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{{short description|Systematic study undertaken to increase knowledge}}
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{{Research}}
{{Communication}}
'''Research''' is "[[creativity|creative]] and [[scientific method|systematic]] work undertaken to increase the stock of [[knowledge]]".<ref>{{Cite book|doi = 10.1787/9789264239012-en|title = Frascati Manual|series = The Measurement of Scientific, Technological and Innovation Activities|year = 2015|isbn = 978-9264238800|last1 = OECD|hdl = 20.500.12749/13290|url = https://eduq.info/xmlui/handle/11515/35750|author1-link = OECD|access-date = 4 April 2020|archive-date = 5 June 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200605123738/https://eduq.info/xmlui/handle/11515/35750|url-status = live}}</ref> It involves the collection, organization, and [[analysis]] of [[evidence]] to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular attentiveness to controlling sources of [[bias]] and [[error]]. These activities are characterized by accounting and controlling for biases. A research project may be an expansion of past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole.
The primary purposes of [[basic research]] (as opposed to [[applied research]]) are [[documentation]], [[Discovery (observation)|discovery]], [[interpretation (philosophy)|interpretation]], and the [[research and development]] (R&D) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research depend on [[epistemology|epistemologies]], which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences. There are several forms of research: [[Science|scientific]], [[humanities]], [[artistic]], economic, [[social research|social]], business, [[marketing research|marketing]], [[practitioner research]], life, [[technological]], etc. The scientific study of research practices is known as [[metascience|meta-research]].
A '''researcher''' is a person
== Etymology ==
[[File:Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[[Aristotle]], (384–322 BC), one of the early figures in the development of the [[scientific method]]<ref>"[https://www.pbs.org/saf/1307/features/knows.htm The Origins of Science] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030303204503/http://www.pbs.org/saf/1307/features/knows.htm |date=3 March 2003 }}". ''[[Scientific American Frontiers]]''.</ref>]]
The word ''research'' is derived from the [[French language|Middle French]] "''recherche''", which means "to go about seeking", the term itself being derived from the [[Old French]] term "
== Definitions ==
Research has been defined in a number of different ways, and while there are similarities, there does not appear to be a single, all-encompassing definition that is embraced by all who engage in it.
Research, in its simplest terms, is searching for knowledge and searching for truth. In a formal sense, it is a systematic study of a problem attacked by a deliberately chosen strategy, which starts with choosing an approach to preparing a blueprint (design) and acting upon it in terms of designing research hypotheses, choosing methods and techniques, selecting or developing data collection tools, processing the data, interpretation, and
Another definition of research is given by [[John W. Creswell]], who states that "research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps: pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question.<ref>Creswell, J.W. (2008). ''Educational Research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research'' (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson.{{ISBN?}}{{page needed|date=June 2019}}</ref>
The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research more generally to also include studying already existing knowledge: "studious inquiry or examination; ''especially'': investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws".<ref name="Merriam_webster"/>
== Forms of research ==
=== Original research ===
{{Redirect|Original research|the Wikipedia prohibition against user-generated, unpublished research|Wikipedia:No original research|selfref=yes}}
'''Original research''', also called '''primary research''', is research that is not exclusively based on a summary, review, or synthesis of earlier publications on the subject of research. This material is of a [[Primary source|primary-source]] character. The purpose of the original research is to produce new [[knowledge]]
The degree of originality of the research is among the major criteria for articles to be published in [[academic journal]]s and usually established by means of [[peer review]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Callaham |first1=Michael |last2=Wears|first2= Robert|last3=Weber|first3=Ellen L. |title=Journal Prestige, Publication Bias, and Other Characteristics Associated With Citation of Published Studies in Peer-Reviewed Journals |journal=JAMA |volume=287 |issue=21 |pages=2847–50 |year=2002 |doi=10.1001/jama.287.21.2847|pmid=12038930 |doi-access= }}</ref> [[Graduate student]]s are commonly required to perform original research as part of a [[dissertation]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oFFWt5oyA3oC&q=%22original+research%22&pg=PA178|title=Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2006–2007 edition|author=US Department of Labor|date=2006|publisher=Mcgraw-hill|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0071472883}}</ref>
=== Scientific research ===
{{Main|Scientific method}}
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[[File:Microscopy lab.jpg|thumb|right|Primary scientific research being carried out at the [[Electron microscope|Microscopy]] Laboratory of the [[Idaho National Laboratory]]]]
[[File:Alcator C-Mod.jpg|thumb|right|Scientific research equipment at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]]]
[[File:RV Sonne 2014 1.jpg|thumb|right|German maritime [[research vessel]] [[RV Sonne (2014)|''Sonne'']]]]
'''Scientific research''' is a systematic way of gathering data and harnessing [[curiosity]].{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} This research provides [[science|scientific]] information and theories for the explanation of
Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural [[Process (science)|process]]. Though
# [[Scientific method#Elements of the scientific method|Observations and formation of the topic]]: Consists of the subject area of one's interest and following that subject area to conduct subject-related research. The subject area should not be randomly chosen since it requires reading a vast amount of literature on the topic to determine the gap in the literature the researcher intends to narrow. A keen interest in the chosen subject area is advisable. The research will have to be justified by linking its importance to already existing knowledge about the topic.
# [[Hypothesis]]: A testable prediction which designates the relationship between two or more variables.
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'''Artistic research''', also seen as 'practice-based research', can take form when creative works are considered both the research and the object of research itself. It is the debatable body of thought which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge and truth.
The controversial trend of artistic teaching becoming more academics-oriented is leading to artistic research being accepted as the primary mode of enquiry in art as in the case of other disciplines.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lesage |first1=Dieter |date=Spring 2009 |title=Who's Afraid of Artistic Research? On measuring artistic research output |journal=Art & Research |volume=2 |issue=2 |url=http://www.artandresearch.org.uk/v2n2/pdfs/lesage.pdf |issn=1752-6388 |access-date=14 August 2011 |archive-date=5 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005085443/http://www.artandresearch.org.uk/v2n2/pdfs/lesage.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> One of the characteristics of artistic research is that it must accept [[subjectivity]] as opposed to the classical scientific methods. As such, it is similar to the [[social science]]s in using [[qualitative research]] and [[intersubjectivity]] as tools to apply measurement and critical analysis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1 = Eisner | first1 = E. W. |title = On the Differences between Scientific and Artistic Approaches to Qualitative Research |journal = Educational Researcher |volume = 10 |issue = 4 |pages = 5–9
Artistic research has been defined by the [[School of Dance and Circus]] (Dans och Cirkushögskolan, DOCH), [[Stockholm]] in the following manner – "Artistic research is to investigate and test with the purpose of gaining knowledge within and for our artistic disciplines. It is based on artistic practices, methods, and criticality. Through presented documentation, the insights gained shall be placed in a context."<ref name="DOCH">{{cite web |url=http://www.doch.se/web/Artistic_Research.aspx |title=Artistic research at DOCH |author=Unattributed |website=Dans och Cirkushögskolan (website) |access-date=14 August 2011 |archive-date=5 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105125920/http://www.doch.se/web/Artistic_Research.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> Artistic research aims to enhance knowledge and understanding with presentation of the arts.<ref>Schwab, M. (2009). "Draft Proposal". ''Journal for Artistic Research''. Bern University of the Arts.</ref> A simpler understanding by [[Julian Klein]] defines artistic research as any kind of research employing the artistic mode of perception.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jar-online.net/what-artistic-research/ |title=What is artistic research? |author=Julian Klein |date=2010 |access-date=15 June 2021 |archive-date=13 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513033206/https://jar-online.net/what-artistic-research |url-status=live }}</ref> For a survey of the central problematics of today's artistic research, see [[Giaco Schiesser]].<ref>Schiesser, G. (2015). What is at stake – Qu'est ce que l'enjeu? Paradoxes – Problematics – Perspectives in Artistic Research Today, in: Arts, Research, Innovation and Society. Eds. Gerald Bast, [[Elias G. Carayannis]] [= ARIS, Vol. 1]. Wien/New York: Springer. pp. 197–210.</ref>
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=== Historical research ===
{{Main|Historical method}}
[[File:Jebens, Adolf - Leopold von Ranke
The [[historical method]] comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use historical sources and other evidence to research and then to write history. There are various history guidelines that are commonly used by historians in their work, under the headings of external criticism, internal criticism, and synthesis. This includes [[lower criticism]] and sensual criticism. Though items may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following concepts are part of most formal historical research:<ref name="Garraghan (1946)">{{cite book |title=A Guide to Historical Method |last=Garraghan |first=Gilbert J. |year=1946 |publisher=Fordham University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8371-7132-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/guidetohistorica0000garr_e1h2/page/168 168] |url=https://archive.org/details/guidetohistorica0000garr_e1h2|url-access=limited }}</ref>
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== Steps in conducting research ==
[[File:Research design and evidence.svg|thumb|Research design and evidence]]
[[File:Research cycle.
Research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure of research.<ref>Trochim, W.M.K, (2006). Research Methods Knowledge Base.</ref> The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the method of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of discussion and results. The major steps in conducting research are:<ref>Creswell, J.W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (3rd). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 2008 {{ISBN|0-13-613550-1}} (pages 8–9)</ref>
* Identification of research problem
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;[[Qualitative research]]
Qualitative research refers to much more subjective non-
;[[Quantitative research]]
:This involves systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships, by asking a narrow question and collecting numerical data to analyze it utilizing [[Descriptive statistical technique|statistical]] methods. The quantitative research designs are experimental, correlational, and survey (or descriptive).<ref>Creswell, J.W. (2008). ''Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research.'' Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.</ref> Statistics derived from quantitative research can be used to establish the existence of associative or causal relationships between variables. Quantitative research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of [[positivism]].
The quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. These methods produce results that can be summarized, compared, and generalized to larger populations if the data are collected using proper sampling and data collection strategies.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|
If the research question is about people, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments (this is the only way that a quantitative study can be considered a true experiment).{{citation needed|date=December 2012}} If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://people.uwec.edu/piercech/ResearchMethods/Data%20collection%20methods/DATA%20COLLECTION%20METHODS.htm|title=Data Collection Methods<!-- Bot generated title -->|website=uwec.edu|access-date=26 October 2011|archive-date=20 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020151015/http://people.uwec.edu/piercech/ResearchMethods/Data%20collection%20methods/DATA%20COLLECTION%20METHODS.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
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== Research ethics ==
{{Excerpt|Research ethics|references=no}}
== Problems in research ==
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== Professionalisation {{anchor|Professionalization}} ==
{{globalize|section|date=January 2014}}
{{see also|Academic ranks|
{{further|Research fellow|Research associate|Research assistant}}
In several national and private academic systems, the [[professionalisation]] of research has resulted in formal job titles.
=== In Russia ===
In present-day Russia, and some other countries of the former [[Soviet Union]], the term ''researcher'' ({{
The following ranks are known:
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The total number of researchers (full-time equivalents) per million inhabitants for individual countries is shown in the following table.
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
! Country !! researchers (full-time equivalents) per million inhabitants 2018<ref>[https://www.unesco.org/reports/science/2021/en/statistics, Research input and output worldwide, various years since 2014, Statistical Annex, by country, Table C2: Total researchers and researchers per million inhabitants, 2015 and 2018]</ref>
|-
| {{flaglist| Algeria }} || 819
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| {{flaglist| Chile}} || 493
|-
| {{flaglist| China }} || 1307
|-
| {{flaglist| Costa Rica}} || 380
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| {{flaglist| Iceland }} || 6131
|-
| {{flaglist| India }} || 253
|-
| {{flaglist| Indonesia }} || 216
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| {{flaglist| Japan }} || 5331
|-
| {{flaglist| Jordan }} || 596
|-
| {{flaglist| Kazakhstan}} || 667
|-
| {{flaglist| Kuwait }} || 514
|-
| {{flaglist| Latvia}} || 1792
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| {{flaglist| Netherlands }} || 5605
|-
| {{flaglist| New Zealand }} || 5530
|-
| {{flaglist| North Macedonia}} || 799
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| {{flaglist| Serbia }} || 2087
|-
| {{flaglist| Singapore }} || 6803
|-
| {{flaglist| Slovakia }} || 2996
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| {{flaglist| Slovenia }} || 4855
|-
| {{flaglist| South Africa }} || 518
|-
| {{flaglist| South Korea }} || 7980
|-
| {{flaglist| Spain }} || 3001
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| {{flaglist| Thailand }} || 1350
|-
| {{flaglist| Tunisia }} || 1772
|-
| {{flaglist| Turkey }} || 1379
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|-
! rowspan="2" |Country
! colspan="4" |Research expenditure as a share of GDP by type of research (%), 2018<ref>[https://www.unesco.org/reports/science/2021/en/statistics, Research input and output worldwide, various years since 2014, Statistical Annex, by country, Table B1: Research expenditure as a share of GDP and in purchasing power parity dollars (PPP$), 2015–2018, year 2018 ]</ref>
|-
! data-sort-type="number" | Basic
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* [[List of countries by research and development spending]]
* [[List of words ending in ology|List of words ending in ''ology'']]
* [[Logology (science)]]
* [[Market research]]
* [[Marketing research]]
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[[Category:Methodology]]
[[Category:Scientific method]]
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