivervalleyinstitute.org/the-macroproblem-of-microplastics/ |publisher=Ohio River Valley Institute |language=en |date=3 August 2020 |quote=China, the world’s biggest consumer of single-use plastics.}}</ref> In 2020 [[China]] published a plan to cut 30% of plastic waste in 5five years. As part of this plan, single use plastic bags and straws will be banned.<ref>{{cite news |title=Single-use plastic: China to ban bags and other items |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-51171491 |access-date=23 February 2020 |agency=BBC |date=20 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=China to ban single-use plastic bags and straws |url=https://www.dw.com/en/china-to-ban-single-use-plastic-bags-and-straws/a-52065123 |access-date=23 February 2020 |agency=Deutsche Welle |date=20 January 2020}}</ref>

The [[2015 National Games of India]], organised in [[Thiruvananthapuram]], was associated with green protocols.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/green-rules-of-the-national-games/article6873140.ece|title=Green rules of the National Games |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> This was initiated by Suchitwa Mission that aimed for "[[zero-waste]]" venues. To make the event "disposable-free", there was ban on the usage of disposable water bottles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/National-Games-Green-Panel-Recommends-Ban-on-Plastic/2015/01/18/article2624237.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714071102/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/National-Games-Green-Panel-Recommends-Ban-on-Plastic/2015/01/18/article2624237.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 July 2015|title=National Games: Green Panel Recommends Ban on Plastic|work=The New Indian Express}}</ref> The event witnessed the usage of reusable tableware and stainless steel tumblers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://m.newindianexpress.com/kochi/426326 |title=Kochi a 'Museum City' Too |work=[[The New Indian Express]] |date=8 February 2016 |access-date=27 April 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402114110/http://m.newindianexpress.com/kochi/426326 |archive-date=2 April 2015 }}</ref> Athletes were provided with refillable steel flasks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yentha.com/news/view/news/national-games-2015-simple-steps-to-keep-games-green|title=National Games 2015: Simple Steps To Keep Games Green|work=yentha.com|access-date=26 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201030924/http://www.yentha.com/news/view/news/national-games-2015-simple-steps-to-keep-games-green|archive-date=1 December 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is estimated that these green practices stopped the generation of 120 tonnes of disposable waste.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/Setting-a-New-Precedent/2015/02/13/article2666527.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125173726/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/Setting-a-New-Precedent/2015/02/13/article2666527.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 November 2015|title=Setting a New Precedent|work=The New Indian Express}}</ref>

As of 2020, 104 communities achieved the title of "Plastic free community" in United Kingdom,; 500 want to achieve it.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turn |first1=Anna |title=Is It Really Possible To Go 'Plastic Free'? This Town Is Showing The World How. |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/plastic-free-town-penzance-waste_n_5e57e0cec5b60102210d4534 |access-date=16 March 2020 |agency=Huffington post |date=2 March 2020}}</ref>

In the beginning of 2024, 12 states and at least 500 municipalities had some kind of plastic bag ban. 3Three state banbans and 2two city banbans alone, reduced the amount of plastic bags used in one year approximately by 6 ''&nbsp;''billion.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bennett |first1=Paige |title=Plastic Bag Bans in U.S. Have Reduced Plastic Bag Use by Billions, Report Says |url=https://www.ecowatch.com/plastic-bag-bans-effectiveness.html |access-date=24 January 2024 |agency=Ecowatch |date=23 January 2024}}</ref>

In 2019, the [[New York (state)|state New York]] banned single use plastic bags and introduced a 5-cent fee for using single use paper bags. The ban will enter into force in 2020. This will not only reduce plastic bag usage in New York state (23 billion every year until now), but also eliminate 12 ''&nbsp;''million barrels of oil used to make plastic bags used by the state each year.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nace |first1=Trevor |title=New York Officially Bans Plastic Bags |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/trevornace/2019/04/23/new-york-officially-bans-plastic-bags/ |access-date=12 May 2019 |agency=Forbes |date=23 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Gold |first1=Michael |title=Paper or Plastic? Time to Bring Your Own Bag |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/22/nyregion/nyc-paper-bag-fee.html |access-date=12 May 2019 |agency=The New York Times |date=22 April 2019}}</ref>

In 2019, [[Delaware]], [[Maine]], [[Oregon]] and [[Vermont]] enacted on legislation. [[Vermont]] also restricted single-use straws and [[polystyrene]] containers.<ref name=":03" />

In 2019, [[Connecticut]] imposed a $0.10 charge on single-use plastic bags at point of sale, and is going to ban them on July 1, July 2021.<ref name=":03" />

On 30 July 30, 2017, [[Vanuatu]]'s Independence Day, made an announcement of stepping towards the beginning of not using plastic bags and bottles. MakingThis made it one of the first Pacific nations to do so and will start banning the importation of single-use plastic bottles and bags.<ref name=":14" />

The ten corporations that produce the most plastic on the planet, [[The Coca-Cola Company]], [[Colgate-Palmolive]], [[Danone]], [[Mars, Incorporated]], [[Mondelēz International]], [[Nestlé]], [[PepsiCo]], [[Perfetti Van Melle]], [[Procter & Gamble]], and [[Unilever]], formed a well-financed network that has sabotaged for decades government and community efforts to address the plastic pollution crisis, according to a detailed investigative report by the Changing Markets Foundation. The investigation documents how these companies delay and derail legislation so that they can continue to inundate consumers with disposable plastic packaging. These large plastic producers have exploited public fears of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] to work toward delaying and reversing existing regulation of plastic disposal. Big ten plastic producers have advanced voluntary commitments for plastic waste disposal as a stratagem to deter governments from imposing additional regulations.<ref>Changing Markets Foundation, 17 Sept. 2020, [http://changingmarkets.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Talking-Trash-FINAL.pdf "Ground-Breaking Report Reveals Hypocrisy of World’s Biggest Plastic Polluters: ‘Talking Trash’ Exposes How Big Plastic Has Obstructed and Undermined Proven Legislative Solutions to The Crisis for Decades"]</ref>

PepsiCo faced legal action on Wednesday,15 November 15, 2023, as the New York attorney general filed a lawsuit. The allegations asserted that the food and beverage giant jeopardized the environment and disseminated deceptive information about its dedication to reducing single-use plastic in packaging. Moreover, a substantial portion of the plastic pollution along the Buffalo River was linked to products manufactured by the company.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Nerkar |first=Santul |date=2023-11-15 |title=New York Attorney General Sues Pepsi Over Plastic Packaging |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/15/business/pepsi-plastic-recycling-lawsuit.html |access-date=2023-11-19 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

As early as the early 1970s, petrochemical industry leaders understood that the vast majority of plastic they produced would never be recycled. For example, an April 1973 report written by industry scientists for industry executive states that sorting the hundreds of different kinds plastic is "infeasible" and cost-prohibitive. By the late 1980s, industry leaders also knew that the public must be kept feeling good about purchasing plastic products if their industry was to continue to prosper, and needed to quell proposed legislation to regulate the plastic being sold. So the industry launched a $50 ''&nbsp;''million/year [[corporate propaganda]] campaign targeting the American public with the message that plastic can be, and is being, recycled, and lobbied American municipalities to launch expensive plastic waste collection programs, and lobbied U.S. states to require the labeling of plastic products and containers with recycling symbols. They were confident, however, that the recycling initiatives would not end up recovering and reusing plastic in amounts anywhere near sufficient to hurt their profits in selling new "virgin" plastic products because they understood that the recycling efforts that they were promoting were likely to fail. Industry leaders more recently have planned 100% recycling of the plastic they produce by 2040, calling for more efficient collection, sorting and processing.<ref>National Public Radio, 12 September 2020 [https://www.npr.org/2020/09/11/897692090/how-big-oil-misled-the-public-into-believing-plastic-would-be-recycled "How Big Oil Misled The Public Into Believing Plastic Would Be Recycled"]</ref><ref>PBS, Frontline, 31 March 2020, [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/plastics-industry-insiders-reveal-the-truth-about-recycling/ "Plastics Industry Insiders Reveal the Truth About Recycling"]</ref>

Earth Day 2020 is the 50th Anniversary of Earth Day. Celebrations will include activities such as the Great Global CleanUp, Citizen Science, Advocacy, Education, and art. This Earth Day aims to educate and mobilize more than one billion people to grow and support the next generation of environmental activists, with a major focus on plastic waste.<ref>Earth Day 50th Anniversary [https://www.earthday.org/earthday/countdown-to-2020 Great Global CleanUp]</ref><ref>[https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-partners-plans-underway-for-50th-anniversary-of-earth-day-300633538.html Plans Underway for 50th Anniversary of Earth Day]</ref>

Mexico City implemented a ban on single-use plastics, starting with plastic bags in 2020 and expanding to items like utensils, straws, and to-go trays in 2021.<ref name=":18">{{cite journal |title=Plastics have shaped nearly every aspect of society. Now what? |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Environment/2023/0710/Plastics-have-shaped-nearly-every-aspect-of-society.-Now-what |access-date=14 July 2023 |journal=The Christian Science Monitor}}</ref>

In 2020, China disclosed a three-part proposal to reduce plastic pollution. The plan includes a nationwide prohibition on single-use plastics, introduced as the country's plastic waste had risen to an anticipated 45 ''&nbsp;''million tons in 2025, partly as a result of a surge in e-commerce packaging.<ref>{{cite journal |titlename=Plastics have shaped nearly every aspect of society. Now what? |url=https"://www.csmonitor.com/Environment/2023/0710/Plastics-have-shaped-nearly-every-aspect-of-society.-Now-what18" |access-date=14 July 2023 |journal=The Christian Science Monitor}}</ref>

* [[Great Pacific garbageGarbage patchPatch]] – an area with concentrations of pelagic plastics, chemical sludge, and other debris

[[File:Where is all the plastic in the ocean video.webm|thumb|Lecture of Erik van Sebille ([[Utrecht University]]) on plastic pollution.]]

* [[Elizabeth Kolbert]], "A Trillion Little Pieces: How [[plastics]] are [[poison]]ing us", ''[[The New Yorker]]'', 3 July 2023, pp. &nbsp;24–27. "If much of contemporary life is wrapped up in plastic, and the result of this is that we are poisoning our kids, ourselves, and our [[ecosystem]]s, then contemporary life may need to be rethought." (p. &nbsp;27.)