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{{Short description|Imaginary community or society possessing highly desirable or perfect qualities}}
'''Utopia''' is the title of a book by [[Thomas More]] (circa [[1516]]).
{{hatnote group|
{{other uses}}
{{redirect|Eutopia}}
}}
[[File:Thomas More Utopia 1516 VTOPIAE INSVLAE FIGVRA (Bibliothèque Nationale de France).jpg|thumb|This is the woodcut for Utopia's map as it appears in [[Thomas More]]'s Utopia printed by Dirk Martens in December 1516 (the first edition).]]
{{Utopia}}
A '''utopia''' ({{IPAc-en|j|uː|ˈ|t|oʊ|p|i|ə}} {{respell|yoo|TOH|pee|ə}}) typically describes an imaginary [[community]] or [[society]] that possesses highly desirable or near-perfect qualities for its members.<ref name="Giroux, H. 2003. pp. 91-105">{{cite journal |last=Giroux |first=Henry A. |author-link=Henry Giroux |date=2003 |title=Utopian thinking under the sign of neoliberalism: Towards a critical pedagogy of educated hope |url=https://uniteyouthdublin.files.wordpress.com/2015/01/giroux-utopian-thinking-under-the-sign-of-neoliberalism-towards-a-critical-pedagogy-of-e.pdf |journal=[[Democracy & Nature]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=91–105 |doi=10.1080/1085566032000074968 |access-date=2018-03-11 |archive-date=2019-12-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191205032126/https://uniteyouthdublin.files.wordpress.com/2015/01/giroux-utopian-thinking-under-the-sign-of-neoliberalism-towards-a-critical-pedagogy-of-e.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> It was coined by [[Sir Thomas More]] for his 1516 book ''[[Utopia (More book)|Utopia]]'', which describes a [[fictional island]] society in the [[New World]]<!-- Atlantic Ocean off the coast of South America -->.
 
Hypothetical utopias focus on, among other things, equality in categories such as [[economics]], [[government]] and [[justice]], with the method and structure of proposed implementation varying according to ideology.<ref name="Giroux, H. 2003. pp.91-105">{{cite journal |author=Giroux, H. |year=2003 |title=Utopian thinking under the sign of neoliberalism: Towards a critical pedagogy of educated hope |journal=Democracy & Nature |volume=9 |issue=1|pages=91–105|doi=10.1080/1085566032000074968 }}</ref> [[Lyman Tower Sargent]] argues that the nature of a utopia is inherently contradictory because societies are not [[homogeneous]] and have desires which conflict and therefore cannot simultaneously be satisfied. To quote:
A fictional depiction of a rationally organised society, the title has since been used as a generic word to describe both works of fiction in which the author's theories of a better way to organise society are dramatised, and actual communities founded in attempts to put such theories into practice. The theories generally revolve around a more equitable distribution of goods, frequently with the total abolition of money, and citizens only doing work which they enjoy, leaving them with ample time for the cultivation of the arts and sciences. The sewers in a utopia ''never'' need unblocking. The utopia may be usefully contrasted with the [[dystopia]].
{{Blockquote
|text=There are socialist, capitalist, monarchical, democratic, anarchist, ecological, feminist, patriarchal, egalitarian, hierarchical, racist, left-wing, right-wing, reformist, free love, nuclear family, extended family, gay, lesbian and many more utopias [ [[Naturism]], [[Naturist Christians|Nude Christians]], ...] Utopianism, some argue, is essential for the improvement of the human condition. But if used wrongly, it becomes dangerous. Utopia has an inherent contradictory nature here.
|author=Lyman Tower Sargent
|source=''Utopianism: A very short introduction'' (2010)<ref>{{cite book |author=Sargent, Lyman Tower |title=Utopianism: A very short introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xgA69UImZu8C&pg=PA21 |year=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |isbn=978-0-19-957340-0 |pages=21 |doi=10.1093/actrade/9780199573400.003.0002}}</ref>}}The opposite of a utopia is a [[dystopia]]. [[Utopian and dystopian fiction]] has become a popular literary category. Despite being common parlance for something imaginary, utopianism inspired and was inspired by some reality-based fields and concepts such as [[utopian architecture|architecture]], [[Cyber-utopianism|file sharing]], [[Hospitality exchange service|social networks]], [[universal basic income]], [[intentional community|commune]]s, [[open borders]] and even [[pirate utopia|pirate bases]].
 
==Etymology and history==
The word "utopia" is coined from two [[Greek]] roots, meaning, meaning "nowhere". The prefix '''u''' (not) is similar to '''eu''', which means "good", so '''utopia''' is often misinterpreted to mean "perfect place".
The word [[Wiktionary:utopia|''utopia'']] was coined in 1516 from [[Ancient Greek]] by the Englishman [[Sir Thomas More]] for his Latin text ''[[Utopia (More book)|Utopia]]''. It literally translates as "no place", coming from the {{langx|el|οὐ}} ("not") and τόπος ("place"), and meant any non-existent society, when 'described in considerable detail'.<ref>{{cite web |title=Definitions {{!}} Utopian Literature in English: An Annotated Bibliography From 1516 to the Present |url=https://openpublishing.psu.edu/utopia/content/definitions |website=openpublishing.psu.edu |access-date=4 September 2022|archive-date=4 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220904090946/https://openpublishing.psu.edu/utopia/content/definitions |url-status=live }}</ref> However, in standard usage, the word's meaning has [[semantic change|shifted]] and now usually describes a non-existent society that is intended to be viewed ''as considerably better'' than contemporary society.<ref name="Thinking Utopia">{{cite report |periodical=Thinking Utopia: Steps into Other Worlds |pages=11 |last=Sargent |first=Lyman Tower |title=The Necessity of Utopian Thinking: A cross-national perspective |editor1-last=Rüsen |editor1-first=Jörn |editor2-last=Fehr |editor2-first=Michael |editor3-last=Reiger |editor3-first=Thomas W. |year=2005 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1-57181-440-1 |location=New York}}</ref>
 
In his original work, More carefully pointed out the similarity of the word to ''eutopia'', meaning "good place", from {{langx|el|εὖ}} ("good" or "well") and τόπος ("place"), which ostensibly would be the more appropriate term for the concept in modern English. The pronunciations of ''eutopia'' and ''utopia'' in [[English language|English]] are [[homophone|identical]], which may have given rise to the change in meaning.<ref name="Thinking Utopia"/><ref>{{cite book |title=Utopian Reality: Reconstructing culture in revolutionary Russia and beyond |last1=Lodder |first1=C. |last2=Kokkori |first2=M |last3=Mileeva |first3=M. |pages=1–9 |isbn=978-90-04-26320-8 |publisher=Koninklijke Brill NV |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |year=2013}}</ref> ''Dystopia'', a term meaning "bad place" coined in 1868, draws on this latter meaning. The opposite of a utopia, ''[[dystopia]]'' is a concept which surpassed ''utopia'' in popularity in the [[utopian and dystopian fiction|fictional literature]] from the 1950s onwards, chiefly because of the impact of George Orwell's ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''.
Examples of utopias:
 
In 1876, writer [[Charles Renouvier]] published a novel called ''[[Uchronia]]'' ([[French language|French]] ''Uchronie'').<ref>{{citation|title=Uchronia: Uchronie (l'utopie dans l'histoire), esquisse historique apocryphe du développement de la civilisation européenne tel qu'il n'a pas été, tel qu'il aurait pu être|url=http://www.uchronia.net/bib.cgi/label.html?id=renouchron|publisher=Uchronia.net|access-date=2011-10-01|archive-date=2021-03-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210311164457/http://www.uchronia.net/bib.cgi/label.html?id=renouchron|url-status=live}}, reprinted 1988, {{ISBN|2-213-02058-2}}.</ref> The [[neologism]], using ''chronos'' instead of ''topos'', has since been used to refer to non-existent idealized times in fiction, such as [[Philip Roth]]'s ''[[The Plot Against America]]'' (2004)'',<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Douglas|first=Christopher|date=2013|title="Something That Has Already Happened": Recapitulation and Religious Indifference in The Plot Against America|journal=MFS Modern Fiction Studies|volume=59|issue=4|pages=784–810|doi=10.1353/mfs.2013.0045|issn=1080-658X|s2cid=162310618}}</ref>'' and [[Philip K. Dick]]'s ''[[The Man in the High Castle]]'' (1962)''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fondanèche|first1=Daniel|last2=Chatelain|first2=Danièle|last3=Slusser|first3=George|date=1988|title=Dick, the Libertarian Prophet (Dick: une prophète libertaire)|journal=Science Fiction Studies|volume=15|issue=2|pages=141–151|issn=0091-7729|jstor=4239877}}</ref>''
*The section in ''[[Gullivers Travels|Gulliver's Travels]]'' by [[Jonathan Swift]] depicting the calm, rational society of the [[Houyhnhm]]s, is certainly utopian, but it is meant to contrast with that of the [[Yahoo|yahoos]], who represent the worst that the human race can do.
 
According to the ''Philosophical Dictionary'', proto-utopian ideas begin as early as the period of [[ancient Greece]] and Rome, [[Heretics|medieval heretics]], [[Peasants' Revolt|peasant revolts]] and establish themselves in the period of the early capitalism, [[reformation]] and [[Renaissance]] ([[Jan Hus|Hus]], [[Müntzer]], [[Thomas More|More]], [[Tommaso Campanella|Campanella]]), [[democratic revolutions]] ([[Jean Meslier|Meslier]], [[Morelly]], [[Gabriel Bonnot de Mably|Mably]], [[Gerrard Winstanley|Winstanley]], later [[Babeuf]]ists, [[Blanquism|Blanquists]],) and in a period of turbulent development of capitalism that highlighted antagonisms of [[capitalist society]] ([[Henri de Saint-Simon|Saint-Simon]], [[Charles Fourier|Fourier]], [[Robert Owen|Owen]], [[Cabet]], [[Lamennais]], [[Proudhon]] and their followers).<ref>Filozofický slovník 1977, s. 561</ref>
*''[[Erewhon]]'' by [[Samuel Butler]]
 
==Definitions and interpretations==
*''[[Looking Backward]]'', by [[Edward Bellamy]]
Famous quotes from writers and characters about utopia:
* "There is nothing like a dream to create the future. Utopia to-day, flesh and blood tomorrow." —[[Victor Hugo]]
* "A map of the world that does not include Utopia is not worth even glancing at, for it leaves out the one country at which Humanity is always landing. And when Humanity lands there, it looks out, and, seeing a better country, sets sail. Progress is the realisation of Utopias." —[[Oscar Wilde]]
* "Utopias are often only premature truths." —[[Alphonse de Lamartine]]
* "None of the [[abstraction|abstract]] concepts comes closer to fulfilled utopia than that of eternal peace." —[[Theodor W. Adorno]]
* "I think that there is always a part of utopia in any romantic relationship." —[[Pedro Almodovar]]
* "In ourselves alone the absolute light keeps shining, a sigillum falsi et sui, mortis et vitae aeternae [false signal and signal of eternal life and death itself], and the fantastic move to it begins: to the external interpretation of the daydream, the cosmic manipulation of a concept that is utopian in principle." —[[Ernst Bloch]]
* "When I die, I want to die in a Utopia that I have helped to build." —[[Henry Kuttner]]
* "A man must be far gone in Utopian speculations who can seriously doubt that if these [United] States should either be wholly disunited, or only united in partial confederacies, the subdivisions into which they might be thrown would have frequent and violent contests with each other." —[[Alexander Hamilton]], ''Federalist'' No. 6.
* "Most dictionaries associate utopia with ideal commonwealths, which they characterize as an empirical realization of an ideal life in an ideal society. Utopias, especially social utopias, are associated with the idea of social justice." – Lukáš Perný<ref>PERNÝ, Lukáš: Utopians, Visionaries of the World of the Future (The History of Utopias and Utopianism), Martin: Matica slovenská, 2020, p. 16</ref>
*"We are all utopians, so soon as we wish for something different." – [[Henri Lefebvre]]<ref>LEFEBVRE, Henri (2000 [1968]) Everyday Life in the Modern World. Translated by Sacha Rabinovitch. London: The Athlone Press, p.75.</ref>
*"Every daring attempt to make a great change in existing conditions, every lofty vision of new possibilities for the human race, has been labeled Utopian." –[[Emma Goldman]]<ref>Emma Goldman, “[https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/emma-goldman%20-socialism-caught-in-the-political-trap Socialism Caught in the Political Trap] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525073427/https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/emma-goldman-socialism-caught-in-the-political-trap |date=2024-05-25 }},” in Red Emma Speaks: An Emma Goldman Reader, ed. Alix Kates Shulman, freely available at the Anarchist Library.</ref>
 
[[Utopian socialism|Utopian socialist]] [[Étienne Cabet]] in his utopian book ''[[The Voyage to Icaria]]'' cited the definition from the contemporary ''Dictionary of ethical and political sciences'':
*''[[News from Nowhere]]'', by [[William Morris]]; see also the [[Arts and Crafts Movement]] founded to put his ideas into practice
{{blockquote|Utopias and other models of government, based on the public good, may be inconceivable because of the disordered human passions which, under the wrong governments, seek to highlight the poorly conceived or selfish interest of the community. But even though we find it impossible, they are ridiculous to sinful people whose sense of self-destruction prevents them from believing.}}
 
[[Karl Marx|Marx]] and [[Engels, Friedrich, 1820-1895|Engels]] used the word "utopia" to denote unscientific social theories.<ref>Frederick Engels. Socialism: Utopian and Scientific.</ref>
*A large number of books by [[H.G. Wells]]
 
Philosopher [[Slavoj Žižek]] told about utopia:
*[[B. F. Skinner]]'s ''[[Walden Two]]''
{{blockquote|Which means that we should reinvent utopia but in what sense. There are two false meanings of utopia one is this old notion of imagining this ideal society we know will never be realized, the other is the capitalist utopia in the sense of new perverse desire that you are not only allowed but even solicited to realize. The true utopia is when the situation is so without issue, without the way to resolve it within the coordinates of the possible that out of the pure urge of survival you have to invent a new space. Utopia is not kind of a free [[imagination]] utopia is a matter of inner most urgency, you are forced to imagine it, it is the only way out, and this is what we need today."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://maquinasdefuego.blogspot.com/2011/08/slavoj-zizek-on-utopia.html|title=Slavoj Žižek on Utopia|access-date=2019-08-21|archive-date=2019-08-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190821123356/http://maquinasdefuego.blogspot.com/2011/08/slavoj-zizek-on-utopia.html|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
 
Philosopher [[Milan Šimečka]] said:
* ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'' by [[Ayn Rand]]
 
{{blockquote|...utopism was a common type of thinking at the dawn of human [[civilization]]. We find utopian beliefs in the oldest religious imaginations, appear regularly in the neighborhood of ancient, yet pre-philosophical views on the causes and meaning of natural events, the purpose of creation, the path of good and evil, happiness and misfortune, fairy tales and legends later inspired by poetry and philosophy ... the underlying motives on which utopian literature is built are as old as the entire historical epoch of human history. ”<ref>ŠIMEČKA, M. (1963): Sociálne utópie a utopisti, Bratislava: Vydavateľstvo Osveta.</ref>}}
*''[[The Dispossessed]]'', a [[science fiction]] novel by [[Ursual K. le Guin]], is sometimes said to represent one of the few modern revivals of the utopian genre, though it is notable that one of the major themes of the work is the ambiguity of different notions of utopia. Le Guin presents a world in which ditches do need digging, and sewers need unblocking---this drudgery is divided among all adults, and is contrasted, in the language of the utopia, with their everyday, more satisfying work.
 
Philosopher [[Richard Stahel]] said:
See also [[Utopian/Dystopian Fiction]]
 
{{blockquote|...every [[social organization]] relies on something that is not realized or feasible, but has the ideal that is somewhere beyond the horizon, a [[lighthouse]] to which it may seek to approach if it considers that ideal socially valid and generally accepted."<ref>SŤAHEL, R. In: MICHALKOVÁ, R.: Symposion: Utópie. Bratislava: RTVS. 2017.</ref>}}
 
==Varieties==
[[talk:Utopia|/Talk]]
Chronologically, the first recorded Utopian proposal is [[Plato]]'s ''[[Republic (Plato)|Republic]]''.<ref>More, Travis; Vinod, Rohith (1989)</ref> Part conversation, part fictional depiction and part policy proposal, ''Republic'' would categorize citizens into a rigid class structure of "golden," "silver," "bronze" and "iron" socioeconomic classes. The golden citizens are trained in a rigorous 50-year-long educational program to be benign oligarchs, the "philosopher-kings." Plato stressed this structure many times in statements, and in his published works, such as the ''Republic''. The wisdom of these rulers will supposedly eliminate poverty and deprivation through fairly distributed resources, though the details on how to do this are unclear. The educational program for the rulers is the central notion of the proposal. It has few laws, no lawyers and rarely sends its citizens to war but hires [[mercenary|mercenaries]] from among its war-prone neighbors. These mercenaries were deliberately sent into dangerous situations in the hope that the more warlike populations of all surrounding countries will be weeded out, leaving peaceful peoples to remain.
 
During the 16th century, Thomas More's book ''[[Utopia (More book)|Utopia]]'' proposed an ideal society of the same name.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item126618.html|title=Thomas More's Utopia|website=bl.uk|access-date=14 May 2017|archive-date=2 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170502205735/http://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item126618.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Readers, including Utopian socialists, have chosen to accept this imaginary society as the realistic blueprint for a working nation, while others have postulated that Thomas More intended nothing of the sort.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.utopiaanddystopia.com/utopia/utopian-socialism/ |title=Utopian Socialism |publisher=The Utopian Socialism Movement |website=utopiaanddystopia.com |access-date=14 May 2017 |archive-date=11 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511155642/http://www.utopiaanddystopia.com/utopia/utopian-socialism/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It is believed that More's ''Utopia'' functions only on the level of a satire, a work intended to reveal more about the [[England]] of his time than about an idealistic society.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dalley |first=Jan |url=https://www.ft.com/content/73b9bed6-a7ea-11e5-955c-1e1d6de94879 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/73b9bed6-a7ea-11e5-955c-1e1d6de94879 |archive-date=2022-12-10 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Openings: Going back to Utopia |work=[[Financial Times]]|location=London |date=30 December 2015 |access-date=27 August 2018}}</ref> This interpretation is bolstered by the title of the book and nation and its apparent confusion between the Greek for "no place" and "good place": "utopia" is a compound of the syllable ou-, meaning "no" and topos, meaning place. But the [[Homophone|homophonic]] prefix eu-, meaning "good," also resonates in the word, with the implication that the perfectly "good place" is really "no place."
 
==Mythical and religious utopias==
{{Further|Palingenesis|Apocatastasis}}
[[File:Hieronymus Bosch - The Garden of Earthly Delights - The Earthly Paradise (Garden of Eden).jpg|thumbnail|right|upright|''The Earthly Paradise – [[Garden of Eden]]'', the left panel from [[Hieronymus Bosch]]'s ''[[The Garden of Earthly Delights]]'']]
In many cultures, societies, and religions, there is some myth or memory of a distant past when humankind lived in a primitive and simple state but at the same time one of perfect happiness and fulfillment. In those days, the various [[mythology|myth]]s tell us, there was an instinctive harmony between humanity and nature. People's needs were few and their desires limited. Both were easily satisfied by the abundance provided by nature. Accordingly, there were no motives whatsoever for war or oppression. Nor was there any need for hard and painful work. Humans were simple and [[piety|pious]] and felt themselves close to their God or gods. According to one anthropological theory, hunter-gatherers were the [[original affluent society]].
 
These mythical or religious archetypes are inscribed in many cultures and resurge with special vitality when people are in difficult and critical times. However, in utopias, the projection of the myth does not take place towards the remote past but either towards the future or towards distant and fictional places, imagining that at some time in the future, at some point in space, or beyond death, there must exist the possibility of living happily.
 
In the United States and Europe, during the [[Second Great Awakening]] (ca. 1790–1840) and thereafter, many radical religious groups formed utopian societies in which [[faith]] could govern all aspects of members' lives. These utopian societies included the [[Shakers]], who originated in England in the 18th century and arrived in America in 1774. A number of religious utopian societies from Europe came to the United States in the 18th and 19th centuries, including the Society of the Woman in the Wilderness (led by [[Johannes Kelpius]] (1667–1708), the [[Ephrata Cloister]] (established in 1732) and the [[Harmony Society]], among others. The Harmony Society was a [[Christian theosophy]] and [[Pietism|pietist]] group founded in [[Iptingen]], [[Germany]], in 1785. Due to religious persecution by the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran Church]] and the government in [[Württemberg]],<ref name="Sutton1">Robert Paul Sutton, ''Communal Utopias and the American Experience: Religious Communities'' (2003) p. 38</ref> the society moved to the United States on October 7, 1803, settling in [[Pennsylvania]]. On February 15, 1805, about 400 followers formally organized the Harmony Society, placing all their [[Common ownership|goods in common]]. The group lasted until 1905, making it one of the longest-running financially successful communes in American history.
 
The [[Oneida Community]], founded by [[John Humphrey Noyes]] in [[Oneida, New York]], was a utopian religious [[Intentional community|commune]] that lasted from 1848 to 1881. Although this utopian experiment has become better known today for its manufacture of Oneida silverware, it was one of the longest-running communes in American history. The [[Amana Colonies]] were communal settlements in [[Iowa]], started by radical German [[pietists]], which lasted from 1855 to 1932. The [[Amana Corporation]], manufacturer of refrigerators and household appliances, was originally started by the group. Other examples are [[Fountain Grove, California|Fountain Grove]] (founded in 1875), Riker's Holy City and other Californian utopian colonies between 1855 and 1955 (Hine), as well as [[Sointula]]<ref>{{cite web | title = Finnish Utopian Settlements in North America | author = Teuvo Peltoniemi | url = http://www.sosiomedia.fi/utopia/na_settlements.pdf | publisher = sosiomedia.fi | year = 1984 | access-date = 2008-10-12 | archive-date = 2010-10-26 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101026020303/http://www.sosiomedia.fi/utopia/na_settlements.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> in [[British Columbia]], Canada. The [[Amish]] and [[Hutterites]] can also be considered an attempt towards religious utopia. A wide variety of [[intentional communities]] with some type of faith-based ideas have also started across the world.
 
Anthropologist Richard Sosis examined 200 communes in the 19th-century United States, both religious and secular (mostly [[Utopian socialism|utopian socialist]]). 39 percent of the religious communes were still functioning 20 years after their founding while only 6 percent of the secular communes were.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sosis|first=Richard|title=Religion and Intragroup Cooperation: Preliminary Results of a Comparative Analysis of Utopian Communities|journal=[[Cross-Cultural Research]]|publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]]|volume=34|issue=1|year=2000|pages=70–87|doi=10.1177/106939710003400105|s2cid=44050390|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/450a/edd9d7e55e9237ee092b0a86b3af986b46bf.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125154257/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/450a/edd9d7e55e9237ee092b0a86b3af986b46bf.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 25, 2020|access-date=January 7, 2020}}</ref> The number of costly sacrifices that a religious commune demanded from its members had a linear effect on its longevity, while in secular communes demands for costly sacrifices did not correlate with longevity and the majority of the secular communes failed within 8 years. Sosis cites anthropologist [[Roy Rappaport]] in arguing that [[ritual]]s and laws are more effective when [[Sanctification|sacralized]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sosis|first1=Richard|last2=Bressler|first2=Eric R.|title=Cooperation and Commune Longevity: A Test of the Costly Signaling Theory of Religion|journal=[[Cross-Cultural Research]]|publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]]|volume=37|issue=2|year=2003|pages=211–239|doi=10.1177/1069397103037002003|citeseerx=10.1.1.500.5715|s2cid=7908906}}</ref> Social psychologist [[Jonathan Haidt]] cites Sosis's research in his 2012 book ''[[The Righteous Mind]]'' as the best evidence that [[religion]] is an [[Evolutionary psychology of religion|adaptive solution]] to the [[free-rider problem]] by enabling [[cooperation]] without [[Kin selection|kinship]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Haidt|first=Jonathan|author-link=Jonathan Haidt|title=The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion|publisher=[[Vintage Books]]|location=New York|year=2012|pages=298–299|title-link=The Righteous Mind|isbn=978-0307455772}}</ref> [[Evolutionary medicine]] researcher [[Randolph M. Nesse]] and theoretical biologist [[Mary Jane West-Eberhard]] have argued instead that because humans with [[Altruism (biology)|altruistic]] tendencies are preferred as social partners they receive [[Inclusive fitness|fitness advantages]] by [[social selection]],{{refn|group=list|name=socialselection|<ref name="Nesse 2019 pp. 172–76">{{cite book|last=Nesse|first=Randolph|author-link=Randolph M. Nesse|title=Good Reasons for Bad Feelings: Insights from the Frontier of Evolutionary Psychiatry|publisher=[[Dutton (imprint)|Dutton]]|year=2019|pages=172–176|isbn=978-1101985663}}</ref><ref name="West-Eberhard 1975">{{cite journal|last=West-Eberhard|first=Mary Jane|title=The Evolution of Social Behavior by Kin Selection|journal=[[The Quarterly Review of Biology]]|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|year=1975|volume=50|issue=1|pages=1–33|doi=10.1086/408298|jstor=2821184|s2cid=14459515}}</ref><ref name="West-Eberhard 1979">{{cite journal|last=West-Eberhard|first=Mary Jane|title=Sexual Selection, Social Competition, and Evolution|journal=[[Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society]]|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|year=1979|volume=123|issue=4|pages=222–34|jstor=986582}}</ref><ref name="Nesse 2007">{{cite journal|last=Nesse|first=Randolph M.|author-link=Randolph M. Nesse|title=Runaway social selection for displays of partner value and altruism|journal=[[Biological Theory (journal)|Biological Theory]]|year=2007|volume=2|issue=2|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]]|pages=143–55|doi=10.1162/biot.2007.2.2.143|s2cid=195097363|citeseerx=10.1.1.409.3359}}</ref>}} with Nesse arguing further that social selection enabled humans as a species to become extraordinarily [[Cooperation|cooperative]] and capable of creating [[culture]].<ref name="Nesse 2009">{{cite book|last=Nesse|first=Randolph M.|author-link=Randolph M. Nesse|chapter=10. Social Selection and the Origins of Culture|editor-last1=Schaller|editor-first1=Mark|editor-link1=Mark Schaller|editor-last2=Heine|editor-first2=Steven J.|editor-link2=Steven Heine (psychologist)|editor-last3=Norenzayan|editor-first3=Ara|editor-last4=Yamagishi|editor-first4=Toshio|editor-last5=Kameda|editor-first5=Tatsuya|title=Evolution, Culture, and the Human Mind|place=Philadelphia|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|year=2009|pages=137–50|isbn=978-0805859119}}</ref>
 
The [[Book of Revelation]] in the Christian [[Bible]] depicts an [[Christian eschatology|eschatological]] time with the defeat of [[Satan]], of [[Evil]] and of [[Sin]]. The main difference compared to the [[Old Testament]] [[Mosaic covenant|promises]] is that such a defeat also has an [[ontology|ontological]] value: "Then I saw 'a [[new Heaven and New Earth|new heaven and a new earth]],' for the first heaven and the first earth had passed away, and there was no longer any sea...'He will wipe every tear from their eyes. There will be no more death' or mourning or crying or pain, for the old order of things has passed away"<ref>{{bibleverse|Rev|21:1;4|NIV}}</ref> and no longer just [[gnosiology|gnosiological]] ([[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]]: "See, I will create/new heavens and a new earth./The former things will not be remembered,/nor will they come to mind".<ref>{{bibleref2-nb|Isaiah|65:17|NIV}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1=Joel B. Green |editor-link=Joel B. Green |editor2=Jacqueline Lapsley |editor3=Rebekah Miles |editor4=Allen Verhey |title=Dictionary of Scripture and Ethics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8fxBvvFu2l8C |year=2011 |publisher=[[Baker Publishing Group|Baker Books]] |location=[[Ada Township, Michigan]] |isbn=978-1-4412-3998-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8fxBvvFu2l8C&dq=%22promise+of+a+renewal+of+all+creation,+a+hope+present+in+OT+prophetic+literature+(Isa.+65:17%22%22but+portrayed+most+strikingly+through+Revelation's+vision%22%22divine+king+of+creation+promises+to+renew+all+of+reality%22&pg=PA190 190] |quote=This goodness theme is advanced most definitively through the promise of a renewal of all creation, a hope present in OT prophetic literature (Isa. 65:17–25) but portrayed most strikingly through Revelation's vision of a "new heaven and a new earth" (Rev. 21:1). There the divine king of creation promises to renew all of reality: "See, I am making all things new" (Rev. 21:5).}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1=Steve Moyise |editor2=Maarten J.J. Menken |title=Isaiah in the New Testament. The New Testament and the Scriptures of Israel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_MqRBQAAQBAJ |year=2005 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-567-61166-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_MqRBQAAQBAJ&dq=%22Isa.+65:17%22%22John+emphasizes+the+qualitatively+new+state+of+affairs+that+will+exist+at+God's+new+creative+act.+In+addition+to+the+passing+of+the+former+heaven+and+earth,+John+also+asserts+that+the+sea+was+no+more+in+21:1c%22&pg=PA201 201] |quote=By alluding to the new Creation prophecy of Isaiah John emphasizes the qualitatively new state of affairs that will exist at God's new creative act. In addition to the passing of the former heaven and earth, John also asserts that the sea was no more in 21:1c.}}</ref> Narrow interpretation of the text depicts Heaven on Earth or a Heaven brought to Earth without [[sin]]. Daily and mundane details of this new Earth, where God and [[Jesus]] rule, remain unclear, although it is implied to be similar to the biblical Garden of Eden. Some theological philosophers believe that heaven will not be a physical realm but instead an [[incorporeal]] place for [[souls]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Book of the Secrets of Enoch, Chapters 1-68 |url=http://reluctant-messenger.com/2enoch01-68.htm |access-date=14 May 2017 |website=The Reluctant Messenger |archive-date=26 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026132404/https://reluctant-messenger.com/2enoch01-68.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>[[File:Lucas_Cranach_the_Elder_-_The_Golden_Age_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|thumbnail|right|''The Golden Age'' by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]]]]
 
===Golden Age===
 
The [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] poet [[Hesiod]], around the 8th century BC, in his compilation of the mythological tradition (the poem ''[[Works and Days]]''), explained that, prior to [[Ages of Man|the present era]], there were four other progressively less perfect ones, the oldest of which was the [[Golden Age]].
 
===Scheria===
 
Perhaps the oldest Utopia of which we know, as pointed out many years ago by [[Moses Finley]],<ref>M.I.Finley, World of Odysseus, 1954, 100.</ref> is [[Homer]]'s [[Scheria]], island of the [[Phaeacians]].<ref>Homer Odyssey 6:251-7:155</ref> A mythical place, often equated with classical [[Corcyra]], (modern [[Corfu]]/[[Kerkyra]]), where [[Odysseus]] was washed ashore after 10 years of storm-tossed wandering and escorted to the King's palace by his daughter [[Nausicaa]]. With stout walls, a stone temple and good harbours, it is perhaps the 'ideal' [[Greek colony]], a model for those founded from the middle of the 8th Century onward. A land of plenty, home to expert mariners (with the self-navigating ships), and skilled craftswomen who live in peace under their king's rule and fear no strangers.
 
[[Plutarch]], the Greek historian and biographer of the 1st century, dealt with the blissful and mythic past of humanity.
 
===Arcadia===
 
From [[Sir Philip Sidney]]'s prose romance ''[[Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia|The Old Arcadia]]'' (1580), originally a region in the [[Peloponnesus]], [[Arcadia (utopia)|Arcadia]] became a [[synonym]] for any rural area that serves as a [[pastoral]] setting, a ''[[locus amoenus]]'' ("delightful place").
 
===The Biblical Garden of Eden===
 
[[File:Apocalypse 38. A new heaven and new earth. Revelation cap 21. Mortier's Bible. Phillip Medhurst Collection.jpg|thumb|right|''A new heaven and new earth'',<ref>{{bibleverse|Rev|21:1|NIV}}</ref> Mortier's Bible, [[c:User:Phillip Medhurst|Phillip Medhurst]] Collection]]The [[Hebrew Bible|Biblical]] [[Garden of Eden]] as depicted in the [[Old Testament]] [[Bible]]'s [[Book of Genesis]] 2 ([[King James Version of the Bible|Authorized Version of 1611]]):
 
{{poemquote|And the Lord God planted a garden eastward in Eden; and there he put the man whom he had formed. Out of the ground made the Lord God to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight and good for food; the [[Tree of life (biblical)|tree of life]] also in the midst of the garden and the [[Tree of the knowledge of good and evil|tree of knowledge of good and evil]]. [...]
And the Lord God took the man and put him into the garden of Eden to dress it and to keep it. And the Lord God commanded the man, saying, Of every tree of the garden thou mayest freely eat: but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat of it: for in the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die. [...]
And the Lord God said, It is not good that the man should be alone; [...] And the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon Adam and he slept: and he took one of his ribs and closed up the flesh instead thereof and the rib, which the Lord God had taken from man, made he a woman and brought her unto the man.}}
 
According to the exegesis that the biblical theologian [[Herbert Haag]] proposes in the book ''Is original sin in Scripture?'',<ref>{{cite book |last=Haag |first=Herbert |author-link=Herbert Haag |title=Is original sin in Scripture? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zO_YAAAAMAAJ |year=1969 |publisher=[[Sheed and Ward]] |location=New York|isbn=9780836202502 }} [[German language|German]] or. ed.: [https://books.google.com/books?id=EnWRSQAACAAJ 1966].</ref> published soon after the [[Second Vatican Council]], Genesis 2:25 would indicate that [[Adam and Eve]] were created from the beginning naked of the [[divine grace]], an originary grace that, then, they would never have had and even less would have lost due to the subsequent events narrated.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|2:25|NIV}}</ref> On the other hand, while supporting a continuity in the Bible about the absence of [[preternatural]] gifts ({{langx|la|dona praeternaturalia}})<ref>{{in lang|de}} Haag, Herbert (1966). pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=nUMaAAAAMAAJ&q=%22dona+praeternaturalia%22 1, 49ff.]</ref> with regard to the [[Serpents in the Bible#Eden|ophitic event]], Haag never makes any reference to the discontinuity of the loss of access to the tree of life.
 
===The Land of Cockaigne===
 
The Land of [[Cockaigne]] (also Cockaygne, Cokaygne), was an imaginary land of idleness and luxury, famous in medieval stories and the subject of several poems, one of which, an early translation of a 13th-century French work, is given in [[George Ellis (poet)|George Ellis']] ''Specimens of Early English Poets''. In this, "the houses were made of barley sugar and cakes, the streets were paved with pastry and the shops supplied goods for nothing." London has been so called (see [[Cockney#Cockaigne|Cockney]]) but Boileau applies the same to Paris.<ref>Cobham Brewer E. ''Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable'', Odhams, London, 1932</ref> [[Schlaraffenland]] is an analogous German tradition. All these myths also express some hope that the [[idyll]]ic state of affairs they describe is not irretrievably and irrevocably lost to mankind, that it can be regained in some way or other.
 
One way might be a quest for an "earthly paradise"&nbsp;– a place like [[Shangri-La]], hidden in the [[Tibet]]an mountains and described by [[James Hilton (novelist)|James Hilton]] in his utopian novel ''[[Lost Horizon (novel)|Lost Horizon]]'' (1933). [[Christopher Columbus]] followed directly in this tradition in his belief that he had found the Garden of Eden when, towards the end of the 15th century, he first encountered the [[New World]] and its indigenous inhabitants.{{Citation needed|date=December 2022}}
 
===The Peach Blossom Spring===
The ''[[Peach Blossom Spring]]'' ({{lang-zh|c=桃花源|p=Táohuāyuán}}), a prose piece written by the Chinese poet [[Tao Yuanming]], describes a utopian place.<ref>{{cite book| last=Tian| first=Xiaofei| title=The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature| year=2010| publisher=Cambridge University Press| location=Cambridge| isbn=978-0-521-85558-7| page=221| chapter=From the Eastern Jin through the Early Tang (317–649)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last=Berkowitz| first=Alan J.| title=Patterns of Disengagement: the Practice and Portrayal of Reclusion in Early Medieval China| year=2000| publisher=Stanford University Press| location=Stanford| isbn=978-0-8047-3603-9| page=225}}</ref> The narrative goes that a fisherman from Wuling sailed upstream a river and came across a beautiful blossoming peach grove and lush green fields covered with blossom petals.<ref name=zh182>{{cite book| last=Longxi| first=Zhang| title=Allegoresis: Reading Canonical Literature East and West| year=2005| publisher=Cornell University Press| location=Ithaca| isbn=978-0-8014-4369-5| page=182}}</ref> Entranced by the beauty, he continued upstream and stumbled onto a small grotto when he reached the end of the river.<ref name=zh182/> Though narrow at first, he was able to squeeze through the passage and discovered an ethereal utopia, where the people led an ideal existence in harmony with nature.<ref name=zh182-3>{{cite book| last=Longxi| first=Zhang| title=Allegoresis: Reading Canonical Literature East and West| year=2005| publisher=Cornell University Press| location=Ithaca| isbn=978-0-8014-4369-5| pages=182–183}}</ref> He saw a vast expanse of fertile lands, clear ponds, mulberry trees, bamboo groves and the like with a community of people of all ages and houses in neat rows.<ref name=zh182-3/> The people explained that their ancestors escaped to this place during the civil unrest of the [[Qin dynasty]] and they themselves had not left since or had contact with anyone from the outside.<ref name=zh183>{{cite book| last=Longxi| first=Zhang| title=Allegoresis: Reading Canonical Literature East and West| year=2005| publisher=Cornell University Press| location=Ithaca| isbn=978-0-8014-4369-5| page=183}}</ref> They had not even heard of the later dynasties of bygone times or the then-current [[Jin dynasty (265–420)|Jin dynasty]].<ref name=zh183/> In the story, the community was secluded and unaffected by the troubles of the outside world.<ref name=zh183/>
 
The sense of timelessness was predominant in the story as a perfect utopian community remains unchanged, that is, it had no decline nor the need to improve.<ref name=zh183/> Eventually, the Chinese term ''Peach Blossom Spring'' came to be synonymous for the concept of utopia.<ref>{{cite book| last=Gu| first=Ming Dong| title=Chinese Theories of Fiction: A Non-Western Narrative System| year=2006| publisher=State University of New York Press| location=Albany| isbn=978-0-7914-6815-9| page=59}}</ref>
 
===Datong===
 
[[Great Unity|Datong]]({{zh|c=大同|p=dàtóng}}) is a traditional Chinese Utopia. The main description of it is found in the Chinese [[Classic of Rites]], in the chapter called "Li Yun"({{zh|c=禮運|p=Lǐ yùn}}). Later, Datong and its ideal of 'The World Belongs to Everyone/The World is Held in Common' Tianxia weigong({{lang-zh|c=天下爲公|p=Tiānxià wèi gōng}}) influenced modern Chinese reformers and revolutionaries, such as [[Kang Youwei]].
 
===Ketumati===
 
It is said, once [[Maitreya]] is [[Reincarnation#Buddhism|reborn]] into the future kingdom of [[Ketumati]], a utopian age will commence.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Patry |first1=Denise |last2=Strahan |first2=Donna |last3=Becker |first3=Lawrence |title=Wisdom Embodied: Chinese Buddhist and Daoist Sculpture in the Metropolitan Museum of Art |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GFa0uSleDNwC&dq=ketumati+utopia&pg=PA58 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=2010 |page=58 |isbn=9781588393999 |access-date=2023-03-20 |archive-date=2023-07-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715214854/https://books.google.com/books?id=GFa0uSleDNwC&dq=ketumati+utopia&pg=PA58 |url-status=live }}</ref> The city is described in [[Buddhism]] as a domain filled with palaces made of gems and surrounded by [[Kalpavriksha]] trees producing goods. During its years, none of the inhabitants of [[Jambudvipa]] will need to take part in cultivation and hunger will no longer exist.<ref>{{cite book |last=Maddegama |first=Udaya |title=Sermon of the Chronicle-to-be |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Eua4CFFGBoC |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |year=1993 |pages=32–33 |isbn=9788120811331 |access-date=2023-03-20 |archive-date=2023-06-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230615183151/https://books.google.com/books?id=8Eua4CFFGBoC |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
==Modern utopias==
[[File:New Harmony, Indiana, por F. Bates.jpg|right|thumb|[[New Harmony, Indiana]], a utopian attempt, depicted as proposed by [[Robert Owen]]]] [[File:Sointula, British Columbia (08).jpg|thumb|[[Sointula]], a [[Finns|Finnish]] utopian settlement in [[British Columbia]], Canada]]
In the 21st century, discussions around utopia for some authors include [[Post-scarcity economy|post-scarcity economics]], [[late capitalism]], and [[Basic income|universal basic income]]; for example, the "human capitalism" utopia envisioned in ''[[Utopia for Realists]]'' ([[Rutger Bregman]] 2016) includes a universal basic income and a 15-hour [[workweek]], along with [[open border]]s.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/07/09/who-really-stands-to-win-from-universal-basic-income|title=Who Really Stands to Win from Universal Basic Income?|last=Heller|first=Nathan|magazine=The New Yorker|date=2018-07-02|access-date=2019-08-25|issn=0028-792X|archive-date=2019-08-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825095533/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/07/09/who-really-stands-to-win-from-universal-basic-income|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
[[Scandinavia|Scandinavian nation]]s, which as of 2019 ranked at the top of the [[World Happiness Report]], are sometimes cited as modern utopias, although British author [[Michael Booth]] has called that a myth and wrote a [[The Almost Nearly Perfect People|2014 book about the Nordic countries]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2015/02/01/382711488/are-danes-really-that-happy-the-myth-of-the-scandinavian-utopia|title=Are Danes Really That Happy? The Myth of the Scandinavian Utopia|publisher=NPR|access-date=2019-08-25|archive-date=2019-08-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825211806/https://www.npr.org/2015/02/01/382711488/are-danes-really-that-happy-the-myth-of-the-scandinavian-utopia|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
===Economics===
{{Main|Utopian socialism|Fourierism|Icarians|Owenism}}
Particularly in the early 19th century, several utopian ideas arose, often in response to the belief that social disruption was created and caused by the development of [[commercialism]] and [[capitalism]]. These ideas are often grouped in a greater "utopian socialist" movement, due to their shared characteristics. A once common characteristic is an [[egalitarian]] distribution of goods, frequently with the total abolition of [[money]]. Citizens only do [[labour (economics)|work]] which they enjoy and which is for the [[common good]], leaving them with ample time for the cultivation of the arts and sciences. One classic example of such a utopia appears in [[Edward Bellamy]]'s 1888 novel ''[[Looking Backward]]''. [[William Morris]] depicts another socialist utopia in his 1890 novel ''[[News from Nowhere]]'', written partially in response to the top-down ([[bureaucratic]]) nature of Bellamy's utopia, which Morris criticized. However, as the socialist movement developed, it moved away from utopianism; [[Marx]] in particular became a harsh critic of earlier socialism which he described as "utopian". (For more information, see the [[History of Socialism]] article.) In a materialist utopian society, the economy is perfect; there is no inflation and only perfect social and financial equality exists.
 
[[Edward Gibbon Wakefield]]'s utopian theorizing on systematic [[colonialism|colonial]] [[settler|settlement]] policy in the early-19th century also centred on economic considerations, but with a view to preserving class distinctions;<ref>
{{cite book
| last1 = Woollacott
| first1 = Angela
| author-link1 = Angela Woollacott
| chapter = Systematic Colonization: From South Australia to Australind
| title = Settler Society in the Australian Colonies: Self-Government and Imperial Culture
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SfCkBgAAQBAJ
| location = Oxford
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| date = 2015
| page = 39
| isbn = 9780191017735
| access-date = 24 June 2020
| quote = In Wakefield's utopia, land policy would limit the expansion of the frontier and regulate class relationships.
}}
</ref>
Wakefield influenced several colonies founded in [[New Zealand]] and [[Australia]] in the 1830s, 1840s and 1850s.
 
In 1905, [[H. G. Wells]] published ''[[A Modern Utopia]]'', which was widely read and admired and provoked much discussion. Also consider [[Eric Frank Russell]]'s book ''[[The Great Explosion]]'' (1963), the last section of which details an economic and social utopia. This forms the first mention of the idea of [[Local Exchange Trading Systems]] (LETS).
 
During the "[[Khrushchev Thaw]]" period,<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.britannica.com/topic/the-Thaw-Soviet-cultural-history|title= the Thaw – Soviet cultural history|access-date= 14 May 2017|archive-date= 11 September 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170911210843/https://www.britannica.com/topic/the-Thaw-Soviet-cultural-history|url-status= live}}</ref> the Soviet writer [[Ivan Yefremov|Ivan Efremov]] produced the science-fiction utopia [[Andromeda (novel)|''Andromeda'']] (1957) in which a major cultural thaw took place: humanity communicates with a galaxy-wide Great Circle and develops its technology and culture within a social framework characterized by vigorous competition between alternative philosophies.
 
The English political philosopher [[James Harrington (author)|James Harrington]] (1611–1677), author of the utopian work ''[[The Commonwealth of Oceana]]'', published in 1656, inspired English [[Country Party (Britain)|country-party]] republicanism (1680s to 1740s) and became influential in the design of three American colonies. His theories ultimately contributed to the idealistic principles of the American Founders. The colonies of [[Province of Carolina|Carolina]] (founded in 1670), [[Province of Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania]] (founded in 1681), and [[Province of Georgia|Georgia]] (founded in 1733) were the only three English colonies in America that were planned as utopian societies with an integrated physical, economic and social design. At the heart of the plan for Georgia was a concept of "agrarian equality" in which land was allocated equally and additional land acquisition through purchase or inheritance was prohibited; the plan was an early step toward the [[yeoman]] republic later envisioned by [[Thomas Jefferson]].<ref>Fries, Sylvia, ''The Urban Idea in Colonial America'', Chapters 3 and 5</ref><ref>Home, Robert, ''Of Planting and Planning: The Making of British Colonial Cities'', 9</ref><ref>Wilson, Thomas, ''The Oglethorpe Plan'', Chapters 1 and 2</ref>
 
The [[Intentional community|commune]]s of the 1960s in the United States often represented an attempt to greatly improve the way humans live together in communities. The [[back-to-the-land]] movements and [[hippie]]s inspired many to try to live in peace and harmony on farms or in remote areas and to set up new types of governance.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://brbl-archive.library.yale.edu/exhibitions/utopia/uc22.html|title= America and the Utopian Dream – Utopian Communities|website= brbl-archive.library.yale.edu|access-date= 14 May 2017|archive-date= 8 May 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170508061013/http://brbl-archive.library.yale.edu/exhibitions/utopia/uc22.html|url-status= live}}</ref> Communes like [[Kaliflower Commune|Kaliflower]], which existed between 1967 and 1973, attempted to live outside of society's norms and to create their own ideal [[Communalism (Bookchin)|communalist]] society.<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://secure.pmpress.org/index.php?l=product_detail&p=432
|title= For All the People: Uncovering the Hidden History of Cooperation, Cooperative Movements and Communalism in America, 2nd Edition
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|url-status= dead
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| last1 = Curl
| first1 = John
| author-link1 = John Curl
| year = 2009
| chapter = Communalism in the 20th Century
| title = For All the People: Uncovering the Hidden History of Cooperation, Cooperative Movements, and Communalism in America
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HQJ1XhTqcR4C
| edition = 2
| location = Oakland, California
| publisher = PM Press
| publication-date = 2012
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}}{{Dead link|date=May 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
 
People all over the world organized and built [[intentional communities]] with the hope of developing a better way of living together. Many of these intentional communities are relatively small. Many intentional communities have a population close to 100, with many possibly exceeding this number.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sager |first=Tore |date=August 17, 2017 |title=Planning by intentional communities: An understudied form of activist planning |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1473095217723381 |journal=Planning Theory|volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=449–471 |doi=10.1177/1473095217723381 |issn=1473-0952 |hdl=11250/2598634 |hdl-access=free |access-date=April 13, 2024 |archive-date=November 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109084741/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1473095217723381 |url-status=live }}</ref> While this may seem large, it is pretty small in comparison to the rest of society. From the small populations, it is apparent that people do not prefer this kind of living{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}. While many of these new small communities failed, some continue to grow, such as the religion-based [[Twelve Tribes communities|Twelve Tribes]], which started in the United States in 1972. Since its inception, it has grown into many groups around the world. Similarly, a commune called [[Brook Farm]] established itself in 1841. Founded by Charles Fourier's visions of Utopia, they attempted to recreate his idea of a central building in society called the Phalanx.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite web |title=Brook Farm {{!}} Transcendentalist Utopia, West Roxbury, MA {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brook-Farm |access-date=2024-04-13 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica|archive-date=2024-05-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240507020609/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brook-Farm |url-status=live }}</ref> Unfortunately, this commune could not sustain itself and failed after only six years of operation. They wanted to stay open for longer, but they could not afford it. Their goal, however, was very similar to that of Utopia: to lead a more wholesome and simpler life than the atmosphere of pressure surrounding society at the time.<ref name="britannica.com"/> It is clear that despite ambition, it is difficult for communes to stay in operation for very long.
 
===Science and technology===
[[File:Early flight 02561u (2).jpg|thumb|upright|Utopian flying machines, France, 1890–1900 (chromolithograph [[trading card]])]]
 
Though [[Francis Bacon]]'s ''New Atlantis'' is imbued with a scientific spirit, scientific and technological utopias tend to be based in the future, when it is believed that advanced [[science]] and [[technology]] will allow utopian [[living standards]]; for example, the absence of [[death]] and [[suffering]]; changes in [[human nature]] and the [[human condition]]. Technology has affected the way humans have lived to such an extent that normal functions, like sleep, eating or even reproduction, have been replaced by artificial means. Other examples include a society where humans have struck a balance with technology and it is merely used to enhance the human living condition (e.g. ''[[Star Trek]]''). In place of the static perfection of a utopia, [[libertarian transhumanist]]s envision an "[[extropianism|extropia]]", an open, evolving society allowing individuals and voluntary groupings to form the institutions and social forms they prefer.
 
[[Mariah Utsawa]] presented a theoretical basis for [[technological utopianism]] and set out to develop a variety of technologies ranging from maps to designs for cars and houses which might lead to the development of such a utopia. In his book ''Deep Utopia: Life and Meaning in a Solved World'', philosopher [[Nick Bostrom]] explores what to do in a "solved world", assuming that human civilization safely builds [[machine superintelligence]] and manages to solve its political, coordination and fairness problems. He outlines some technologies considered physically possible at technological maturity, such as [[cognitive enhancement]], [[reversal of aging]], [[self-replicating spacecraft]]s, arbitrary sensory inputs (taste, sound...), or the precise control of motivation, mood, well-being and personality.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bostrom |first=Nick |title=Deep Utopia: Life and Meaning in a Solved World |date=March 27, 2024 |isbn=978-1646871643}}</ref>
 
One notable example of a technological and [[libertarian socialist]] utopia is Scottish author [[Iain Banks]]' [[The Culture|Culture]].
 
Opposing this [[optimism|optimistic]] perspective are scenarios where advanced science and technology will, through deliberate misuse or accident, cause environmental damage or even humanity's [[extinction]]. Critics, such as [[Jacques Ellul]] and [[Timothy Mitchell]] advocate [[precautionary principle|precautions]] against the premature embrace of new technologies. Both raise questions about changing responsibility and freedom brought by [[division of labour]]. Authors such as [[John Zerzan]] and [[Derrick Jensen]] consider that modern technology is progressively depriving humans of their autonomy and advocate the collapse of the industrial civilization, in favor of small-scale organization, as a necessary path to avoid the threat of technology on human freedom and [[sustainability]].
 
There are many examples of techno-dystopias portrayed in mainstream culture, such as the classics ''[[Brave New World]]'' and ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]],'' often published as "1984", which have explored some of these topics.
 
===Ecological===
[[File:Ecotopia 1990 yoga teacher.jpg|thumb|[[European Youth For Action#Ecotopia gathering|Ecotopia 1990]]. Yoga class]]
Ecological utopian society describes new ways in which society should relate to nature. ''[[Ecotopia: The Notebooks and Reports of William Weston]]'' from 1975 by Ernest Callenbach was one of the first influential ecological utopian novels.<ref name="Callenbach, Ernest and Heddle, James">Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/tYc9myGMmTc Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20210414202321/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tYc9myGMmTc Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web | title= "Ecotopia Then & Now," an interview with Ernest Callenbach | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tYc9myGMmTc | access-date=2013-04-06 |author1=Callenbach, Ernest |author2=Heddle, James | via=[[YouTube]] }}{{cbignore}}</ref> Richard Grove's book ''[[Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens, and the Origins of Environmentalism|Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of Environmentalism 1600–1860]]'' from 1995 suggested the roots of ecological [[utopian thinking]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Grove |first1=Richard |title=Green imperialism : colonial expansion, tropical island Edens, and the origins of environmentalism, 1600-1860 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/de/academic/subjects/history/regional-history-after-1500/green-imperialism-colonial-expansion-tropical-island-edens-and-origins-environmentalism-16001860?format=PB&isbn=9780521565134 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=14 August 2022 |date=1995 |archive-date=25 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525073424/https://www.cambridge.org/de/universitypress/subjects/history/regional-history-after-1500/green-imperialism-colonial-expansion-tropical-island-edens-and-origins-environmentalism-16001860?format=PB&isbn=9780521565134 |url-status=live }}</ref> Grove's book sees early environmentalism as a result of the impact of utopian tropical islands on European data-driven scientists.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mollins |first1=Julie |title=Selective memories: The historical roots of environmentalism |url=https://forestsnews.cifor.org/71123/selective-memories-the-historical-roots-of-environmentalism |access-date=16 August 2022 |work=CIFOR Forests News |date=22 February 2021 |archive-date=16 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816190432/https://forestsnews.cifor.org/71123/selective-memories-the-historical-roots-of-environmentalism |url-status=live }}</ref> The works on ecological eutopia perceive a widening gap between the modern Western way of living that destroys nature<ref>{{cite book |author=Kirk, Andrew G. |year=2007 |title=Counterculture Green: the Whole Earth Catalog and American environmentalism |publisher=University Press of Kansas |page=86 |isbn=978-0-7006-1545-2}}</ref> and a more traditional way of living before industrialization.<ref>For examples and explanations, see: {{cite book|last=Marshall|first=Alan|title=Ecotopia 2121: A Vision of Our Future Green Utopia|publisher=Arcade Publishers|year=2016|isbn=978-1-62872-614-5|location=New York}} And Schneider-Mayerson, Matthew, and Bellamy, Brent Ryan (2019). ''An Ecotopian Lexicon''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. {{ISBN|978-151790-589-7}}</ref> Ecological utopias may advocate a society that is more sustainable. According to the Dutch philosopher [[Marius de Geus]], ecological utopias could be inspirational sources for movements involving [[green politics]].<ref>{{cite book |author=de Geus, Marius |year=1996 |title=Ecologische utopieën – Ecotopia's en het milieudebat |publisher=Uitgeverij Jan van Arkel}}</ref>
 
===Feminism===
{{See also|Utopian and dystopian fiction#Feminist utopias}}
Utopias have been used to explore the ramifications of genders being either a societal construct or a biologically "hard-wired" imperative or some mix of the two.<ref name=WSEncyc1442>{{cite book|title= Women's Studies Encyclopedia|last= Tierney|first= Helen|year= 1999|publisher= Greenwood Publishing Group|page= [https://archive.org/details/womensstudiesenc0001unse/page/1442 1442]|isbn= 978-0-313-31073-7|url= https://archive.org/details/womensstudiesenc0001unse/page/1442}}</ref> Socialist and economic utopias have tended to take the "woman question" seriously and often to offer some form of equality between the sexes as part and parcel of their vision, whether this be by addressing misogyny, reorganizing society along separatist lines, creating a certain kind of androgynous equality that ignores gender or in some other manner. For example, [[Edward Bellamy]]'s ''[[Looking Backward]]'' (1887) responded, progressively for his day, to the contemporary women's suffrage and women's rights movements. Bellamy supported these movements by incorporating the equality of women and men into his utopian world's structure, albeit by consigning women to a separate sphere of light industrial activity (due to women's lesser physical strength) and making various exceptions for them in order to make room for (and to praise) motherhood. One of the earlier feminist utopias that imagines complete separatism is [[Charlotte Perkins Gilman]]'s ''[[Herland (novel)|Herland]]'' (1915).{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}
 
In [[Gender in speculative fiction|science fiction and technological speculation]], gender can be challenged on the biological as well as the social level. [[Marge Piercy]]'s ''[[Woman on the Edge of Time]]'' portrays equality between the genders and complete equality in sexuality (regardless of the gender of the lovers). Birth-giving, often felt as the divider that cannot be avoided in discussions of women's rights and roles, has been shifted onto elaborate biological machinery that functions to offer an enriched embryonic experience. When a child is born, it spends most of its time in the children's ward with peers. Three "mothers" per child are the norm and they are chosen in a gender neutral way (men as well as women may become "mothers") on the basis of their experience and ability. Technological advances also make possible the freeing of women from childbearing in [[Shulamith Firestone]]'s ''[[The Dialectic of Sex]]''. The fictional aliens in [[Mary Gentle]]'s ''[[Golden Witchbreed]]'' start out as gender-neutral children and do not develop into men and women until puberty and gender has no bearing on social roles. In contrast, [[Doris Lessing]]'s ''[[The Marriages Between Zones Three, Four and Five]]'' (1980) suggests that men's and women's values are inherent to the sexes and cannot be changed, making a compromise between them essential. In ''My Own Utopia'' (1961) by [[Elizabeth Mann Borghese]], gender exists but is dependent upon age rather than sex&nbsp;– genderless children mature into women, some of whom eventually become men.<ref name=WSEncyc1442/> "[[William Moulton Marston|William Marston]]'s [[Wonder Woman]] comics of the 1940s featured Paradise Island, also known as [[Themyscira (DC Comics)|Themyscira]], a matriarchal all-female community of peace, loving submission, bondage and giant space kangaroos."<ref>Noah Berlatsky, "Imagine There's No Gender: The Long History of Feminist Utopian Literature," ''The Atlantic,'' April 15, 2013. https://www.theatlantic.com/sexes/archive/2013/04/imagine-theres-no-gender-the-long-history-of-feminist-utopian-literature/274993/ {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130827081729/http://www.theatlantic.com/sexes/archive/2013/04/imagine-theres-no-gender-the-long-history-of-feminist-utopian-literature/274993/ |date=2013-08-27 }}</ref>
 
Utopian [[single-gender worlds]] or single-sex societies have long been one of the primary ways to explore implications of gender and gender-differences.<ref name=DGinSF13/> In speculative fiction, female-only worlds have been imagined to come about by the action of disease that wipes out men, along with the development of technological or mystical method that allow female [[parthenogenic]] [[reproduction]]. Charlotte Perkins Gilman's 1915 novel approaches this type of separate society. Many feminist utopias pondering separatism were written in the 1970s, as a response to the [[Lesbian separatism|Lesbian separatist movement]];<ref name=DGinSF13>Attebery, p. 13.</ref><ref name=erotic1189>[[Gaétan Brulotte]] & John Phillips,''Encyclopedia of Erotic Literature'', "Science Fiction and Fantasy", CRC Press, 2006, p. 1189, {{ISBN|1-57958-441-1}}</ref><ref name =Utop101/> examples include [[Joanna Russ]]'s ''[[The Female Man]]'' and [[Suzy McKee Charnas]]'s ''[[Walk to the End of the World]]'' and ''[[Motherlines]]''.<ref name =Utop101>Martha A. Bartter, ''The Utopian Fantastic'', "Momutes", [[Robin Anne Reid]], p. 101 {{ISBN|0-313-31635-X}}</ref> Utopias imagined by male authors have often included equality between sexes, rather than separation, although as noted Bellamy's strategy includes a certain amount of "separate but equal".<ref name =Utop102>Martha A. Bartter, ''The Utopian Fantastic'', "Momutes", [[Robin Anne Reid]], p. 102 {{ISBN?}}</ref> The use of female-only worlds allows the exploration of female independence and freedom from [[patriarchy]]. The societies may be lesbian, such as ''[[Daughters of a Coral Dawn]]'' by [[Katherine V. Forrest]] or not, and may not be sexual at all&nbsp;– a famous early sexless example being ''[[Herland (novel)|Herland]]'' (1915) by [[Charlotte Perkins Gilman]].<ref name=erotic1189/> Charlene Ball writes in ''Women's Studies Encyclopedia'' that use of speculative fiction to explore gender roles in future societies has been more common in the United States compared to Europe and elsewhere,<ref name=WSEncyc1442/> although such efforts as [[Gerd Brantenberg]]'s ''Egalia's Daughters'' and [[Christa Wolf]]'s portrayal of the land of Colchis in her ''Medea: Voices ''are certainly as influential and famous as any of the American feminist utopias.
 
===Urban Design===
[[Walter Elias Disney]]'s original [[EPCOT (concept)]] (Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow), [[Paolo Soleri]]'s [[Arcosanti]], and Saudi Prince [[Mohammed bin Salman]]'s [[Neom]] are examples of Utopian city design.
 
== Critical Utopia ==
Critical utopia is a theory conceptualised by literary theorist [[Tom Moylan]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Moylan |first=Tom |title=Demand the Impossible |date=1986 |publisher=Methuen, Inc. |isbn=0 416 00012 6}}</ref> In contrast with utopianism, critical utopia rejects utopia. The idea is highly [[self-referential]] and uses the idea of utopia to advance society while critiquing it simultaneously. A problem with utopianism is identified: it has limitations since the imagined utopia is significantly distant from current society. Utopia also fails to acknowledge the differences between people that result in differences in experience.<ref name=":0" /> Moylan explains that "[critical utopias] ultimately refer to something other than a predictable alternative paradigm, for at their core they identify self-critical utopian discourse itself as a process that can tear apart the dominant ideological web. Here, then, critical utopian discourse becomes a seditious expression of social change and popular sovereignty carried on in a permanently open process of envisioning what is not yet."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gardiner |first=Michael |date=1993 |title=Bakhtin's Carnival: Utopia as Critique |journal=Bakhtin: Carnival and Other Subjects |volume=3-4 |issue=2-1/2 |pages=20–47 |issn=0923-411X}}</ref>
 
==See also==
*[[List of utopian literature]]
* [[New world order (Bahá'í)]]
*[[Nutopia]]
*[[Utopia (disambiguation)]]
*''[[Utopia for Realists]]''
*[[Utopian and dystopian fiction]]
 
==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
 
; Bundled references
{{Reflist|group=list}}
 
==References==
* [https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/L/bo130984902.html Living in the Future: Utopianism and the Long Civil Rights Movement] (2022) by Victoria Wolcott
* ''Utopia: Music album'' (2023), by Travis Scott.
* ''Utopia: The History of an Idea'' (2020), by Gregory Claeys. London: Thames & Hudson.
*''Two Kinds of Utopia'', (1912) by [[Vladimir Lenin]]. {{URL|http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1912/oct/00.htm}}
*''Development of Socialism from Utopia to Science'' (1870?) by [[Friedrich Engels]].
*''Ideology and Utopia: an Introduction to the Sociology of Knowledge'' (1936), by [[Karl Mannheim]], translated by Louis Wirth and Edward Shils. New York, Harcourt, Brace. See original, ''Ideologie Und Utopie'', Bonn: Cohen.
* ''[[History and Utopia]]'' (1960), by [[Emil Cioran]].
*''Utopian Thought in the Western World'' (1979), by [[Frank E. Manuel]] & Fritzie Manuel. Oxford: Blackwell. {{ISBN|0-674-93185-8}}
*''California's Utopian Colonies'' (1983), by Robert V. Hine. University of California Press. {{ISBN|0-520-04885-7}}
*''[[The Principle of Hope]]'' (1986), by [[Ernst Bloch]]. See original, 1937–41, ''Das Prinzip Hoffnung''
*''Demand the Impossible: Science Fiction and the Utopian Imagination'' (1986) by [[Tom Moylan]]. London: Methuen, 1986.
*''Utopia and Anti-utopia in Modern Times'' (1987), by Krishnan Kumar. Oxford: Blackwell. {{ISBN|0-631-16714-5}}
*''The Concept of Utopia'' (1990), by [[Ruth Levitas]]. London: Allan.
*''Utopianism'' (1991), by Krishnan Kumar. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. {{ISBN|0-335-15361-5}}
*''La storia delle utopie'' (1996), by Massimo Baldini. Roma: Armando. {{ISBN|9788871444772}}
*''The Utopia Reader'' (1999), edited by [[Gregory Claeys]] and [[Lyman Tower Sargent]]. New York: New York University Press.
*''Spirit of Utopia'' (2000), by [[Ernst Bloch]]. See original, ''Geist Der Utopie'', 1923.
*''Archaeologies of the Future: The Desire Called Utopia and Other Science Fictions'' (2005) by [[Fredric Jameson]]. London: Verso.
*''Utopianism: A Very Short Introduction'' (2010), by [[Lyman Tower Sargent]]. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
*''Defined by a Hollow: Essays on Utopia, Science Fiction and Political Epistemology'' (2010) by [[Darko Suvin]]. Frankfurt am Main, Oxford and Bern: Peter Lang.
*''[https://www.amazon.com/Existential-Utopia-Perspectives-Utopian-Thought/dp/1441169210 Existential Utopia: New Perspectives on Utopian Thought]'' (2011), edited by Patricia Vieira and [[Michael Marder]]. London & New York: Continuum. {{ISBN|1-4411-6921-0}}
*"Galt's Gulch: Ayn Rand's Utopian Delusion" (2012), by Alan Clardy. ''Utopian Studies'' 23, 238–262. {{ISSN|1045-991X}}
*''The Nationality of Utopia: H. G. Wells, England, and the World State'' (2020), by Maxim Shadurski. New York and London: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-03-67330-49-1}}
*''[http://hdl.handle.net/11331/1995 Utopia as a World Model: The Boundaries and Borderlands of a Literary Phenomenon]'' (2016), by Maxim Shadurski. Siedlce: IKR[i]BL. {{ISBN|978-83-64884-57-3}}.
*''An Ecotopian Lexicon'' (2019), edited by Matthew Schneider-Mayerson and Brent Ryan Bellamy. University of Minnesota Press. {{ISBN|978-1517905897}}.
 
==External links==
{{Wiktionary|utopia|eutopia}}
{{Commons category}}
{{wiktionary}}
{{wiktionary|sextopia}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikibooks}}
*{{cite CE1913|wstitle=Utopia|short=x}}
* [http://www.bartleby.com/65/ut/Utopia.html Utopia – The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2001]
* [http://www.ic.org Intentional Communities Directory]
* [http://www.utopias.info History of 15 Finnish] utopian settlements in Africa, the Americas, Asia, Australia and Europe.
* [http://www.stadtbaukunst.org/cms/upload/texte_zur_stadtbaukunst/2_1_Towards_Another_Utopia_of_The_City.pdf Towards Another Utopia of The City] Institute of Urban Design, Bremen, Germany
*[http://ecotopia2121.com/ Ecotopia 2121: A Vision of Our Future Green Utopia – in 100 Cities.]
* [http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/utopia/utopia.html Utopias] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100708082258/http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/utopia/utopia.html |date=2010-07-08 }} – a learning resource from the [[British Library]]
* [http://caius-ebook.com/Utopias.htm Utopia of the GOOD] An essay on Utopias and their nature.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090205225945/http://scatolini.net/G.2009.art.01_SCATOLINI_EhudBenZVI_Utopia-and-Dystopia-in-Prophetic-Literature.pdf Review of Ehud Ben ZVI, Ed. (2006). Utopia and Dystopia in Prophetic Literature. Helsinki: The Finnish Exegetical Society.] A collection of articles on the issue of utopia and dystopia.
* [https://archive.org/details/storyutopias00mumfgoog The story of Utopias] Mumford, Lewis
*[http://utopian-studies.org./] North America
*[http://www.utopianstudieseurope.org/] Europe
*[http://www.psupress.org/journals/jnls_utopian_studies.html ''Utopian Studies''] academic journal
* {{cite web|title=Utopia|url=http://www.wordsoftheworld.co.uk/videos/utopia.html|work=Words of the World|publisher=[[Brady Haran]] ([[University of Nottingham]])|author=Matthew Pethers|access-date=2016-01-03|archive-date=2021-09-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920225631/http://wordsoftheworld.co.uk/videos/utopia.html|url-status=dead}}
 
{{Narrative|state=collapsed}}
{{Political philosophy}}
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[[Category:16th-century neologisms]]
[[Category:Utopias| ]]
[[Category:Science fiction themes]]
[[Category:Speculative fiction]]
[[Category:Words originating in fiction]]
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