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{{short description|Law of a sovereign state}}
{{refimprove<!-- some sections are completely unsupported -->|date=April 2019}}
{{more citations needed<!-- some sections are completely unsupported -->|date=April 2019}}
'''Nationality law''' (or '''citizenship law''') is the [[law]] in each country and in each [[jurisdiction]] within each country which defines the rights and obligations of [[citizenship]] within the jurisdiction and the manner in which citizenship is acquired as well as how citizenship may be lost. A person who is not a citizen of the country is generally regarded as a foreigner, also referred to as an [[Alien (law)|alien]]. A person who has no recognised nationality or citizenship is regarded as [[Statelessness|stateless]].
{{Legal status of persons}}
'''Nationality law''' is the [[law]] of a [[sovereign state]], and of each of its [[jurisdiction]]s, that defines the legal manner in which a national identity is acquired and how it may be lost. In international law, the legal means to acquire [[nationality]] and formal membership in a nation are separated from the relationship between a national and the nation, known as [[citizenship]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Boll |first=Alfred Michael |title=Multiple Nationality And International Law |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mr6Y45439A0C&pg=PA67 |date=2007 |publisher=[[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]] |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-14838-3}}</ref>{{Rp|66–67}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Honohan |first1=Iseult |last2=Rougier |first2=Nathalie |title=Global Birthright Citizenship Laws: How Inclusive? |journal=Netherlands International Law Review |date=October 2018 |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=337–357 |doi=10.1007/s40802-018-0115-8 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329367793 |access-date=16 March 2021 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]], [[T.M.C. Asser Press]] |location=The Hague, Netherlands |s2cid=149761560 |issn=1741-6191 |oclc=1189243655}}</ref>{{Rp|338}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guerry |first1=Linda |last2=Rundell |first2=Ethan |title=Married Women's Nationality in the International Context (1918–1935) |journal=Clio |date=2016 |volume=43 |issue=1: Gender and the Citizen |pages=73–94 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26242543 |access-date=December 19, 2020 |publisher=Éditions Belin |location=Paris |jstor=26242543 |issn=2554-3822 |oclc=7788119453}}</ref>{{Rp|73}} Some nations domestically use the terms interchangeably,<ref>{{cite conference |last1=Stevens |first1=Doris |author-link1=Doris Stevens |title=Report on the Nationality of Women |url=https://d3crmev290s45i.cloudfront.net/dorp/apdf/0/5bc5/db81/1003437960.a.pdf?e=1608394874&h=57f31c27d478be7dc2c4c840b938dbeb |date=November 28, 1933 |publisher=[[Inter-American Commission of Women]] |location=Washington, D.C. |conference=7th Conference of American Republics, Montevideo, December 1933 |via=[[Alexander Street Press|Alexander Street Press: Women and Social Movements]]}}</ref>{{Rp|61, Part II}}<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sawyer |first1=Caroline |last2=Wray |first2=Helena |title=Report on Citizenship Law: United Kingdom |url=https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/33839/EUDO-CIT_2014_01_UK.pdf |publisher=[[European University Institute]] |access-date=16 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528081501/https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/33839/EUDO-CIT_2014_01_UK.pdf |archive-date=28 May 2019 |location=[[Badia Fiesolana]] |date=December 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{Rp|1–2}} though by the 20th century, nationality had commonly come to mean the status of belonging to a particular nation with no regard to the type of governance which established a relationship between the nation and its people.<ref name="ir.lawnet.fordham.edu">{{cite journal |last1=Villazor |first1=Rose Cuison |title=American Nationals and Interstitial Citizenship |journal=[[Fordham Law Review]] |date=March 2017 |volume=85 |issue=4 |pages=1673–1724 |url=https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5304&context=flr |access-date=March 9, 2021 |publisher=[[Fordham University School of Law]] |location=New York, New York |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322121109/https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5304&context=flr |archive-date=March 22, 2020 |issn=0015-704X |oclc=8090930759 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{Rp|1707–1708}} In law, nationality describes the relationship of a national to the state under international law and citizenship describes the relationship of a citizen within the state under domestic statutes. Different regulatory agencies monitor legal compliance for nationality and citizenship.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fransman |first1=Laurie |title=Fransman's British Nationality Law |date=2011 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Professional]] |location=Haywards Heath, West Sussex |isbn=978-1-84592-095-1 |edition=3rd}}</ref>{{Rp|4}} A person in a country of which he or she is not a national is generally regarded by that country as a foreigner or [[Alien (law)|alien]]. A person who has no recognised nationality to any jurisdiction is regarded as [[Statelessness|stateless]].
 
==Principles==
Nationality law can be broadly categorisedcategorized into three principles,:

# ''[[jus soli]]'', or right by birth on the soil,;
# ''[[jus sanguinis]]'', or right of the blood,; and
# ''[[jus matriomiimatrimonii]]'', or right of marriage.

Laws may be based on any one of these principles, but they commonly isreflect a combination of all three principles. Generally speaking, new world[[New World|countries in the Americas]] have a strong ''jus soli'' heritage (along with common law countries, until very recently, with the exception of the United States and Canada).
 
===Jus soli===
{{Main|Jus soli}}
''Jus soli'' is the principle, whereby birth on a country's territorial jurisdiction; egjurisdiction—e.g., land, or in some cases, vessel registered as being registered as under the jurisdiction of that country (aeroplanes, ships), confers—confers nationality of the country of birth to the child,. inIn most countries, this originated from the [[English Common Law|English common law tradition]] that all persons born on the King's land owed an allegiance to the King,. and thisThis law was inherited by the [[British Colony|colonies]] and subsequently codified into their own domestic laws, seesuch as in the United States, Canada, Australia, etc.
 
''Jus soli'' laws aren'tare not always absolute.: Sometimessometimes countries with ''jus soli'' laws require lawful residence in the country before the authorities will observe this right, such as in Cambodia or Thailand. Sometimes ''jus soli'' laws only operate generationally, such as in some Middle -Eastern countries, where a child born in the territory will only acquire citizenshipnationality if the child's father (regardless of parental nationality) was born in the same territory. Sometimes ''jus soli'' will be restricted by age.
 
There is also an intersection between the principles, wherewherein only persons of a certain race or blood, will acquire nationality at birth. For instance, in Liberia, African -born persons will acquire nationality, whereaswhile those of non-African origin will not be entitled to this privilege.
 
===Jus sanguinis===
{{Main|Jus sanguinis}}
''Jus sanguinis'' is the principle whereby someone's blood dictatesthe nationality of thata person is dictated by their blood (i.e., parentage or ancestry). For instance, in Italy;, citizenshipnationality may be transmitted perpetually if one can find an Italian ancestor up until the founding of the Italian state in their lineage. WhereasBy contrast, other states may restrict their ''jus sanguinis'' transmission of nationality up to the registration of the second generation down the family line.
 
===Jus matriomii and marriagematrimonii===
Some states automatically confer nationality on the basis of marriage. A prominent example of a country with ''jus matrimonii'' laws is [[Cape Verde]].
Some states automatically confer nationality on the basis of marriage. Cape Verde is a prominent example where upon marriage, and request for the citizenship, nationality is automatically conferred. Countries have in the past regarded marriage as an important status changing event in people's' lives and encouraged the special relationship that exists between spouses, sentiments which continue to be valued today. The common practice within and among states at the beginning of the 20th century was that a woman should have the nationality of her husband; i.e., upon marrying a foreigner the wife would automatically acquire the nationality of her husband, and lose her previous nationality, often with the reciprocal recognition by the other country. Even after the nationality of a married woman was no longer dependent on the nationality of her husband, legal provisions were still retained which automatically [[Naturalization|naturalised]] married women, and sometimes married men as well. This led to a number of problems, such as loss of the spouses' original nationality, the spouse losing the right to [[consular assistance]] (since consular assistance cannot be provided to nationals under the jurisdiction of a foreign state of which they are also nationals), and men becoming subject to military service obligations. There has been a shift towards a principle that neither marriage nor dissolution of marriage automatically affecting the nationality of either spouse, nor of a change of nationality by one spouse during marriage automatically affecting the nationality of their spouse. However, in many jurisdictions spouses can still obtain special and fast processing of applications for naturalisation.
 
The common practice within and among states at the beginning of the 20th century was that a woman should have the nationality of her husband; i.e., upon marrying a foreigner, the wife would automatically acquire the nationality of her husband and lose her previous nationality, often with the reciprocal recognition by the other country. Legal provisions existed that automatically [[Naturalization|naturalised]] married women, and sometimes married men as well. This led to a number of problems, such as: loss of the spouses' original nationality; spouses losing the right to [[consular assistance]], as such cannot be provided to nationals under the jurisdiction of a foreign state of which they are also nationals; and men becoming subject to military service obligations.
===Limits to nationality law===
By [[Customary international law|international custom]], each [[sovereign state]] generally has the right to freely determine who it will recognise as its nationals and citizens.<ref name=Elgar>[[Gerard-René de Groot]], Nationality Law, in ELGAR ENCYCLOPEDIA OF COMPARATIVE LAW 476-492,479 (Jan Smiths ed., 2006).</ref> Such determinations may be made by custom, [[statutory law]], or [[case law]] (precedent), or some combination. In some cases, the determination may be governed by [[public international law]]—for example, by [[Treaty|treaties]] and the [[European Convention on Nationality]].
 
There has been a shift towards a principle that neither marriage nor dissolution of marriage automatically affecting the nationality of either spouse, nor of a change of nationality by one spouse during marriage automatically affecting the nationality of their spouse. However, in many jurisdictions spouses can still obtain special and fast processing of applications for naturalisation.
Nevertheless, state's rights to determine who their nationals are is not absolute and, in particular, States must comply with their human rights obligations concerning the granting and loss of nationality. In particular, citizens must not be arbitrarily deprived of their nationality.<ref>[http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Pages/Nationality.aspx OHCHR | Right to a Nationality and Statelessness]</ref> The right to a nationality and the prohibition against depriving ones nationality is codified in article 15 of [[The Universal Declaration of Human Rights]].
 
=== Jus officii ===
Article 1 of the [[Convention on Certain Questions Relating to the Conflict of Nationality Laws]] states:
{{main|Vatican City#Citizenship}}
 
Uniquely, citizenship of the [[Vatican City]] is ''jus officii'', namely on the grounds of appointment to work in a certain capacity in the service of the Holy See. It usually ceases upon cessation of the appointment. Citizenship is also extended to the spouse and children of a citizen, provided they are living together in the city.<ref name=citizenship>{{cite web |url=https://www.vaticanstate.va/phocadownload/leggi-decreti/Leggesullacittadinanzalaresidenzaelaccesso.pdf |title=Law on citizenship, residence and access |publisher=Vatican City State |date=22 February 2011 |access-date=31 July 2022 |language=it}}</ref> Anyone who loses Vatican citizenship and does not possess other citizenship automatically becomes an [[Italian citizenship|Italian citizen]] as provided in the [[Lateran Treaty]].
:It is for each State to determine under its own law who are its nationals. This law shall be recognised by other States in so far as it is consistent with international conventions, international custom, and the principles of law generally recognised with regard to nationality.<ref>[http://eudo-citizenship.eu/InternationalDB/docs/Convention%20on%20certain%20questions%20relating%20to%20the%20conflict%20of%20nationality%20laws%20FULL%20TEXT.pdf Convention on Certain Questions Relating to the Conflict of Nationality Laws] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226230108/http://eudo-citizenship.eu/InternationalDB/docs/Convention%20on%20certain%20questions%20relating%20to%20the%20conflict%20of%20nationality%20laws%20FULL%20TEXT.pdf |date=2014-12-26 }}, 1930</ref>
 
=== Naturalization ===
The [[Inter-American Court of Human Rights]] went further in limiting state's right to determine nationality:
{{Main|Naturalization}}
Most states today allow for aliens to acquire a nationality via a process known as naturalization on the basis of long-term residence and other conditions. This process and the conditions it entails are detailed in the states' nationality laws. Some nationality laws have special provisions to make it easier for [[diaspora]] populations to become nationals.
 
==Limits to nationality law==
: the manner in which States regulate matters bearing on nationality cannot today be deemed within their sole jurisdiction; [the powers enjoyed by the States in that area] are also circumscribed by their obligations to ensure the full protection of human rights<ref>''Proposed Amendments to the Naturalization Provisions of the Constitution of Costa Rica'', Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Advisory Opinion OC 4/84 of 19 January 1984, Series A, No. 4, p. 94, para. 32</ref>
By [[Customary international law|international custom]], each [[sovereign state]] generally has the right to freely determine who it will recognise as its nationals and citizens.<ref name="Elgar">[[Gerard-René de Groot|de Groot, Gerard-René]]. 2006. "Nationality Law." Pp. 476–92 in ''Elgar Encyclopedia of Comparative Law'', edited by J. Smiths. p. 479. [[Edward Elgar Publishing]].</ref> Such determinations may be made by custom, [[statutory law]], [[case law]] (precedent), or a combination of either. In some cases, the determination may be governed by [[public international law]]—e.g., by [[Treaty|treaties]] and the [[European Convention on Nationality]].
 
Nevertheless, states' rights to determine who their nationals are is not absolute, and states must comply with their human rights obligations concerning the granting and loss of nationality. In particular, nationals must not be arbitrarily deprived of their nationality.<ref>"[http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Pages/Nationality.aspx Right to a Nationality and Statelessness]." ''OHCHR.org''. [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]].</ref> The right to a nationality and the prohibition against depriving one's nationality is codified in article 15 of the "[[The Universal Declaration of Human Rights|Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]".
===Naturalization===
 
{{Main|Naturalization}}
Article 1 of the "[[Convention on Certain Questions Relating to the Conflict of Nationality Laws]]" states:<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20141226230108/http://eudo-citizenship.eu/InternationalDB/docs/Convention%20on%20certain%20questions%20relating%20to%20the%20conflict%20of%20nationality%20laws%20FULL%20TEXT.pdf Convention on Certain Questions Relating to the Conflict of Nationality Laws]." [[League of Nations]]. 1930. Archived from the [http://eudo-citizenship.eu/InternationalDB/docs/Convention%20on%20certain%20questions%20relating%20to%20the%20conflict%20of%20nationality%20laws%20FULL%20TEXT.pdf original] on 26 December 2014.</ref>
Most states today allow for aliens to acquire a nationality via a process known as [[naturalization]] on the basis of long-term residence and other conditions. This process and the conditions it entails are detailed in the states' nationality laws. Some nationality laws have special provisions to make it easier for [[diaspora]] populations to become citizens.
 
:It is for each State to determine under its own law who are its nationals. This law shall be recognised by other States in so far as it is consistent with international conventions, international custom, and the principles of law generally recognised with regard to nationality.
 
The "[[Inter-American Court of Human Rights]]" went further in limiting state's right to determine nationality:<ref>"Proposed Amendments to the Naturalization Provisions of the Constitution of Costa Rica." ''Advisory Opinion'' OC 4/84. [[Inter-American Court of Human Rights]]. 19 January 1984. § 3, para. 32, p. 9.</ref>
 
: [T]he manners in which States regulate matters bearing on nationality cannot today be deemed within their sole jurisdiction; [the powers enjoyed by the States in that area] are also circumscribed by their obligations to ensure the full protection of human rights.
 
==Ethnic group-related provisions, by country==
==Provisions to simplify immigration of favored ethnic groups==
Several countries'The nationality laws of several countries have special provisions in them to simplify [[naturalization]] of favored ethnic groups. The laws in these countries appear to reflect a desire by governments to guarantee a safe haven to [[diaspora]] populations, particularly those assumed to be living under precarious conditions. A non-exhaustive list of such countries laws follows.
 
=== Armenia ===
{{Main|Armenian nationality law}}
Article 14 of the [[Constitution of Armenia]] (1995) provides that "[i]ndividuals of Armenian origin shall acquire citizenship of the Republic of Armenia through a simplified procedure."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/am00000_.html|title=ICL - Armenia - Constitution|publisher=|accessdate=7 February 2015}}</ref> This provision is consistent with the ''Declaration on Independence of Armenia'', issued by the Supreme Soviet of the Republic of Armenia in 1989, which declared at article 4 that "Armenians living abroad are entitled to the citizenship of the Republic of Armenia".
 
Article 14 of the [[Constitution of Armenia]] (1995) provides that "individuals of Armenian origin shall acquire nationality of the Republic of Armenia through a simplified procedure."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/am00000_.html|title=ICL - Armenia - Constitution|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> This provision is consistent with the ''[[Declaration on Independence of Armenia]]'', issued by the [[Supreme Soviet of Armenia]] in 1989, which declared, in article 4, that "Armenians living abroad are entitled to the citizenship of the Republic of Armenia."
=== Belarus ===
Citizenship act of the Republic of [[Belarus]] (2002) states that permanent residence term requirements may be waived for ethnic Belarusians and descendants of ethnic Belarusians born abroad.
 
=== Bulgaria ===
{{Main|Bulgarian nationality law}}
According to the Constitution of Bulgaria, Article 25(2): "A person of [[Bulgaria]]n origin shall acquire Bulgarian citizenship through a facilitated procedure."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/bu00000_.html|title=ICL - Bulgaria - Constitution|publisher=|accessdate=7 February 2015}}</ref>
 
According to the [[Constitution of Bulgaria]], Article 25(2): "A person of [[Bulgaria]]n origin shall acquire Bulgarian nationality through a facilitated procedure."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/bu00000_.html|title=ICL - Bulgaria - Constitution|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref>
Chapter Two of the ''Bulgarian Citizenship Act'' is entitled "Acquisition of Bulgarian Citizenship". The first section of that chapter is entitled "Acquisition of Bulgarian Citizenship by Origin", and provides at article 9 that "[a]ny person ... whose descent from a Bulgarian citizen has been established by way of a court ruling shall be a Bulgarian citizen by origin." Separately, article 15 of the ''Act'' provides that "[a]ny person who is not a Bulgarian citizen may acquire Bulgarian citizenship ... if he/she ... is of a Bulgarian origin".
 
Chapter Two of the ''Bulgarian Citizenship Act'' is entitled "Acquisition of Bulgarian Citizenship", the first section of which is entitled "Acquisition of Bulgarian Citizenship by Origin", and provides at article 9 that "[a]ny person...whose descent from a Bulgarian citizen has been established by way of a court ruling shall be a Bulgarian citizen by origin." Separately, article 15 of the ''Act'' provides that "[a]ny person who is not a Bulgarian citizen may acquire Bulgarian citizenship...if he/she...is of a Bulgarian origin."
 
=== China ===
{{Main|Nationality Law of the People's Republic of China}}
The immigration law of China gives priority to returning [[Overseas Chinese]]{{snd}} [[ethnic Chinese]] who were living abroad. As a result of the intersection between this provision and other factors such as the China's poor human-rights record that discourage foreign nationals in general from wanting to move there, practically all immigrants to China are ethnic Chinese, including many whose families lived outside of China for generations.{{cn|date=March 2019}}
The immigration law of China gives priority to returning [[Overseas Chinese]] (i.e., [[Chinese people|ethnic Chinese]] who were living abroad), and as such, practically all immigrants to China are ethnic Chinese, including many whose families lived outside of China for generations. The Chinese government encourages the return of Overseas Chinese with various incentives not available to others, such as "tax breaks, high salaries and exemptions from the [[one-child policy]] if they had two children while living abroad."<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20060828113344/http://migrationint.com.au/news/antarctica/jun_2001-14mn.asp China: Overseas, Rural, Taiwan | Immigration Laws #14]." ''Australia Immigration Visa Services''. June 2001. Archived from the [http://www.migrationint.com.au/news/antarctica/jun_2001-14mn.asp original] on 28 August 2006.</ref> The "rights and interests of returned overseas Chinese" are afforded special protection according to Articles 50 and 89(12) of the [[Chinese Constitution]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.people.com.cn/constitution/constitution.html|title=CONSTITUTION OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref>
 
==== Hong Kong ====
The Chinese government encourages the return of Overseas Chinese with various incentives not available to others, such as "tax breaks, high salaries and exemptions from the one-child policy if they had two children while living abroad".<ref>[http://www.migrationint.com.au/news/antarctica/jun_2001-14mn.asp migrationint.com.au] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060828113344/http://migrationint.com.au/news/antarctica/jun_2001-14mn.asp |date=2006-08-28 }}</ref>
{{Main|Right of abode in Hong Kong}}
 
In April 2015, the Hong Kong Government announced a pilot scheme named "Admission Scheme for the Second Generation of Chinese Hong Kong Permanent Residents" (ASSG).<ref>Government of Hong Kong. 28 April 2015. "[https://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201504/28/P201504280699.htm Immigration Department to implement pilot Admission Scheme for 2nd Generation of Chinese HK Permanent Residents & enhancements to talent admission arrangements]" (press release).</ref>
The "rights and interests of returned overseas Chinese" are afforded special protection according to Articles 50 and 89(12) of the [[Chinese Constitution]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.people.com.cn/constitution/constitution.html|title=CONSTITUTION OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA|publisher=|accessdate=7 February 2015}}</ref>
 
==== Hong KongTaiwan ====
{{Main|Taiwanese nationality law}}
{{furtherinfo|Nationality law of the People's Republic of China#Hong Kong}}
In April 2015, the Hong Kong Government announced a pilot scheme named "Admission Scheme for the Second Generation of Chinese Hong Kong Permanent Residents" (ASSG).<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201504/28/P201504280699.htm|website=info.gov.hk}}</ref>
 
The immigration law of [[Taiwan]] (officially the Republic of China) gives priority to returning Taiwanese and [[overseas Chinese]] who are not nationals of the People's Republic of China, Chinese who were living abroad, and encourages their return. However, although [[Republic of China]] have not ceded the claim on mainland China, the government does not consider the people in mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau as Republic of China nationals.<ref>[大陸地區高等學校學歷如經採認，仍須具備中華民國國民身分，始能報考國家考試 http://www.exam.gov.tw/cp.asp?xItem=5579&ctNode=410&mp=2] - specifically "大陸地區人民因未具中華民國國民身分，亦無法以外國人身分報考"</ref>
=== Croatia ===
The [[Croatia]]n law on citizenship ({{lang|hr|Zakon o hrvatskom državljanstvu}}), article 11, defines emigrants ({{lang|hr|iseljenik}}) and gives them privileges by excluding them from certain conditions imposed on others.
 
Overseas ethnic Chinese can register as Republic of China national and apply for a [[Republic of China passport]], however, they do not automatically have a right of return to Taiwan area if they don't have a household registration there.
The [[Croatian diaspora]] makes use of this to obtain [[dual citizenship]] or to return to Croatia.
 
Not all Republic of China nationals have a right of return to Taiwan area even if they hold a [[Republic of China passport]]—specifically, [[National without household registration|those without a household registration in Taiwan area]] do not automatically have the right of return, may be refused entry, removed or deported from Taiwan area, and an entry permit is needed before 2011.
 
=== Czech Republic ===
The [[Czech Republic]] grants citizenship, andnationality—and thus the right of residence, toresidence—to anyone whose parents are or were Czech citizensnationals, (unless the individual is also a citizennational of a country that has a treaty with the Czech Republic barring dual citizenshipnationality of the Czech Republic and that country).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mvcr.cz/mvcren/article/granting-nationality-of-the-czech-republic.aspx|title=Granting Nationality of the Czech Republic - Ministry of the interior of the Czech Republic|website=www.mvcr.cz|access-date=2016-11-16|url-status=dead|archiveurlarchive-url=https://archive.istoday/20120910014026/http://www.mvcr.cz/mvcren/article/granting-nationality-of-the-czech-republic.aspx|archivedatearchive-date=2012-09-10}}</ref> Moreover, people of Czech origin might be granted the right to permanent residence (Czech origin is a reason worth of consideration).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mzv.cz/washington/en/consular_information/residency_in_CR/permanent_residence_permit_for_persons.html|title=Permanent residence permit for persons with Czech origin|website=www.mzv.cz|access-date=2017-04-25}}</ref>
 
In 1995, the Czech Republic amended its [[Czech nationality law|CitizenshipNationality Law]] to provide the Interior Ministry with the discretion to waive the usual five-year residency requirement for foreigners that had been resettled in the Czech Republic by 31 December 1994. This amendment was aimed particularly at several hundred ethnic [[Czechs]] which had been brought by the Czech government from the [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] region of [[Volhynia]], and was of a limited duration.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://romove.radio.cz/cz/clanek/18823#volyn|title=Romové v České republice - cizinci ve vlastní zemi|publisher=|accessdateaccess-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> The amendment was consistent with what the Czech Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs has identified as "the Czech government's policy principles regarding the resettlement of foreigners of Czech origin living abroad."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mpsv.cz/scripts/clanek.asp |title=Ministerstvo práce a sociálních věcí – MPSV ČR<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=September 29, 2013 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020112204603/http://mpsv.cz/scripts/clanek.asp |archive-date=January 12, 2002 }}</ref> A private fund, the [[People In Need (Czech Republic)|People In Need]] [[Česká televize|Czech TV]] Foundation, worked with government authorities between 1995 and 2001 to effect this resettlement in the specific instance of Russian and Kazakh nationals of Czech origin, and had resettled approximately 750 such persons as of 2000.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.clovekvtisni.cz/download/vz00en.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2006-02-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060410174730/http://www.clovekvtisni.cz/download/vz00en.pdf |archive-date=2006-04-10 }}</ref>
 
=== Finland ===
The amendment was consistent with what the Czech Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs has identified as "the Czech government's policy principles regarding the resettlement of foreigners of Czech origin living abroad."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mpsv.cz/scripts/clanek.asp |title=Ministerstvo práce a sociálních věcí – MPSV ČR<!-- Bot generated title --> |accessdate=September 29, 2013 |url-status=unfit |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20020112204603/http://mpsv.cz/scripts/clanek.asp |archivedate=January 12, 2002 }}</ref>
The ''Finnish Aliens Act'' provides for persons who are of Finnish origin to receive permanent residence. It is usually [[Ingrian Finns]] from the former Soviet Union who exercise this right, though American, Canadian, and Swedish nationals with Finnish ancestry are eligible.
A private fund, the [[People In Need (Czech Republic)|People In Need]] [[Česká televize|Czech TV]] Foundation, worked with government authorities between 1995 and 2001 to effect this resettlement in the specific instance of Russian and Kazakh citizens of Czech origin, and had resettled approximately 750 such persons as of 2000.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.clovekvtisni.cz/download/vz00en.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2006-02-08 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060410174730/http://www.clovekvtisni.cz/download/vz00en.pdf |archivedate=2006-04-10 }}</ref>
 
The [[Finnish Immigration Service]] states that, under certain conditions, persons with "Finnish roots" or an otherwise "close connection to Finland" may receive a residence permit in Finland without the requirement of any further grounds (e.g., work or studies). Receiving a residence permit depends on the directness and closeness of Finnish ancestry. If the ancestry dates back several generations, a residence permit cannot be granted on this basis.<ref>"[https://migri.fi/en/remigration Remigration]." ''Finnish Immigration Service''. Maahanmuuttovirasto. 2020.</ref>
=== Estonia ===
Article 36 (3) of the [[Constitution of Estonia]] states that "Every [[Estonians|Estonian]] is entitled to settle in [[Estonia]]."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/ee/530102013003/consolide/current|title=The Constitution of the Republic of Estonia – Riigi Teataja|publisher=|accessdate=15 July 2016}}</ref>
 
According to the Immigration Service, people who may be granted a residence permit based on these conditions can be divided into the following three groups:
=== Finland ===
The ''Finnish Aliens Act'' provides for persons who are of Finnish origin to receive permanent residence. It is usually [[Ingrian Finns]] from the former Soviet Union who exercise this right, but American, Canadian or Swedish nationals with Finnish ancestry are eligible.
 
* former [[Finnish nationality law|Finnish nationals]]
The Finnish Directorate of Immigration states on its Returnees webpage<ref>[http://www.uvi.fi/netcomm/content.asp?path=8,2475 Finnish Directorate of Immigration]</ref> that;
* persons of other [[Ethnic Finns|Finnish origin]], including those who have at least one parent or grandparent who has been a native Finnish national.
*Certain aliens, who have Finnish ancestry or otherwise a close connection with Finland, may be granted a residence permit on this basis. No other reason, such as work or study, is required in order to receive the permit.
* persons who either were evacuated from [[Ingria]] or served in the Finnish army in 1939–1945. This group includes persons from areas of the former [[Soviet Union]] who have been determined to be of Finnish nationality by Soviet or post-Soviet authorities; or who have at least one parent or two grandparents who have been determined to be of Finnish nationality in official documents (e.g., in their [[internal passport]]s). This group also includes all persons who were transferred to Finland between 1943 and 1943 from areas occupied by Germany and were subsequently returned to Soviet Union; or who served in the Finnish Defence Forces during the [[Second World War]] qualify. To qualify for permanent residence permit, the persons in this group must have a basic knowledge of spoken and written Finnish or Swedish. The knowledge is tested in pre-immigration training and in a subsequent language test. In addition, they must have a pre-arranged permanent residence in Finland, but the labour authorities assist in finding an apartment.
*Receiving a residence permit depends on the directness and closeness of Finnish ancestry. If the ancestry dates back several generations, a residence permit cannot be granted on this basis.
*People who may be granted a residence permit based on Finnish ancestry or close connections with Finland can be divided into the following three groups:
** former [[Finnish citizen]]s:<ref>[http://www.uvi.fi/netcomm/content.asp?path=8,2475,2523 Finnish Directorate of Immigration]</ref>
** persons of other [[Ethnic Finns|Finnish origin]]. This group includes the persons who have at least one parent or grandparent who has been a native Finnish citizen.<ref>[http://www.uvi.fi/netcomm/content.asp?path=8,2475,2524 Finnish Directorate of Immigration]</ref>
** persons [[Ingria|from areas]] of the former [[Soviet Union]]. The group includes persons who have been determined to be of Finnish nationality by Soviet or post-Soviet authorities or who have at least one parent or two grandparents who have been determined to be of Finnish nationality in official documents, e.g., in their [[internal passport]]s. Also all persons who were transferred between years 1943–1943 to Finland from areas occupied by Germany and were subsequently returned to Soviet Union or who served in the Finnish Defence Forces during the [[Second World War]] qualify. To qualify for permanent residence permit, the persons in this group must have a basic knowledge of spoken and written Finnish or Swedish. The knowledge is tested in pre-immigration training and in a subsequent language test. In addition, they must have a pre-arranged permanent residence in Finland, but the labour authorities assist in finding an apartment.<ref>[http://www.uvi.fi/netcomm/content.asp?path=8,2475,2525 Finnish Directorate of Immigration]</ref>
 
=== Ghana ===
[[Ghana]], in ''The Right of Abode'' law, allows for people of [[Africa]]n descent to settle in the country.<ref>[http://www.theafricareport.com/West-Africa/ghana-a-place-for-african-americans-to-resettle.html Ghana, a place for African-Americans to resettle]</ref>
 
=== Greece ===
Various phenomena throughout Greek history (e.g., the extensive colonization by classical Greek city states,; the vast expansion of Greek culture in Hellenistic times,; the large dominions at times held by the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire,; and the energetic trading activity by Greeks under the Ottomans) all tended to create Greek communities far beyond the boundaries of modern Greece.
 
Recognizing this situation, Greece grants citizenshipnationality to broad categories of people of ethnic Greek ancestry who are members of the [[Greek diaspora]], including individuals and families whose ancestors have been resident in diaspora communities outside the modern state of Greece for centuries or millennia.<ref>[http://athens.usembassy.gov/uploads/7z/Z4/7zZ4A6EyE4dMjph5dNxFew/citizenship_code.pdf US Embassy in Athens] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705222308/http://athens.usembassy.gov/uploads/7z/Z4/7zZ4A6EyE4dMjph5dNxFew/citizenship_code.pdf |date=2008-07-05 }}</ref>
 
"Foreign persons of Greek origin"," who neither live in Greece nor, hold Greek citizenshipnationality, noror were necessarily born there, may become Greek citizensnationals by enlisting in Greece's military forces, under article 4 of the ''Code of Greek Citizenship'', as amended by the ''Acquisition of Greek Nationality by Aliens of Greek Origin Law'' (Law 2130/1993). Anyone wishing to do so must present a number of documents, including "[a]vailable written records ... proving the Greek origin of the interested person and his ancestors."
 
=== Hungary ===
In 2010, Hungary passed a law granting citizenship and the right of return to descendants of Hungarians living mostly on the former territory of the Hungarian Kingdom and now residing in Hungary's neighbouring countries. [[Slovakia]], which has 500,000 ethnic Magyar citizens (10% of its population) objected vociferously.<ref name="Pandora's Passport 2010, p. 60">Pandora's Passport, Hungary extends citizenship beyond its borders, Slovakia retaliates," The Economist, June 5, 2010, p. 60.</ref>
 
=== India ===
{{main|Indian nationality law}}A [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Person of Indian Origin]] (PIO) is a person living outside of India and without Indian citizenshipnationality, but of Indian origin up to four generations removed. It is available to persons of Indian origin anywhere in the world as long as they have never been citizensnationals of Pakistan or of Bangladesh (a reservation excluding Muslims who joined Pakistan during or after the 1947 partition). This unusual type of [[Indian citizenship#Citizenship by descent|citizenshipnationality by descent]] is an intermediate form of citizenshipnationality in that it does not grant the full portfolio of rights enjoyed by Indian citizens.
 
The ''[[Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2003|Citizenship (Amendment) Act 2003]]''<ref>[http://rajyasabha.nic.in/legislative/amendbills/XXXIX_2003.pdf Citizenship (Amendment) Act 2003] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060425230738/http://rajyasabha.nic.in/legislative/amendbills/XXXIX_2003.pdf |date=2006-04-25 }}</ref> and ''Citizenship (Amendment) Ordinance 2005''<ref>[http://www.manupatra.com/downloads/2005-data/Citizenship%20Amendment%20Ordinance%202005/Citizenship%20Amendment%20Ordinance%202005.htm Citizenship (Amendment) Ordinance 2005] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514150614/http://www.manupatra.com/downloads/2005-data/Citizenship%20Amendment%20Ordinance%202005/Citizenship%20Amendment%20Ordinance%202005.htm |date=2011-05-14 }}</ref> make provision for an even newer form of Indian nationality, the holders of which are to be known as [[Overseas Citizenship of India|Overseas Citizens of India]] (OCI). Overseas citizenshipnationality is not substantially different from PIO rights. Holding either PIO or OCI status does, however, facilitate access to full Indian citizenship. An OCI who has been registered for five years, for instance, need be resident for only one year in India before becoming a full national.
 
=== Ireland ===
Holding either PIO or OCI status does, however, facilitate access to full Indian citizenship. An OCI who has been registered for five years, for instance, need be resident for only one year in India before becoming a full citizen.
{{main|Irish nationality law}}
Irish nationality law provides for acquisition on the basis of at least one Irish grandparent. Note that, for the purposes of Irish nationality law, a person born anywhere on the [[Ireland|island of Ireland]] is considered "Irish." (The island includes [[Northern Ireland]], which is part of the [[United Kingdom]], where [[British nationality law]] applies; thus, people born in Northern Ireland are entitled to both British and Irish nationality.)
 
The entitlement to nationality of all people born on Ireland and its islands was stipulated by the 1922 [[Constitution of the Irish Free State]] and the 1937 [[Constitution of Ireland]], and reinforced by the 1998 [[Belfast Agreement]]. A person born outside of Ireland with entitlement to Irish nationality through a grandparent born in Ireland may pass that right on to her or his own children. To do so, however, that person must register her or his birth in Ireland's Foreign Births Register prior to the children's births. Irish law also automatically grants nationality at birth to any individual born abroad to a parent who was born in Ireland, without the need to register with the DFA prior to the granting of citizen's rights like holding an Irish passport.
=== Iraq ===
{{main|Iraqi nationality law}}
 
Separately from this right, the [[Minister for Justice (Ireland)|Irish minister responsible for immigration]] may dispense with conditions of naturalisation to grant nationality to an applicant who "is of Irish descent or Irish associations," under section 15 of the ''Irish Nationality and Citizenship Act, 1986''. With rare exceptions the applicant must be resident in the island of Ireland before applying for naturalisation.
=== Ireland ===
[[Irish nationality law]] provides for Irish citizenship to be acquired on the basis of at least one Irish grandparent. Note that for the purposes of Irish nationality law a person born anywhere on the island of [[Ireland]] (including [[Northern Ireland]] which is part of the [[United Kingdom]] where [[British nationality law]] applies: thus, people born in Northern Ireland are entitled to both British and Irish citizenship), is considered "Irish." The entitlement to citizenship of all people born on Ireland and its islands was stipulated by the 1922 [[Constitution of the Irish Free State]], and the 1937 [[Constitution of Ireland]] and reinforced by 1998 [[Belfast Agreement]]. A person born outside Ireland with entitlement to Irish citizenship through a grandparent born in Ireland may pass that right on to her or his own children. To do so, however, that person must register her or his birth in Ireland's Foreign Births Register prior to the children's births. Irish law also automatically grants citizenship at birth to any individual born abroad to a parent who was born in Ireland, without the need to register with the DFA prior to the granting of citizen's rights like holding an Irish passport.
 
Separately from this right, the [[Minister for Justice and Equality|Irish minister responsible for immigration]] may dispense with conditions of naturalisation to grant citizenship to an applicant who "is of Irish descent or Irish associations", under section 15 of the ''Irish Nationality and Citizenship Act, 1986''. With rare exceptions the applicant must be resident in the island of Ireland before applying for naturalisation.
 
=== Israel ===
{{main|Law of Return}}
 
The [[''Law of Return]]'' is legislation enacted by [[Israel]] in 1950, that gives all [[Jews]], persons of Jewish ancestry up to at least one Jewish grandparent, and spouses of Jews the right to [[Aliyah|immigrate]] to and settle in Israel and obtain citizenshipnationality, and obliges the Israeli government to facilitate their immigration. Originally, the law applied to Jews only, until a 1970 amendment stated that the rights "are also vested in a child and a grandchild of a Jew, the spouse of a Jew, the spouse of a child of a Jew and the spouse of a grandchild of a Jew"." This resulted in several hundreds of thousands of persons qualifying for immigration to Israel (mainly from the [[former Soviet Union]]) but not being recognized as Jews by the Israeli religious authorities, which on the basis of [[halakha]] recognize only the child of a Jewish mother as being Jewish. People who would be otherwise eligible for this law can be excluded if they can reasonably be considered to constitute a danger to the welfare of the state, have a criminal past, or are wanted fugitives in their countries with the exception of persecution victims. Jews who convert to another religion also lose the right of return. Since 1950 2,734,245 Jews have immigrated to Israel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/About/Press%20Room/Aliyah%20Statistics/nov30.htm|title=Inside The Jewish Agency|accessdateaccess-date=15 July 2016|url-status=dead|archiveurlarchive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715010101/http://jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/About/Press%2BRoom/Aliyah%2BStatistics/nov30.htm|archivedatearchive-date=15 July 2016}}</ref>
 
=== Japan ===
{{Main|Japanese nationality law}}
A special visa category exists exclusively for foreign descendants of Japanese emigrates ([[Nikkeijin]]) up to the third generation, which provides for long-term residence, unrestricted by occupation, but most Nikkeijin cannot automatically acquire Japanese citizenship, and must instead go through the process of [[Japanese nationality law#Naturalization|naturalization]]. However, the Minister of Justice can waive the age and residence requirements if an applicant for naturalization has a special relationship to Japan, such as a Japanese parent.
 
=== Kazakhstan ===
{{main|Oralman}}
 
A special visa category exists exclusively for foreign descendants of Japanese emigrates (''[[nikkeijin]]'') up to the third generation, which provides for long-term residence, unrestricted by occupation, but most ''nikkeijin'' cannot automatically acquire Japanese nationality, and must instead go through the process of [[Japanese nationality law#Naturalization|naturalization]]. However, the Minister of Justice can waive the age and residence requirements if an applicant for naturalization has a special relationship to Japan, such as a Japanese parent.
=== Lithuania ===
From the Constitution of Lithuania, Article 32(4): "Every Lithuanian person may settle in Lithuania."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/lh00000_.html|title=ICL - Lithuania - Constitution|publisher=|accessdate=15 July 2016}}</ref>
 
=== Norway ===
The [[Kola Norwegians]] were [[Norwegians]] who settled along the coastline of the [[Russia]]n [[Kola Peninsula]] from approximately 1850 to the closure of the border in the 1920s. It is estimated that around 1000 Norwegians lived on the Kola peninsula in 1917. The Kola Norwegians were deported to or put in camps in other parts of Russia during the course of [[World War II]].
 
It was only after 1990 that many of the Kola Norwegians again dared to emphasize their background. Only a few had been able to maintain a rusty knowledge of Norwegian. Some of them have migrated back to Norway. There are special provisions in the Norwegian rules of immigration and citizenshipnationality which eases this process for many Kola Norwegians. These provisions are in general stricter than in some other countries giving "Right of return"." In order to obtain a permit to immigrate and work in Norway a Kola Norwegian will have to prove an adequate connection to Norway such as having at least two grandparents from Norway.<ref>[http://www.dep.no/aid/norsk/dok/andre_dok/rundskriv/068081-250002/dok-nn.html Provisions given in addition to the Norwegian law of Citizenship, point 3.8.4. (Norwegian)] Retrieved 11 December 2006</ref> Citizenship will then be awarded according to regular rules.<ref>[http://www.udi.no/templates/Tema.aspx?id=7394 Norwegian terms of citizenship] Retrieved 11 December 2006</ref> As of 2004 approximately 200 Kola Norwegians had moved back to Norway.<ref>[http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/iriks/article807148.ece Article in Aftenposten givina some statistics on the Kola Norwegians (Norwegian)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080614060040/http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/iriks/article807148.ece |date=2008-06-14 }} Retrieved 11 December 2006</ref>
 
=== Philippines ===
''[[Republic Act]] No. 9225'', approved 29 August 2003, provided that all Philippine citizensnationals who become citizensnationals of another country shall be deemed not to have lost their Philippine citizenshipnationality. It further states that natural-born citizens of the PhilippinesFilipinos who have lost their Philippine citizenshipnationality byin reasonthis ofmanner theirmay naturalizationrepatriate as citizens of a foreign country are hereby deemed to have re-acquired Philippine citizenship uponby taking an oath of allegiance to the Republic, and that their children whether legitimate, illegitimate or adopted, below eighteen (18) years of age, shall be deemed citizensnationals of the Philippines.<ref>{{Citation
| url = http://www.chanrobles.com/republicactno9225.html
| title = Citizenship Retention and Re-acquisition Act of 2003
| date = 29 August 2003
| publisher = Chan Robles Law Library
| accessdateaccess-date = 2008-10-06}}.</ref>
 
=== Poland ===
{{See also|Polish nationality law#Loss of Polish citizenship}}
From the Constitution of [[Poland]], Article 52(5): "Anyone whose Polish origin has been confirmed in accordance with statute may settle permanently in Poland."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/pl00000_.html|title=ICL - Poland - Constitution|publisher=|accessdate=15 July 2016}}</ref>
 
=== Portugal ===
On April 12, 2013, the Portuguese parliament approved unanimously an amendment to its nationality laws which would permit the descendants of [[Jews expelled from Portugal]] in the 16th century to become [[Portuguese citizens]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/descendants-of-jews-who-fled-persecution-may-claim-portuguese-citizenship|title=Descendants of Jews who fled persecution may claim Portuguese citizenship|publisher=|accessdate=15 July 2016}}</ref>
 
=== Romania ===
Romania extends citizenship to all former citizens, as well as to the children and grandchildren of those who have lost their Romanian citizenship, regardless of ethnic background.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Dumbrava|first1=Costica|title=Rolling Back History: The Romanian Policy of Restoration of Citizenship to Former Citizens|url=http://www.citsee.eu/citsee-story/rolling-back-history-romanian-policy-restoration-citizenship-former-citizens|website=Citizenship in Southeast Europe|accessdate=25 November 2014}}</ref>
 
=== Russia ===
{{Main|Russian citizenship law}}
Russia offers citizenship to individuals descended from Russian ancestors who can demonstrate an affinity for Russian culture and, preferably, speak Russian. Concern about Russia's shrinking population prompted the program. This has had a positive effect because this has not only reversed Russia's population decline but has also increased the birth rate. Officials estimate that 25 million members of the [[Russian diaspora]] are eligible for citizenship. The Foreign Ministry has sent emissaries to countries around the world to urge the descendants of Russian emigrants to return home.<ref>Levy, Clifford J., [https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/22/world/europe/22believers.html?_r=1&hp "A Sturdier Russia Beckons Its Children Home"], ''New York Times'', March 21, 2009.</ref> So far 70% of Russians have come from Ukraine. Many of these people are in the age group of 17 to 25 looking for a better education and a better place to start a family. With a recent increase of Russia's life expectancy and living standard more people have been willing to come back to Russia. As of the 2014 war in Ukraine this has triggered a mass exodus of ethnic Russians in Ukraine into Russia. A small amount of these people have also come from Romania and a few Siberian people's reuniting with their families who have been split since the Cold War. Mostly immigrants have come from former communist countries. Some people returning are the descendants of Russians who fled Russia during the Russian revolution.
 
=== South Korea ===
{{Main|South Korean nationality law}}
"Overseas Korean" are eligible for [[dual citizenship]].
 
Russia offers citizenship to individuals descended from Russian ancestors who can demonstrate an affinity for Russian culture and, preferably, speak Russian. Concern about Russia's shrinking population prompted the program. This has had a positive effect because this has not only reversed Russia's population decline but has also increased the birth rate. Officials estimate that 25 million members of the [[Russian diaspora]] are eligible for nationality. The Foreign Ministry has sent emissaries to countries around the world to urge the descendants of Russian emigrants to return home.<ref>Levy, Clifford J. 21 March 2009. "[https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/22/world/europe/22believers.html?_r=1&hp A Sturdier Russia Beckons Its Children Home]." ''New York Times''.</ref> The majority of these emigrants have returned from Ukraine, many of them young men looking for better education and job opportunities. The [[Crimean War (2014)|Crimean War]] in 2014 triggered a mass exodus of ethnic Russians living in Crimea.
=== Serbia ===
{{Main|Serbian nationality law}}
Article 23 of the 2004 citizenship law provides that the descendants of emigrants from [[Serbia]], or ethnic Serbs residing abroad, may take up citizenship upon written declaration.
 
=== Spain ===
There are three categories of Spanish citizenshipnationality:
 
# ''de origen'' ('original citizenship')
# ''por residencia'' ('by residence')
# ''por opción'' ('by choice')
 
'''''De origen''''' is [(almost exclusively]) acquired at the moment of birth, mainly to a Spanish parent, and can never be lost. '''''Por residencia''''' is acquired through a predetermined period of legal residency in Spain. This distinction is important because Spanish nationality laws primarily follow ''iure sanguinis,'' including those relating to the right of return.
 
The third category, '''''por opción''''' ('by choice'), is given to some people of Spanish origins that, though not complying with the requisites to attain thenationality originalthrough citizenshiporigin, are able to prove close ties to Spain; this option is given mainly to the children of people that have attained or recovered Spanish citizenshipnationality after their birth, but it has age limits and one must exercise this choice prior turning 20 (in some countries, like Argentina, prior turning 23, as majority of age is attained at 21 there). Most of the ''por opción'' clauses do not confer original status (except those included in the Historical Memory Law), thus it can be lost, and, in case one possesses nationality other than those described below as historically related to Spain (e.g., United States), renounce their current nationality in front of Spanish consular officials.
 
In practice this renunciation has little practical effect, and in some cases no effect, as only renunciations made to one's own country's officials has an effect on the linked nationality. The [[Historical Memory Law]] ({{Langx|es|Ley de Memoria Histórica}}) which took effect in December 2008, introduced temporary two-year changes to current Spanish nationality laws. Those whose father or mother were born original Spaniards (regardless of their place of birth, whether they are still living, or whether they currently hold Spanish nationality) and those whose grandparents emigrated due to political or economic reasons will have the right to ''de origen'' Spanish nationality. Until and while the Law of Historic Memory takes effect, the following laws will also apply:
 
# Natural-born Spanish emigrants (mainly [[exiles]] from the [[Spanish Civil War]] and economic migrants) and their children are eligible to ''recover'' their ''de origen'' Spanish nationality without the requirement of residence in Spain. They also have the right to maintain any current nationality they possess.
The [[Historical Memory Law]] (Spanish: ''Ley de Memoria Histórica''), which took effect in December 2008, introduced temporary two-year changes to current Spanish nationality laws. Those whose father or mother were born original Spaniards (regardless of their place of birth, whether they are still living, or whether they currently hold Spanish nationality) and those whose grandparents emigrated due to political or economic reasons will have the right to ''de origen'' Spanish nationality. Until and while the Law of Historic Memory takes effect, the following laws will also apply:
# Regardless of their place of birth, the adult children and grandchildren of original Spaniards (original Spaniards are those who, at the moment of their birth, were born to people who possessed Spanish citizenship) can also access Spanish nationality on softer terms than other foreigners: they require just 1 year of legal residence, and they are exempted from work restrictions. This law in practice also benefits the great-grandchildren of emigrant Spaniards as long as their grandparents (born outside of Spain) are/were original Spaniards.
# [[Ibero-America]]ns and nationals of other countries historically related to Spain (Portugal, Andorra, Philippines, and Equatorial Guinea) also have a Right of Return: They can apply to Spanish nationality after 2 years of legal residence (the usual time is 10 years for most foreigners) and they have the right to keep their birth nationality.<ref name="CodigoCivil2002">[[Spanish Civil Code]] of 2002, [http://civil.udg.es/NORMACIVIL/estatal/CC/1T1.htm#BM22 article 22] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070122084515/http://civil.udg.es/normacivil/estatal/CC/1T1.htm |date=2007-01-22 }}.</ref>
# Those of [[Sephardic Jew]]ish origin also have the right to apply for nationality after a year of legal residency in Spain. Since the rediscovery of [[Sephardi]] Jews during the [[Spanish-Moroccan War (1859)|campaigns]] of General [[Juan Prim]] in Northern Africa, the Spanish government has taken friendly measures towards the descendants of the Jews expelled from Spain in 1492 under the [[Alhambra Decree]] and persecuted by the [[Spanish Inquisition]]. The motivation for these measures was a desire to repair a perceived injustice, the need of a collaborative base of natives in [[Spanish Morocco]], and an attempt to attract the sympathy of wealthy European Sephardis like the [[Pereira (surname)|Pereiras]] of France. The [[Alhambra Decree]] was revoked.
 
In November 2012, the Spanish government announced that it would eliminate the residency period for Sephardic Jews, and permit them to maintain dual nationality, on the condition that such naturalization applicants presented a certificate of their Sephardic status from the Federation of Jewish Communities in Spain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://es.noticias.yahoo.com/espa%C3%B1a-conceder%C3%A1-nacionalidad-sefard%C3%ADes-independencia-residencia-150009830.html|title=España concederá la nacionalidad a todos los sefardíes con independencia de su lugar de residencia|access-date=15 July 2016}}</ref>
1. Natural-born Spanish emigrants (mainly [[exiles]] from the [[Spanish Civil War]] and economic migrants) and their children are eligible to ''recover'' their ''de origen'' Spanish nationality without the requirement of residence in Spain. They also have the right to maintain any current nationality they possess.
 
Spanish diplomacy exercised protection over Sephardis of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the independent Balkanic states succeeding it. The government of [[Miguel Primo de Rivera]] decreed in 1924 that every Sephardi could claim Spanish nationality. This right was used by some refugees during the Second World War, including the [[History of the Jews in Hungary|Hungarian Jews]] saved by [[Ángel Sanz Briz]] and [[Giorgio Perlasca]]. This decree was again put to use to receive some Jews from [[Sarajevo]] during the [[Bosnian War]].
2. Regardless of their place of birth, the adult children and grandchildren of original Spaniards (original Spaniards are those who, at the moment of their birth, were born to people who possessed Spanish citizenship) can also access Spanish nationality on softer terms than other foreigners: they require just 1 year of legal residence, and they are exempted from work restrictions. This law in practice also benefits the great-grandchildren of emigrant Spaniards as long as their grandparents (born outside of Spain) are/were original Spaniards.
 
In October 2006, the [[Andalusia]]n [[Parliament]] asked the three parliamentary groups that form the majority to support an amendment that would ease the way for [[Morisco#Descendants and Spanish citizenship|Morisco descendants to gain Spanish nationality]]. The proposal was originally made by IULV-CA, the Andalusian branch of the [[United Left (Spain)|United Left]].<ref>[http://noticias.ya.com/local/andalucia/07/10/2006/mesa-propuesta-iu.html ''Propuesta de IU sobre derecho preferente de moriscos a la nacionalidad''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211014807/http://noticias.ya.com/local/andalucia/07/10/2006/mesa-propuesta-iu.html |date=2008-12-11 }} {{in lang|es}}</ref> Such a measure might have benefited an indeterminate number of people, particularly in [[Morocco]].<ref>[http://www.diariolatorre.es/index.php?id=39&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=1449&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=9&cHash=f43f09aa5a ''Piden la nacionalidad española para los descendientes de moriscos''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090518143358/http://www.diariolatorre.es/index.php?id=39&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=1449&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=9&cHash=f43f09aa5a |date=2009-05-18 }} {{in lang|es}}</ref> However, the call went unheeded by the central Spanish authorities.
3. [[Ibero-America]]ns and citizens of other countries historically related to Spain (Portugal, Andorra, Philippines, and Equatorial Guinea) also have a Right of Return: They can apply to Spanish nationality after 2 years of Legal residence (the usual time is 10 years for most foreigners) and they have the right to keep their birth nationality.<ref name="CodigoCivil2002">[[Spanish Civil Code]] of 2002, [http://civil.udg.es/NORMACIVIL/estatal/CC/1T1.htm#BM22 article 22] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070122084515/http://civil.udg.es/normacivil/estatal/CC/1T1.htm |date=2007-01-22 }}.</ref>
 
=== Ukraine ===
4. Those of [[Sephardic Jew]]ish origin also have the right to apply for nationality after a year of legal residency in Spain. Upon the rediscovery of [[Sephardi]] Jews during the [[Spanish-Moroccan War (1859)|campaigns]] of General [[Juan Prim]] in Northern Africa, the Spanish governments have taken friendly measures towards the descendants of the Jews expelled from Spain in 1492 under the [[Alhambra Decree]] and persecuted by the [[Spanish Inquisition]]. The motivation for these measures was a desire to repair a perceived injustice, the need of a collaborative base of natives in [[Spanish Morocco]], and an attempt to attract the sympathy of wealthy European Sephardis like the [[Pereira (surname)|Pereiras]] of France. The [[Alhambra Decree]] was revoked.
{{Main|Ukrainian citizenship}}
According to [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] law, anyone who was a citizen of the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic]] who was residing in Ukraine at the time of its declaration of independence and any stateless person living on the territory of Ukraine at the moment of its declaration of independence was granted nationality. Anyone born abroad to at least one parent with Ukrainian nationality, including permanent residents of Ukraine, is entitled to Ukrainian nationality. Children born within the territory of Ukraine to at least one Ukrainian parent, stateless persons with at least one Ukrainian grandparent, and children adopted by Ukrainian citizens are also eligible to become nationals.
 
=== United Kingdom ===
In November 2012, the Spanish government announced that it would eliminate the residency period for Sephardic Jews, and permit them to maintain dual citizenship, on the condition that such citizenship applicants presented a certificate of their Sephardic status from the Federation of Jewish Communities in Spain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://es.noticias.yahoo.com/espa%C3%B1a-conceder%C3%A1-nacionalidad-sefard%C3%ADes-independencia-residencia-150009830.html|title=España concederá la nacionalidad a todos los sefardíes con independencia de su lugar de residencia|publisher=|accessdate=15 July 2016}}</ref>
The ''[[British Nationality Act 1948]]'' conferred full and equal nationality and settlement rights in Britain on all 800 million subjects of the worldwide British Empire.<ref>[[Christian Joppke|Joppke, Christian]], ''Immigration and the Nation-State; The United States, Germany and Great Britain,'' Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999, p.101</ref> The ''[[Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968]]'', amending legislation passed in 1962, removed the right of entry from 200,000 south Asians long resident in British East Africa who had become the victims of the Africanization drive in newly independent [[Kenya]] and wished to move to Britain.<ref name="Joppke, Christian 1999, p.109">Joppke, Christian, ''Immigration and the Nation-State; The United States, Germany and Great Britain,'' Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999, p.109</ref> The act required "substantial connection" to Britain, defined as:
 
{{Ordered list|birth or the birth of a parent or grandparent in the United Kingdom;|a parent or grandparent who was Naturalised in the United Kingdom;|a parent or grandparent who became a national of the United Kingdom or its colonies by adoption;|had acquired British Nationality under legislation passed in 1948 or 1964.|type=lower-alpha}}
Spanish diplomacy exercised protection over Sephardis of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the independent Balkanic states succeeding it. The government of [[Miguel Primo de Rivera]] decreed in 1924 that every Sephardi could claim Spanish citizenship. This right was used by some refugees during the Second World War, including the [[History of the Jews in Hungary|Hungarian Jews]] saved by [[Ángel Sanz Briz]] and [[Giorgio Perlasca]]. This decree was again put to use to receive some Jews from [[Sarajevo]] during the [[Bosnian War]].
 
Further provisions extended rights to stepchildren. The wording of this legislation refers to 'Citizenship', 'Naturalisation' and 'Residence', and at no point refers to any specific ethnicity or ethnic group.<ref name="Joppke, Christian 1999, p.109" /><ref>Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968 http://www.britishcitizen.info/CIA1968.pdf</ref> Announcing his support for right of return legislation in Britain, Member of Parliament [[Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone|Quintin Hogg]] stated that, "All the great nations of the earth have what the Jews call a Diaspora," and affirmed that nations "special and residual obligation(s) toward them," which include recognizing their right to nationality.<ref name="Joppke, Christian 1999, p.110">Joppke, Christian, ''Immigration and the Nation-State; The United States, Germany and Great Britain,'' Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999, p.110</ref>
In October 2006, the [[Andalusia]]n [[Parliament]] asked the three parliamentary groups that form the majority to support an amendment that would ease the way for morisco descendants to gain Spanish citizenship. The proposal was originally made by IULV-CA, the Andalusian branch of the [[United Left (Spain)|United Left]].<ref>[http://noticias.ya.com/local/andalucia/07/10/2006/mesa-propuesta-iu.html ''Propuesta de IU sobre derecho preferente de moriscos a la nacionalidad''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211014807/http://noticias.ya.com/local/andalucia/07/10/2006/mesa-propuesta-iu.html |date=2008-12-11 }} {{in lang|es}}</ref> Such a measure might have benefited an indeterminate number of people, particularly in [[Morocco]] and other Maghreb countries.<ref>[http://www.diariolatorre.es/index.php?id=39&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=1449&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=9&cHash=f43f09aa5a ''Piden la nacionalidad española para los descendientes de moriscos''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090518143358/http://www.diariolatorre.es/index.php?id=39&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=1449&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=9&cHash=f43f09aa5a |date=2009-05-18 }} {{in lang|es}}</ref> However, the call went unheeded by the central Spanish authorities (see [[Morisco#Descendants and Spanish citizenship]]).
 
The ''[[Immigration Act 1971]]'' affirmed the principles of the 1968 legislation, giving the right of immigration to the grandchildren of British nationals and nationals born in the Commonwealth nations.<ref name="Joppke, Christian 1999, p.110" /> It was in effect long enough to enable the descendants of ethnic Britons to return to Britain from the former colonies.<ref name="Joppke, Christian 1999, p.110" />
=== Turkey ===
[[Turkey]]'s immigration laws permit people of ethnic [[Turkish people|Turkish]] descent to obtain Turkish citizenship without the traditional five-year residence requirement required of others.{{citation needed|date=February 2014}}
 
The ''[[British Nationality Act 1981]]'' differentiated between British nationality, [[British Overseas citizenship|British Overseas Citizenship]], and [[British Overseas Territories citizen|British Dependent Territory Citizenship]], recognizing the right of settlement only for British nationals.<ref name="Joppke, Christian 1999, p.110" /> It is notable that it was enacted after the contraction of the Empire was completed, and was offered to all substantial populations of descendants of ethnic Britons in the former colonies.<ref name="Joppke, Christian 1999, p.110" />
=== Taiwan ===
The immigration law of [[Taiwan]] (officially the Republic of China) gives priority to returning Taiwanese and [[overseas Chinese]] who are not citizens of the People's Republic of China, Chinese who were living abroad, and encourages their return. However, although [[Republic of China]] have not ceded the claim on mainland China, the government does not consider the people in mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau as Republic of China nationals.<ref>[大陸地區高等學校學歷如經採認，仍須具備中華民國國民身分，始能報考國家考試
http://www.exam.gov.tw/cp.asp?xItem=5579&ctNode=410&mp=2] - specifically "大陸地區人民因未具中華民國國民身分，亦無法以外國人身分報考"</ref>
 
=== United States ===
Overseas ethnic Chinese can register as Republic of China national and apply for a [[Republic of China passport]], however, they do not automatically have a right of return to Taiwan area if they don't have a household registration there.
The ''[[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965]]'', the latest of a series of such Acts, establishes nationality law of the United States. This is codified in [[Title 8 of the United States Code#Chapter 12|Chapter 12]] of [[Title 8 of the United States Code|Title 8 of the U.S. Code]], in which section 101(a)(22) states that the term "national of the United States" means:<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Citizenship Laws and Policy : Dual Nationality|url=https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/legal/travel-legal-considerations/Advice-about-Possible-Loss-of-US-Nationality-Dual-Nationality/Dual-Nationality.html|access-date=February 20, 2020|website=travel.state.gov}}</ref>
 
{{Ordered list|"a citizen of the United States;" or|"a person who, though not a citizen of the United States, owes permanent allegiance to the United States."|type=lower-alpha}}
Not all Republic of China nationals have a right of return to Taiwan area even if they hold a [[Republic of China passport]] - specifically, [[national without household registration|those without a household registration in Taiwan area]] do not automatically have the right of return, may be refused entry, removed or deported from Taiwan area, and an entry permit is needed before 2011.
The explanatory comments of this section, when originally written in 1940, provided clarification that all citizens were nationals of the United States but not all nationals were citizens.<ref name="ir.lawnet.fordham.edu"/>{{Rp|1709}}
 
=== UkraineOther countries ===
{{Main|Ukrainian citizenship}}
According to [[Ukrain]]ian law, anyone who was a citizen of the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic]] who was residing in Ukraine at the time of its declaration of independence and any stateless person living on the territory of Ukraine at the moment of its declaration of independence was granted citizenship. Anyone born abroad to at least one parent with Ukrainian citizenship, including permanent residents of Ukraine, is entitled to Ukrainian citizenship. Children born within the territory of Ukraine to at least one Ukrainian parent, stateless persons with at least one Ukrainian grandparent, and children adopted by Ukrainian citizens are also eligible for citizenship.
 
* '''Belarus''': The Citizenship Act of the [[Belarus|Republic of Belarus]] (2002) states that permanent-residence term requirements may be waived for [[Belarusians|ethnic Belarusians]] and descendants of ethnic Belarusians born abroad.
=== United Kingdom ===
* '''Croatia''': Article 11 of [[Croatia]]'s law on nationality ({{lang|hr|Zakon o hrvatskom državljanstvu}}) defines emigrants ({{lang|hr|iseljenik}}), and provides privileges by excluding them from certain conditions imposed on others. The [[Croatian diaspora]] makes use of this to obtain dual nationality or to return to Croatia.
The [[British Nationality Act 1948]] conferred full and equal citizenship and settlement rights in Britain on all 800 million subjects of the worldwide British Empire.<ref>[[Christian Joppke|Joppke, Christian]], ''Immigration and the Nation-State; The United States, Germany and Great Britain,'' Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999, p.101</ref> The [[Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968]], amending legislation passed in 1962, removed the right of entry from 200,000 south Asians long resident in British East Africa who had become the victims of the Africanization drive in newly independent [[Kenya]] and wished to move to Britain.<ref name="Joppke, Christian 1999, p.109">Joppke, Christian, ''Immigration and the Nation-State; The United States, Germany and Great Britain,'' Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999, p.109</ref> The act required "substantial connection" to Britain, defined as (a) birth or the birth of a parent or grandparent in the United Kingdom, (b) a parent or grandparent who was Naturalised in the United Kingdom, (c) a parent or grandparent who became a citizen of the United Kingdom or its colonies by adoption (d) had acquired British Nationality under legislation passed in 1948 or 1964. Further provisions extended rights to stepchildren. The wording of this legislation refers to 'Citizenship', 'Naturalisation' and 'Residence', and at no point refers to any specific ethnicity or ethnic group.<ref name="Joppke, Christian 1999, p.109"/><ref>Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968 http://www.britishcitizen.info/CIA1968.pdf</ref>
* '''Estonia''': Article 36 (3) of the [[Constitution of Estonia]] states that "Every [[Estonians|Estonian]] is entitled to settle in [[Estonia]]."<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Republic of Estonia – Riigi Teataja|url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/ee/530102013003/consolide/current|access-date=15 July 2016}}</ref>
Announcing his support for right of return legislation in Britain, MP [[Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone|Quintin Hogg]] stated that, "All the great nations of the earth have what the Jews call a Diaspora," and affirmed that nations "special and residual obligation(s) toward them," which include recognizing their right to citizenship.<ref name="Joppke, Christian 1999, p.110">Joppke, Christian, ''Immigration and the Nation-State; The United States, Germany and Great Britain,'' Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999, p.110</ref>
* '''Ghana''': [[Ghana]]'s ''[[right of abode]]'' law allows for people of [[Africa]]n descent to settle in the country.<ref>[http://www.theafricareport.com/West-Africa/ghana-a-place-for-african-americans-to-resettle.html Ghana, a place for African-Americans to resettle]</ref>
 
* '''Hungary''': In 2010, Hungary passed a law granting nationality and the right of return to descendants of Hungarians living mostly on the former territory of the Hungarian Kingdom and now residing in Hungary's neighbouring countries. [[Slovakia]], which has 500,000 ethnic [[Magyarization|Magyar]] citizens (10% of its population) objected vociferously.<ref name="Pandora's Passport 2010, p. 6022">Pandora's Passport, Hungary extends citizenship beyond its borders, Slovakia retaliates," The Economist, June 5, 2010, p. 60.</ref>
The [[Immigration Act 1971]] affirmed the principles of the 1968 legislation, giving the right of immigration to the grandchildren of British citizens and nationals born in the Commonwealth nations.<ref name="Joppke, Christian 1999, p.110"/> It was in effect long enough to enable the descendants of ethnic Britons to return to Britain from the former colonies.<ref name="Joppke, Christian 1999, p.110"/>
* '''Iraq''': see ''[[Iraqi nationality law]]''.
 
* '''Kazakhstan''': see ''[[Oralman]]''.
The [[British Nationality Act 1981]] differentiated between British Citizenship, British Overseas Citizenship, and British Dependent Territory Citizenship, recognizing the right of settlement only for British citizens.<ref name="Joppke, Christian 1999, p.110"/> It is notable that it was enacted after the contraction of the Empire was completed, and was offered to all substantial populations of descendants of ethnic Britons in the former colonies.<ref name="Joppke, Christian 1999, p.110"/>
* '''Lithuania''': From the [[Constitution of Lithuania]], Article 32(4): "Every Lithuanian person may settle in Lithuania."<ref>{{cite web|title=ICL - Lithuania - Constitution|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/lh00000_.html|access-date=15 July 2016}}</ref>
 
* '''Poland''': From the [[Constitution of Poland]], Article 52(5): "Anyone whose Polish origin has been confirmed in accordance with statute may settle permanently in Poland."<ref>{{cite web|title=ICL - Poland - Constitution|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/pl00000_.html|access-date=15 July 2016}}</ref> (see ''[[Polish nationality law]]''.)
=== United States ===
* '''Portugal''': On April 12, 2013, the Portuguese parliament approved unanimously an amendment to its nationality laws which would permit the descendants of [[Jews expelled from Portugal]] in the 16th century to become [[Portuguese citizens]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Descendants of Jews who fled persecution may claim Portuguese citizenship|website=[[The Times of Israel]] |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/descendants-of-jews-who-fled-persecution-may-claim-portuguese-citizenship|access-date=15 July 2016}}</ref>
The [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965]], the latest of a series of such Acts, establishes nationality law. This is codified in [[Title 8 of the United States Code#Chapter 12|Chapter 12]] of [[Title 8 of the United States Code]]. Section 101(a)(22) there states, "the term ‘national of the United States’ means (A) a citizen of the United States, or (B) a person who, though not a citizen of the United States, owes permanent allegiance to the United States."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/legal/travel-legal-considerations/Advice-about-Possible-Loss-of-US-Nationality-Dual-Nationality/Dual-Nationality.html|title=U.S. Citizenship Laws and Policy : Dual Nationality|website=travel.state.gov|accessdate=February 20, 2020}}</ref>
* '''Romania''': Romania extends nationality to all former nationals, as well as to the children and grandchildren of those who have lost their Romanian nationality, regardless of ethnic background.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Dumbrava|first1=Costica|title=Rolling Back History: The Romanian Policy of Restoration of Citizenship to Former Citizens|url=http://www.citsee.eu/citsee-story/rolling-back-history-romanian-policy-restoration-citizenship-former-citizens|access-date=25 November 2014|website=Citizenship in Southeast Europe}}</ref>
* '''South Korea''': "[[Overseas Korean]]" are [[South Korean nationality law|eligible for dual nationality]].
* '''Serbia''': Article 23 of the [[Serbian nationality law|2004 nationality law]] provides that the descendants of emigrants from [[Serbia]], or ethnic Serbs residing abroad, may take up nationality upon written declaration.
 
==See also==
* [[Immigration law]]
* [[Foreign born]]
* [[Citizenship Act]]
* [[Citizenship Act (disambiguation)]]
* [[History of citizenship]]
* [[Dual nationality]]
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[[Category:Nationality law| ]]
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