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| established_event3 = [[1911 Revolution|Establishment of the Republic of China]]
| established_date3 = 1 January 1912
| established_event4 = [[
▲| established_date5 = 1 October 1949
| area_km2 = 9,596,961
| p1 =
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| time_zone = [[Time in China|CST]]
| utc_offset = [[UTC+08:00|+8]]
| calling_code = {{ubl|[[+86]] (mainland)|[[+852]] (Hong Kong)|[[+853]] (Macau)}}
| cctld = {{hlist|[[.cn]]|[[.中国]]|[[.中國]] (mainland)}}{{hlist|[[.hk]]|[[.香港]] (Hong Kong)}}{{hlist|[[.mo]]|[[.澳门]]|[[.澳門]] (Macau)}}
}}
'''China''',{{efn|{{zh|s=中国<!-- Do not add traditional characters. -->|p=Zhōngguó}}}} officially the '''People's Republic of China''' ('''PRC'''),{{efn|{{zh|s=中华人民共和国|p=Zhōnghuá rénmín gònghéguó}}}} is a country in [[East Asia]]. With [[population of China|a population]] exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the
# The ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' lists China as world's third-largest country (after Russia and Canada) with a total area of 9,572,900 km{{Sup|2}},<ref name="britannica"/> and the United States as fourth-largest at 9,525,067 km{{Sup|2}}.<ref name="United States">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=United States |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States |access-date=4 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150528012641/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/616563/United-States |archive-date=28 May 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
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The [[United Nations Statistics Division]]'s figure for the United States is {{cvt|9,833,517|km2}} and China is {{cvt|9,596,961|km2}}. These closely match the CIA ''World Factbook'' figures and similarly ''include'' coastal and territorial waters for the United States, but ''exclude'' coastal and territorial waters for China.{{Overly detailed inline|date=March 2024}}}} The country is divided into 33 [[Province-level divisions of China|province-level divisions]]: 22 [[provinces of China|provinces]],{{efn|Excluding the disputed [[Taiwan Province, People's Republic of China|Taiwan Province]]. See {{section link||Administrative divisions}}.}} five [[autonomous regions of China|autonomous regions]], four [[direct-administered municipalities of China|municipalities]], and two semi-autonomous [[special administrative regions]]. [[Beijing]] is the country's capital, while [[Shanghai]] is [[List of cities in China by population|its most populous city by urban area]] and largest [[financial center]].
China is considered one of the [[cradles of civilization]]: the first human inhabitants in the region arrived during the [[Paleolithic]]
After decades of struggle, the [[1911 Revolution]] resulted in the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] (ROC) the following year. The country under the nascent [[Beiyang government]] was unstable and ultimately fragmented during the [[Warlord Era]], which was ended upon the [[Northern Expedition]] conducted by the [[Kuomintang]] (KMT) to reunify the country. The [[Chinese Civil War]] began in 1927, when KMT forces [[Shanghai massacre|purged]] members of the rival [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP), who proceeded to engage in sporadic fighting against the KMT-led [[Nationalist government]]. Following the country's invasion by the [[Empire of Japan]] in 1937, the
China is a [[Unitary state|unitary]] one-party [[socialist republic]] led by the CCP. It is one of the five [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent members]] of the [[UN Security Council]]; the UN representative for China was changed from the ROC to the PRC in 1971. It is a founding member of several multilateral and regional organizations such as the [[AIIB]], the [[Silk Road Fund]], the [[New Development Bank]], and the [[RCEP]]. It is a member of the [[BRICS]], the [[G20]], [[APEC]], the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation|SCO]], and the [[East Asia Summit]]. Making up around one-fifth of the world economy, the [[Chinese economy]] is the world's [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|largest economy by GDP]] at [[purchasing power parity]], the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|second-largest economy by nominal GDP]], and the [[List of countries by total wealth#Total wealth by country|second-wealthiest country]], albeit [[International rankings of China|ranking poorly]] in measures of [[Democracy in China|democracy]], [[Human rights in China|human rights]] and [[Freedom of religion in China|religious freedom]]. The country has been one of the [[List of countries by real GDP growth rate|fastest-growing]] major economies and is the world's [[List of countries by manufacturing output|largest manufacturer]] and [[List of countries by exports|exporter]], as well as the [[List of countries by imports|second-largest importer]]. China is a [[nuclear-weapon state]] with the world's [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|largest standing army by military personnel]] and the [[List of countries by military expenditures|second-largest defense budget]]. It is a [[great
{{TOC limit|4}}
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The official name of the modern state is the "People's Republic of China" ({{zh|s={{linktext|中华人民共和国}}|p=Zhōnghuá rénmín gònghéguó|t={{linktext|中華人民共和國}}}}).<!--Do NOT remove Traditional. Simplified is the official script in China but Traditional is found in [[Xiandai Hanyu Cidian]],
[[Table of General Standard Chinese Characters]], and other important CCP documents, as well as being the official script in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan. Traditional characters are an important though secondary part of mainland China's script system.--> The shorter form is "China" ({{zh|s={{linktext|中国}}|t={{linktext|中國}}|p=Zhōngguó|labels=no}}), from {{transliteration|zh|zhōng}} ('central') and {{transliteration|zh|guó}} ('state'), a term which developed under the [[Western Zhou]] dynasty in reference to its [[demesne|royal demesne]].{{efn|Its earliest extant use is on the [[ritual bronze]] vessel [[He zun]], where it apparently refers to only the [[Shang dynasty|Shang]]'s immediate demesne conquered by the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chen |first=Zhi |author-mask=Chen Zhi |date=9 November 2004 |title=From Exclusive Xia to Inclusive Zhu-Xia: The Conceptualisation of Chinese Identity in Early China |journal=[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society]] |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=185–205 |doi=10.1017/S135618630400389X |jstor=25188470 |s2cid=162643600}}</ref>}}{{efn|Its meaning "Zhou's royal demesne" is attested from the 6th-century BC [[Classic of History]], which states "[[Tian (god)|Huangtian]] bestowed the lands and the peoples of the central state to the ancestors" ({{lang|zh|皇天既付中國民越厥疆土于先王}}).<ref>{{lang|zh|[[:s:zh:尚書|《尚書》]], [[:s:zh:尚書/梓材|梓材]].}} {{in lang|zh}}</ref>}} It was used in official documents as an synonym for the state under the [[Qing dynasty|Qing]].<ref name="wilx">{{Cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Endymion |title=Chinese History: A Manual |date=2000 |publisher=Harvard University Asia Center |isbn=978-0-6740-0249-4 |series=Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph No. 52 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ERnrQq0bsPYC&pg=PA132 132]}}</ref> The name ''Zhongguo'' is also translated as {{nowrap|'Middle Kingdom'}} in English.<ref name="Tang-2010">{{Cite book |
== History ==
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[[File:National Museum of China 2014.02.01 14-43-38.jpg|thumb|10,000-year-old pottery, [[Xianren Cave]] culture (18000–7000 BCE)]]
[[Archaeological excavation|Archaeological evidence]] suggests that early [[Hominidae|hominids]] inhabited China 2.25 million years ago.<ref>{{Cite web |
=== Early dynastic rule ===
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[[File:甲骨文发现地 - panoramio.jpg|thumb|[[Yinxu]], the ruins of the capital of the late [[Shang dynasty]] (14th century BCE)]]
According to traditional [[Chinese historiography]], the [[Xia dynasty]] was established during the late third millennium BC, marking the beginning of the dynastic cycle that was understood to underpin China's entire political history. In the modern era, the Xia's historicity came under increasing scrutiny, in part due to the earliest known attestation of the Xia being written millennia after the date given for their collapse. In 1958, archaeologists discovered sites belonging to the [[Erlitou culture]] that existed during the early [[Bronze Age]]; they have since been characterized as the remains of the historical Xia, but this conception is often rejected.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tanner |first=Harold M. |title=China: A History |date=2009 |publisher=Hackett Publishing |isbn=978-0-8722-0915-2 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VIWC9wCX2c8C&pg=PA35 35–36]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bronze Age China |url=http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/chbro_bron.shtm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725062916/http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/chbro_bron.shtm |archive-date=25 July 2013 |access-date=11 July 2013 |publisher=National Gallery of Art}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization |date=2007 |publisher=City University of HK Press |isbn=978-9-6293-7140-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z-fAxn_9f8wC&pg=PA25 25]}}</ref> The [[Shang dynasty]] that traditionally succeeded the Xia is the earliest for which there are both contemporary written records and undisputed archaeological evidence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pletcher |first=Kenneth |title=The History of China |date=2011 |publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing |isbn=978-1-6153-0181-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=A1nwvKNPMWkC&pg=PA35 35]}}</ref> The Shang ruled much of the [[Yellow River]] valley until the 11th century BCE, with the earliest hard evidence dating to {{c.|1300 BCE}}.<ref>{{Cite book |
The Shang were overthrown by the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]], who ruled between the 11th and 5th {{nowrap|centuries BCE}}, though the centralized authority of [[Son of Heaven]] was slowly eroded by ''[[fengjian]]'' lords. Some principalities eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou and continually waged war with each other during the 300-year [[Spring and Autumn period]]. By the time of the [[Warring States period]] of the 5th–3rd centuries BCE, there were seven major powerful states left.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Warring States |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Warring-States |access-date=28 March 2024 |date=15 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119202928/https://www.britannica.com/event/Warring-States |archive-date=19 January 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>
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The Warring States period ended in 221 BCE after the [[Qin (state)|state of Qin]] conquered the other six states, reunited China and established the dominant order of [[autocracy]]. [[King Zheng of Qin]] proclaimed himself the Emperor of the [[Qin dynasty]], becoming the first emperor of a unified China. He enacted Qin's [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|legalist]] reforms, notably the standardization of Chinese characters, [[Chinese units of measurement|measurements]], road widths, and [[history of Chinese currency|currency]]. His dynasty also [[Qin campaign against the Baiyue|conquered the Yue tribes]] in [[Guangxi]], [[Guangdong]], and [[Northern Vietnam]].<ref>Sima Qian, Translated by Burton Watson. ''Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty I'', pp. 11–12. {{ISBN|0-2310-8165-0}}.</ref> The Qin dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after the First Emperor's death.<ref name="Bodde1986">Bodde, Derk. (1986). "The State and Empire of Ch'in", in ''The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220''. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-5212-4327-0}}.</ref><ref name="Lewis2007">{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Mark Edward |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofimperia00broo |title=The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han |date=2007 |publisher=Belknap Press |isbn=978-0-6740-2477-9}}</ref>
Following [[Chu–Han Contention|widespread revolts]] during which the imperial library [[List of destroyed libraries#Human action|was burned]],{{efn|Owing to Qin Shi Huang's earlier policy involving the "[[burning of books and burying of scholars]]", the destruction of the confiscated copies at [[Xianyang]] was an event similar to the [[destruction of the Library of Alexandria|destructions]] of the [[Library of Alexandria]] in the west. Even those texts that did survive had to be painstakingly reconstructed from memory, luck, or forgery.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cotterell |first=Arthur |title=The Imperial Capitals of China |date=2011 |publisher=Pimlico |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bZI764AEfcsC&pg=PA35 35–36]}}</ref> The [[Old Texts]] of the [[Five Classics]] were said to have been found hidden in a wall at the Kong residence in [[Qufu]]. [[Mei Ze]]'s "rediscovered" edition of the [[Book of Documents]] was [[Yan Ruoqu|only shown to be a forgery in the Qing dynasty]].}} the [[Han dynasty]] emerged to rule China between 206 BCE and CE 220, creating a cultural identity among its populace still remembered in the ethnonym of the modern [[Han Chinese]].<ref name="Bodde1986" /><ref name="Lewis2007" /> The Han [[History of the Han dynasty|expanded the empire's territory considerably]], with military campaigns reaching [[Han–Xiongnu War|Central Asia, Mongolia]], [[Han conquest of Gojoseon|Korea]], and [[Han campaigns against Dian|Yunnan]], and the [[Southward expansion of the Han dynasty|recovery of Guangdong and northern Vietnam]] from [[Nanyue]]. Han involvement in Central Asia and [[Sogdia]] helped establish the land route of the [[Silk Road]], replacing the earlier path over the [[Himalayas]] to India. Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world.<ref name="Dahlman Aubert 2001">{{Cite report |title=China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st Century |
==== Three Kingdoms, Jin, Northern and Southern dynasties ====
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[[File:EightNationsCrime02.jpg|thumb|The [[Eight-Nation Alliance]] invaded China to defeat the anti-foreign [[Boxer Rebellion|Boxers]] and their Qing backers. The image shows a celebration ceremony inside the Chinese imperial palace, the [[Forbidden City]] after the signing of the [[Boxer Protocol]] in 1901.]]
In the mid-19th century, the [[Opium Wars]] with Britain and [[France]] forced China to pay compensation, open treaty ports, allow [[extraterritoriality]] for foreign nationals, and cede [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] to the British<ref>{{Cite book |
In the 19th century, the great [[Chinese emigration|Chinese diaspora]] began. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the [[Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879]], in which between 9 and 13 million people died.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1995 |title=Dimensions of need – People and populations at risk |url=http://www.fao.org/3/U8480E/U8480E05.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030150743/https://www.fao.org/3/U8480E/U8480E05.htm |archive-date=30 October 2023 |access-date=3 July 2013 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}}</ref> The [[Guangxu Emperor]] drafted a [[Hundred Days' Reform|reform plan]] in 1898 to establish a modern [[constitutional monarchy]], but these plans were thwarted by the [[Empress Dowager Cixi]]. The ill-fated anti-foreign [[Boxer Rebellion]] of 1899–1901 further weakened the dynasty. Although Cixi sponsored a program of reforms known as the [[late Qing reforms]], the [[1911 Revolution|Xinhai Revolution]] of 1911–1912 ended the Qing dynasty and established the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]].<ref name="xb1">{{Cite book |last=Xiaobing |first=Li |title=A History of the Modern Chinese Army |date=2007 |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |isbn=978-0-8131-2438-4 |pages=13, 26–27}}</ref> [[Puyi]], the last Emperor, [[Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor|abdicated in 1912]].<ref name="abdicate">{{Cite web |date=4 June 2013 |title=The abdication decree of Emperor Puyi (1912) |url=https://alphahistory.com/chineserevolution/abdication-emperor-puyi-1912/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410202346/https://alphahistory.com/chineserevolution/abdication-emperor-puyi-1912/ |archive-date=10 April 2023 |access-date=29 May 2021 |website=Chinese Revolution}}</ref>
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{{Main|Republic of China (1912–1949)}}{{Further|1911 Revolution|Second Sino-Japanese War|Chinese Civil War|Chinese Communist Revolution}}
On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, and [[Sun Yat-sen]] of the [[Kuomintang]] (KMT) was proclaimed provisional president.<ref>Tamura, Eileen (1997) ''China: Understanding Its Past.'' Volume 1. University of Hawaii Press {{ISBN|0-8248-1923-3}} p.146</ref> In March 1912, the presidency was given to [[Yuan Shikai]], a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself [[Empire of China (1915–1916)|Emperor of China]]. In the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own [[Beiyang Army]], he was forced to abdicate and re-establish the republic in 1916.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Haw |first=Stephen |title=Beijing: A Concise History |date=2006 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=0-4153-9906-8 |page=143}}</ref> After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Elleman |first=Bruce |title=Modern Chinese Warfare |date=2001 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-4152-1474-2 |page=149}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hutchings |first=Graham |title=Modern China: A Guide to a Century of Change |date=2003 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=0-6740-1240-2 |page=459}}</ref> During this [[Warlord Era|period]], China [[China during World War I|participated in]] [[World War I]] and saw a far-reaching popular uprising (the [[May Fourth Movement]]).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Panda |first=Ankit |date=5 May 2015 |title=The Legacy of China's May Fourth Movement |url=https://thediplomat.com/2015/05/the-legacy-of-chinas-may-fourth-movement |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222173851/https://thediplomat.com/2015/05/the-legacy-of-chinas-may-fourth-movement |archive-date=22 February 2024 |access-date=28 March 2024 |website=[[The Diplomat]]}}</ref>
[[File:1945 Mao and Chiang.jpg|thumb|left|[[Chiang Kai-shek]] and [[Mao Zedong]] toasting together in 1945 following the [[End of World War II in Asia|end of World War II]]]]In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang under [[Chiang Kai-shek]] was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political maneuverings known collectively as the [[Northern Expedition]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zarrow |first=Peter |title=China in War and Revolution, 1895–1949 |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-4153-6447-7 |page=230}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Leutner |first=M. |title=The Chinese Revolution in the 1920s: Between Triumph and Disaster |date=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-7007-1690-4 |page=129}}</ref> The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital to [[Nanjing]] and implemented "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's [[Three Principles of the People]] program for transforming China into a modern democratic state.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tien |first=Hung-Mao |title=Government and Politics in Kuomintang China, 1927–1937 |date=1972 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0-8047-0812-6 |volume=53 |pages=60–72}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Zhao |first=Suisheng |title=China and Democracy: Reconsidering the Prospects for a Democratic China |date=2000 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-4159-2694-7 |page=43}}</ref> The Kuomintang [[First United Front|briefly allied]] with the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) during the Northern Expedition, though the alliance broke down in 1927 after Chiang [[Shanghai massacre|violently suppressed]] the CCP and other leftists in Shanghai, marking the beginning of the [[Chinese Civil War]].<ref>{{Cite book |
In 1931, Japan [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria|invaded and occupied Manchuria]]. Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937, precipitating the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] (1937–1945), a [[Theater (warfare)|theater]] of [[World War II]]. The war forced an [[Second United Front|uneasy alliance]] between the Kuomintang and the CCP. Japanese forces committed numerous [[Japanese war crimes|war atrocities]] against the civilian population; as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nuclear Power: The End of the War Against Japan |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/nuclear_01.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151128194317/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/nuclear_01.shtml |archive-date=28 November 2015 |access-date=14 July 2013 |publisher=BBC}}</ref> An estimated 40,000 to 300,000 Chinese [[Nanjing Massacre|were massacred]] in Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation.<ref>[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/IMTFE/IMTFE-8.html "Judgement: International Military Tribunal for the Far East"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804062413/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/IMTFE/IMTFE-8.html |date=4 August 2018}}. ''Chapter VIII: Conventional War Crimes (Atrocities).'' November 1948. Retrieved 4 February 2013.</ref> China, along with the UK, the United States, and the [[Soviet Union]], were recognized as the Allied "[[Four Policemen|Big Four]]" in the [[Declaration by United Nations]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Yearbook of the United Nations 1946–1947 |date=1947 |publisher=United Nations |page=3 |chapter=The Moscow Declaration on general security |oclc=243471225 |access-date=25 April 2015 |chapter-url=http://www.unmultimedia.org/searchers/yearbook/page.jsp?volume=1946-47&page=38 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518074504/http://www.unmultimedia.org/searchers/yearbook/page.jsp?volume=1946-47&page=38 |archive-date=18 May 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Declaration by United Nations |url=https://www.un.org/en/sections/history-united-nations-charter/1942-declaration-united-nations |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525120058/http://www.un.org/en/sections/history-united-nations-charter/1942-declaration-united-nations |archive-date=25 May 2017 |access-date=20 June 2015 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref> Along with the other three great powers, China was one of the four major [[Allies of World War II]], and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war.<ref>Hoopes, Townsend, and Douglas Brinkley ''FDR and the Creation of the U.N.'' (Yale University Press, 1997)</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gaddis |first=John Lewis |url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesorig0000gadd |title=The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947 |date=1972 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-2311-2239-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesorig0000gadd/page/24 24]–25 |url-access=registration}}</ref> After the [[surrender of Japan]] in 1945, Taiwan, including the [[Penghu]], was [[Retrocession Day|handed over to Chinese control]]; however, the validity of this handover is controversial.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Tien |first=Hung-mao |title=Constitutional Reform and the Future of the Republic of China |date=1991 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |isbn=978-0-8733-2880-7 |editor-last=Feldman |editor-first=Harvey |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xCxMn-2msr8C&pg=PA3 3] |chapter=The Constitutional Conundrum and the Need for Reform}}</ref>
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=== People's Republic ===
{{Main|History of the People's Republic of China (1949–1976)}}
[[File:Mao Proclaiming New China.JPG|thumb|[[Proclamation of the People's Republic of China|The founding ceremony of the People's Republic of China]] was held at 3:00 pm on 1 October 1949. The picture above shows [[Mao Zedong]]'s announcement of the founding of the People's Republic of China in [[Tiananmen Square]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=李丹青 |title=What's behind the founding ceremony of the PRC? |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201909/30/WS5d9d4f5aa310cf3e3556f681.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218080210/https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201909/30/WS5d9d4f5aa310cf3e3556f681.html |archive-date=18 February 2023 |website=www.chinadaily.com.cn}}</ref>]]
China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between the [[Kuomintang]] and the [[Chinese Communist Party|Communists]] led to the resumption of civil war. Constitutional rule was established in 1947, but because of the ongoing unrest, many provisions of the [[Constitution of the Republic of China|ROC constitution]] were never implemented in mainland China.<ref name=":1" /> Afterwards, the CCP took control of most of mainland China, and the [[Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan|ROC government retreated offshore to Taiwan]].
On 1 October 1949, [[Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP Chairman]] [[Mao Zedong]] formally [[Proclamation of the People's Republic of China|proclaimed the People's Republic of China]] in [[Tiananmen Square]], [[Beijing]].<ref>{{Cite news |
The Chinese population increased from 550 million in 1950 to 900 million in 1974.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holmes |first=Madelyn |title=Students and teachers of the new China: thirteen interviews |date=2008 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-3288-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lJK-GRriJAoC 185]}}</ref> However, the [[Great Leap Forward]], an idealistic massive [[Industrialisation|industrialization]] project, resulted in [[Great Chinese Famine|an estimated 15 to 55 million deaths]] between 1959 and 1961, mostly from starvation.<ref name="nyt">{{Cite news |last=Mirsky |first=Jonathan |date=9 December 2012 |title=Unnatural Disaster |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/09/books/review/tombstone-the-great-chinese-famine-1958-1962-by-yang-jisheng.html?nl=books&emc=edit_bk_20121207 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121211072252/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/09/books/review/tombstone-the-great-chinese-famine-1958-1962-by-yang-jisheng.html?nl=books&emc=edit_bk_20121207 |archive-date=11 December 2012 |access-date=7 December 2012 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Holmes |first=Leslie |title=Communism: A Very Short Introduction |date=2009 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-1995-5154-5 |page=32 |quote=Most estimates of the number of Chinese dead are in the range of 15 to 30 million.}}</ref> In 1964, China detonated its first atomic bomb.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1964: China's first atomic bomb explodes |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/congress/228244.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322065350/http://www.china.org.cn/english/congress/228244.htm |archive-date=22 March 2023 |access-date=18 February 2023 |website=china.org.cn}}</ref> In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the [[Cultural Revolution]], sparking a decade of political recrimination and social upheaval that lasted until Mao's death in 1976. In October 1971, the PRC [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758|replaced the ROC]] in the United Nations, and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kao |first=Michael Y. M. |title=Taiwan in a Time of Transition |date=1988 |publisher=Paragon House |editor-last=Feldman |editor-first=Harvey |page=188 |chapter=Taiwan's and Beijing's Campaigns for Unification |editor-last2=Kao |editor-first2=Michael Y. M. |editor-last3=Kim |editor-first3=Ilpyong J.}}</ref>
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[[File:Události na náměstí Tian an men, Čína 1989, foto Jiří Tondl.jpg|thumb|The [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests]] was ended by a military-led massacre.]]
After Mao's death, the [[Gang of Four]] was arrested by [[Hua Guofeng]] and held responsible for the Cultural Revolution. The Cultural Revolution was rebuked, with millions rehabilitated. [[Deng Xiaoping]] took power in 1978, and instituted large-scale [[Boluan Fanzheng|political]] and [[Chinese economic reform|economic reforms]], together with the "[[Eight Elders]]", most senior and influential members of the party. The government loosened its control and the [[People's commune|communes]] were gradually disbanded.<ref name="Hamrin-1995">{{Cite book |
In 1989, there were protests such [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre|those in Tiananmen Square]], and then throughout the entire nation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harding |first=Harry |date=December 1990 |title=The Impact of Tiananmen on China's Foreign Policy |url=http://www.nbr.org/publications/element.aspx?id=73 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140404193656/http://www.nbr.org/publications/element.aspx?id=73 |archive-date=4 April 2014 |access-date=28 November 2013 |publisher=[[National Bureau of Asian Research]]}}</ref> [[Zhao Ziyang]] was put under house arrest for his sympathies to the protests and was replaced by [[Jiang Zemin]]. Jiang continued economic reforms, closing many SOEs and trimming down "[[iron rice bowl]]" (life-tenure positions).<ref name="APs-2022">{{Cite news |date=30 November 2022 |title=Jiang Zemin, who guided China's economic rise, dies |url=https://apnews.com/article/china-beijing-hong-kong-obituaries-jiang-zemin-4ee4c5dcaf567e02efa3c5c7186af30a |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403160544/https://apnews.com/article/china-beijing-hong-kong-obituaries-jiang-zemin-4ee4c5dcaf567e02efa3c5c7186af30a |archive-date=3 April 2023 |access-date=30 November 2022 |work=[[Associated Press]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=13 September 1997 |title=China Gets Down to Business at Party Congress |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1997-sep-13-mn-31787-story.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221018190108/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1997-sep-13-mn-31787-story.html |archive-date=18 October 2022 |access-date=12 January 2020 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Vogel |first=Ezra |author-link=Ezra Vogel |title=Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China |date=2011 |publisher=Belknap Press |isbn=978-0-6747-2586-7 |page=682}}</ref> China's economy grew sevenfold during this time.<ref name="APs-2022" /> [[British Hong Kong]] and [[Portuguese Macau]] returned to China in [[Handover of Hong Kong|1997]] and [[Handover of Macau|1999]], respectively, as [[Special administrative regions of China|special administrative regions]] under the principle of [[one country, two systems]]. The country joined the [[World Trade Organization]] in 2001.<ref name="APs-2022" />[[File:One-belt-one-road.svg|thumb|[[Belt and Road Initiative]] and related projects]]At the [[16th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party|16th CCP National Congress]] in 2002, [[Hu Jintao]] succeeded Jiang as the general secretary.<ref name="APs-2022" /> Under Hu, China maintained its high rate of economic growth, overtaking the United Kingdom, France, Germany and Japan to become the world's second-largest economy.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Orlik |first=Tom |date=16 November 2012 |title=Charting China's Economy: A Decade Under Hu Jintao |url=http://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2012/11/16/charting-chinas-economy-10-years-under-hu-jintao |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221121820/http://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2012/11/16/charting-chinas-economy-10-years-under-hu-jintao |archive-date=21 December 2016 |access-date=16 May 2023 |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]}}</ref> However, the growth also severely impacted the country's resources and environment,<ref>{{Cite news |
== Geography ==
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A major environmental issue in China is the continued [[desertification|expansion of its deserts]], particularly the Gobi Desert.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/terrywaghorn/2011/03/07/fighting-desertification/|title=Fighting Desertification|last=Waghorn|first=Terry|date=7 March 2011|newspaper=Forbes|access-date=21 January 2020|archive-date=29 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729115736/https://www.forbes.com/sites/terrywaghorn/2011/03/07/fighting-desertification/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4915690.stm|title=Beijing hit by eighth sandstorm|date=17 April 2006|work=BBC News|access-date=21 January 2020|archive-date=1 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090101023529/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4915690.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of [[sandstorms]], prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in [[Asian dust|dust storms]] plaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including Japan and Korea. Water quality, [[erosion]], and [[Pollution in China|pollution control]] have become important issues in China's relations with other countries. Melting [[glaciers]] in the Himalayas could potentially lead to [[water shortage]]s for hundreds of millions of people.<ref name="msnbc">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna27894721|title=Himalaya glaciers melting much faster|last=Reilly|first=Michael|date=24 November 2008|publisher=NBC News|access-date=21 September 2011|archive-date=23 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023184210/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27894721/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to academics, in order to limit [[climate change in China]] to {{cvt|1.5|C-change}} electricity generation from [[coal in China]] without [[Carbon capture and storage|carbon capture]] must be phased out by 2045.<ref>{{cite report|date=December 2020|title=China's New Growth Pathway: From the 14th Five-Year Plan to Carbon Neutrality|url=https://www.efchina.org/Attachments/Report/report-lceg-20201210/Full-Report_Synthesis-Report-2020-on-Chinas-Carbon-Neutrality_EN.pdf|page=24|publisher=Energy Foundation China|access-date=16 December 2020|archive-date=16 April 2021|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416100821/https://www.efchina.org/Attachments/Report/report-lceg-20201210/Full-Report_Synthesis-Report-2020-on-Chinas-Carbon-Neutrality_EN.pdf}}</ref> With current policies, the GHG emissions of China will probably peak in 2025, and by 2030 they will return to 2022 levels. However, such pathway still leads to three-degree temperature rise.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lui |first1=Swithin |title=Guest post: Why China is set to significantly overachieve its 2030 climate goals |url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/guest-post-why-china-is-set-to-significantly-overachieve-its-2030-climate-goals |website=Carbon Brief |date=19 May 2022 |access-date=24 May 2022 |archive-date=23 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523114439/https://www.carbonbrief.org/guest-post-why-china-is-set-to-significantly-overachieve-its-2030-climate-goals |url-status=live}}</ref>
Official government statistics about Chinese agricultural productivity are considered unreliable, due to exaggeration of production at subsidiary government levels.<ref>Chow, Gregory (2006) Are Chinese Official Statistics Reliable? CESifo Economic Studies 52. 396–414. 10.1093/cesifo/ifl003.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Liu G, Wang X, Baiocchi G, Casazza M, Meng F, Cai Y, Hao Y, Wu F, Yang Z |date=October 2020 |title=On the accuracy of official Chinese crop production data: Evidence from biophysical indexes of net primary production |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=117|issue=41|pages=25434–25444 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1919850117|pmc=7568317|pmid=32978301 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11725434L |doi-access=free}}</ref> Much of China has a climate very suitable for agriculture and the country has been the world's largest producer of rice, wheat, tomatoes, eggplant, grapes, watermelon, spinach, and many other crops.<ref>{{cite web|title=Countries by commodity|website=[[FAOSTAT]]|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#rankings/countries_by_commodity|access-date=16 January 2020|archive-date=29 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200629173611/http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#rankings/countries_by_commodity|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2021,
=== Biodiversity ===
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[[File:ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg|thumb|The [[Three Gorges Dam]] is the largest hydroelectric dam in the world.]]
In the early 2000s, China has suffered from [[environmental issues in China|environmental deterioration and pollution]] due to its rapid pace of industrialization.<ref name="Ma2002">{{Cite book |last1=Ma |first1=Xiaoying |title=Environmental Regulation in China |last2=Ortalano |first2=Leonard |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-8476-9399-3 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eQTbZRWgC74C&pg=PA1 1] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-21545868|title=China acknowledges 'cancer villages'|date=22 February 2013|publisher=[[BBC News]]|access-date=23 February 2013|archive-date=21 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240321002451/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-21545868|url-status=live}}</ref> Regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, though they are poorly enforced, frequently disregarded in favor of rapid economic development.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-20114306|title=Riot police and protesters clash over China chemical plant|last=Soekov|first=Kimberley|date=28 October 2012|publisher=[[BBC News]]|access-date=18 January 2020|archive-date=10 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410202328/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-20114306|url-status=live}}</ref> China has the second-highest death toll because of air pollution, after [[Environmental issues in India|India]], with approximately 1 million deaths.<ref>{{cite web |date=15 February 2016 |title=Is air quality in China a social problem? |url=https://chinapower.csis.org/air-quality |access-date=26 March 2020 |website=[[Center for Strategic and International Studies]] |publisher=ChinaPower Project |archive-date=26 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200326081416/https://chinapower.csis.org/air-quality |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/phe/publications/air-pollution-global-assessment/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160928165031/http://www.who.int/phe/publications/air-pollution-global-assessment/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 September 2016|title=Ambient air pollution: A global assessment of exposure and burden of disease|website=[[World Health Organization]]|access-date=28 April 2018}}</ref> Although China ranks as the highest [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions|CO{{Sub|2}} emitting]] country,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iea-emissions-idUSBRE95908S20130610|title=Global carbon emissions hit record high in 2012 |last=Chestney|first=Nina|date=10 June 2013|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=3 November 2013|archive-date=19 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131119111939/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/06/10/us-iea-emissions-idUSBRE95908S20130610 |url-status=live}}</ref> it only emits 8 tons of [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita|CO{{Sub|2}} per capita]], significantly lower than developed countries such as the United States (16.1), Australia (16.8) and South Korea (13.6).<ref name="UCS-2020">{{cite web|date=August 2020|title=Each Country's Share of CO2 Emissions|url=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/each-countrys-share-co2-emissions|access-date=30 October 2020|website=[[Union of Concerned Scientists]]|archive-date=15 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015184639/https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/each-countrys-share-co2-emissions|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Greenhouse gas emissions by China]] are the [[List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions|world's largest]].<ref name="UCS-2020"/> The country has significant [[water pollution]] problems; only
China has prioritized clamping down on pollution, bringing a significant decrease in air pollution in the 2010s.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Jayaram |first1=Kripa |last2=Kay |first2=Chris |last3=Murtaugh |first3=Dan |date=14 June 2022 |title=China Reduced Air Pollution in 7 Years as Much as US Did in Three Decades |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-06-14/china-s-clean-air-campaign-is-bringing-down-global-pollution |access-date=13 January 2024 |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |archive-date=7 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107054008/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-06-14/china-s-clean-air-campaign-is-bringing-down-global-pollution |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2020, the Chinese government announced its aims for the country to reach its peak emissions levels before 2030, and achieve carbon neutrality by 2060 in line with the [[Paris Agreement]],<ref name="CAT-2020">{{cite web |date=23 September 2020 |title=China going carbon neutral before 2060 would lower warming projections by around 0.2 to 0.3 degrees C |url=https://climateactiontracker.org/press/china-carbon-neutral-before-2060-would-lower-warming-projections-by-around-2-to-3-tenths-of-a-degree |access-date=27 September 2020 |website=[[Climate Action Tracker]] |archive-date=11 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240211205338/https://climateactiontracker.org/press/china-carbon-neutral-before-2060-would-lower-warming-projections-by-around-2-to-3-tenths-of-a-degree |url-status=live}}</ref> which, according to [[Climate Action Tracker]], would lower the expected rise in global temperature by 0.2–0.3 degrees – "the biggest single reduction ever estimated by the Climate Action Tracker".<ref name="CAT-2020"/>
China is the world's leading investor in [[renewable energy]] and [[Renewable energy commercialization|its commercialization]], with [[US$|$]]546 billion invested in 2022;<ref name="Schonhardt-2023">{{Cite news |last=Schonhardt |first=Sara |date=30 January 2023 |title=China Invests $546 Billion in Clean Energy, Far Surpassing the U.S. |work=[[Scientific American]] |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/china-invests-546-billion-in-clean-energy-far-surpassing-the-u-s/#:~:text=The%20country%20spent%20%24546%20billion,billion%20in%20clean%20energy%20investments. |access-date=19 May 2023 |archive-date=19 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519125528/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/china-invests-546-billion-in-clean-energy-far-surpassing-the-u-s/#:~:text=The%20country%20spent%20%24546%20billion,billion%20in%20clean%20energy%20investments. |url-status=live}}</ref> it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy projects.<ref>{{cite news |last=Meng |first=Meng |date=5 January 2017 |title=China to plow $361 billion into renewable fuel by 2020 |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-energy-renewables/china-to-plow-361-billion-into-renewable-fuel-by-2020-idUSKBN14P06P |access-date=28 May 2018 |archive-date=27 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230727074912/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-energy-renewables/china-to-plow-361-billion-into-renewable-fuel-by-2020-idUSKBN14P06P |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Schonhardt-2023"/> Long heavily relying on non-renewable energy sources such as coal, China's adaptation of [[Renewable energy in China|renewable energy]] has increased significantly in recent years, with their share increasing from 26.3 percent in 2016 to 31.9 percent in 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Maguire |first=Gavin |date=23 November 2022 |title=Column: China on track to hit new clean & dirty power records in 2022 |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/china-track-hit-new-clean-dirty-power-records-2022-maguire-2022-11-23 |access-date=15 May 2023 |work=[[Reuters]] |archive-date=16 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416175101/https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/china-track-hit-new-clean-dirty-power-records-2022-maguire-2022-11-23 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2023, 60.5% of China's electricity came from [[Coal in China|coal]] (largest producer in the world), 13.2% from [[Hydroelectric power in Himachal Pradesh|hydroelectric power]] (largest), 9.4% from [[Wind power in China|wind]] (largest), 6.2% from [[Solar power|solar energy]] (largest), 4.6% from [[Nuclear power in China|nuclear energy]] (second-largest), 3.3% from [[Natural gas in China|natural gas]] (fifth-largest), and 2.2% from [[bioenergy]] (largest); in total, 31% of China's energy came from renewable energy sources.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=8 May 2024 |title=Global Electricity Review 2024: Analysis of key power sector emitters in 2023 |url=https://ember-climate.org/insights/research/global-electricity-review-2024/major-countries-and-regions |access-date=21 May 2024 |website=[[Ember (non-profit organisation)|Ember]]}}</ref> Despite its emphasis on renewables, China remains deeply connected to global oil markets and next to India, has been the largest importer of Russian [[Petroleum|crude oil]] in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Perkins |first=Robert |date=7 October 2022 |title=Russian seaborne crude exports slide to 12-month low as EU ban, price caps loom |url=https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/market-insights/latest-news/oil/072022-russian-seaborne-crude-exports-retreat-from-three-year-highs-shipping-data |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221014053951/https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/market-insights/latest-news/oil/072022-russian-seaborne-crude-exports-retreat-from-three-year-highs-shipping-data |archive-date=14 October 2022 |website=[[S&P Global]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=International Energy Agency |author-link=International Energy Agency |date=24 February 2022 |title=Oil Market and Russian Supply – Russian supplies to global energy markets |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/russian-supplies-to-global-energy-markets/oil-market-and-russian-supply-2 |access-date=27 April 2022 |publisher=IEA |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116162235/https://www.iea.org/reports/russian-supplies-to-global-energy-markets/oil-market-and-russian-supply-2 |url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Political geography ===
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}}
The People's Republic of China is a [[one-party state]] governed by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
The PRC [[Democracy in China|officially terms itself as a democracy]], using terms such as "socialist consultative democracy",<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jia |first=Qinglin |date=1 January 2013 |title=The Development of Socialist Consultative Democracy in China |url=http://english.qstheory.cn/magazine/201301/201302/t20130218_211654.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309221709/http://english.qstheory.cn/magazine/201301/201302/t20130218_211654.htm |archive-date=9 March 2017 |access-date=13 May 2018 |website=[[Qiushi]]}}</ref> and "[[whole-process people's democracy]]".<ref name="Decoding China-2021" /> However, the country is commonly described as an authoritarian one-party state and a [[dictatorship]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ringen |first=Stein |author-link=Stein Ringen |title=The Perfect Dictatorship: China in the 21st Century |date=2016 |publisher=[[Hong Kong University Press]] |isbn=978-9-8882-0893-7 |page=3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |
=== Chinese Communist Party ===
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[[File:18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China.jpg|thumb|The [[Chinese Communist Party]] is the founding and ruling political party of the People's Republic of China.]]
According to the [[Constitution of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP constitution]], its highest body is the [[National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party|National Congress]] held every five years.<ref name="Ruwitch-2022">{{Cite news |last=Ruwitch |first=John |date=13 October 2022 |title=China's major party congress is set to grant Xi Jinping a 3rd term. And that's not all |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/10/13/1124553497/china-communist-party-congress-xi-jinping |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221014193045/https://www.npr.org/2022/10/13/1124553497/china-communist-party-congress-xi-jinping |archive-date=14 October 2022 |access-date=15 October 2022 |work=[[NPR]]}}</ref> The National Congress elects the [[Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party|Central Committee]], who then elects the party's [[Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party|Politburo]], [[Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party|Politburo Standing Committee]] and the [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|general secretary]] ([[Leader of the Chinese Communist Party|party leader]]), the top leadership of the country.<ref name="Ruwitch-2022" /> The general secretary holds ultimate power and authority over
=== Government ===
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[[File:Diplomatic relations of the People's Republic of China.svg|upright=1.4|thumb|Diplomatic relations of China]]
The PRC has diplomatic relations with 179 United Nation members states and maintains [[List of diplomatic missions of China|embassies in 174]]. {{As of|2024}}, China has one of the largest diplomatic networks of any country in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Diplomacy Index – Country Rank |url=https://globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org/country_ranking |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225223052/https://globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org/country_ranking |archive-date=25 February 2024 |access-date=26 February 2024 |website=[[Lowy Institute]]}}</ref> In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China (ROC) as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the [[United Nations Security Council]].<ref name="Ref_r">{{Cite news |last=Chang |first=Eddy |date=22 August 2004 |title=Perseverance will pay off at the UN |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2004/08/22/2003199768 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070806100002/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2004/08/22/2003199768 |archive-date=6 August 2007 |work=[[The Taipei Times]]}}</ref> It is a member of intergovernmental organizations including the [[G20]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=About G20 |url=https://www.g20.org/en/about-g20 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825160730/https://www.g20.org/en/about-g20 |archive-date=25 August 2023 |access-date=4 July 2023 |website=[[G20]]}}</ref> the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation|SCO]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 March 2023 |title=Riyadh joins Shanghai Cooperation Organization as ties with Beijing grow |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/riyadh-joins-shanghai-cooperation-organization-ties-with-beijing-grow-2023-03-29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231011070851/https://www.reuters.com/world/riyadh-joins-shanghai-cooperation-organization-ties-with-beijing-grow-2023-03-29 |archive-date=11 October 2023 |access-date=22 November 2023 |work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> the [[BRICS]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 April 2011 |title=Bric summit ends in China with plea for more influence |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-13076229 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225211238/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-13076229 |archive-date=25 February 2024 |access-date=24 October 2011 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> the [[East Asia Summit]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=EAS Participating Countries |url=https://eastasiasummit.asean.org/eas-participating-country |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923192301/https://eastasiasummit.asean.org/eas-participating-country |archive-date=23 September 2023 |access-date=4 July 2023 |website=[[East Asia Summit]]}}</ref> and the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 2021 |title=About APEC |url=https://www.apec.org/about-us/about-apec |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240321185610/https://www.apec.org/about-us/about-apec |archive-date=21 March 2024 |access-date=4 July 2023 |website=[[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]]}}</ref> China was also a former member and leader of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], and still considers itself an advocate for [[developing countries]].<ref name="Ref_2009">{{Cite news |date=21 December 2009 |title=China says communication with other developing countries at Copenhagen summit transparent |url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90883/6847341.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091222225359/http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90883/6847341.html |archive-date=22 December 2009 |access-date=31 January 2019 |work=[[People's Daily
The PRC officially maintains the [[One China|one-China principle]], which holds the view that there is only one sovereign state in the name of China, represented by the PRC, and that Taiwan is part of that China.<ref name="Drun-2017">{{Cite web |last=Drun |first=Jessica |date=28 December 2017 |title=One China, Multiple Interpretations |url=https://www.ccpwatch.org/single-post/2017/12/29/one-china-multiple-interpretations |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200309224301/https://www.ccpwatch.org/single-post/2017/12/29/One-China-Multiple-Interpretations |archive-date=9 March 2020 |access-date=11 January 2023 |website=Center for Advanced China Research}}</ref> The unique status of Taiwan has led to countries recognizing the PRC to maintain unique "one-China policies" that differ from each other; some countries explicitly recognize the PRC's claim over Taiwan, while others, including the U.S. and Japan, only ''acknowledge'' the claim.<ref name="Drun-2017" /> Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan,<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 January 2010 |title=Taiwan's Ma to stopover in US: report |url=http://www.mysinchew.com/node/33834 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150909170723/http://www.mysinchew.com/node/33834 |archive-date=9 September 2015 |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]}}</ref> especially in the matter of armament sales.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Macartney |first=Jane |date=1 February 2010 |title=China says US arms sales to Taiwan could threaten wider relations |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/china-says-us-arms-sales-to-taiwan-could-threaten-wider-relations-pl2j2pdn667 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230712030509/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/china-says-us-arms-sales-to-taiwan-could-threaten-wider-relations-pl2j2pdn667 |archive-date=12 July 2023 |access-date=18 January 2020 |work=[[The Times]]}}</ref> Most countries have switched recognition from the ROC to the PRC since the latter replaced the former in the UN in 1971.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hale |first=Erin |date=25 October 2021 |title=Taiwan taps on United Nations' door, 50 years after departure |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/25/chinas-un-seat-50-years-on |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129190345/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/25/chinas-un-seat-50-years-on |archive-date=29 January 2023 |access-date=11 January 2023 |work=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]]}}</ref>[[File:Russia and China sign major gas deal.jpeg|thumb|On 21 May 2014, China and [[Russia]] signed a $400 billion [[Natural gas in Russia|gas deal]]. Currently,{{When|date=July 2024}} Russia is supplying [[List of countries by natural gas exports|natural gas]] to China.]]Much of current [[Foreign policy of China|Chinese foreign policy]] is reportedly based on Premier [[Zhou Enlai]]'s [[Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence]], and is also driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences.<ref name="Keith">{{Cite book |last=Keith |first=Ronald C. |title=China from the inside out – fitting the People's republic into the world |publisher=PlutoPress |pages=135–136}}</ref> This policy may have led China to support or maintain close ties with states that are [[rogue state|regarded as dangerous]] and repressive by Western nations, such as [[China–Sudan relations|Sudan]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Timothy Webster |date=17 May 2013 |title=China's Human Rights Footprint in Africa |url=https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1619&context=faculty_publications |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229040705/https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1619&context=faculty_publications |archive-date=29 February 2024 |access-date=28 March 2024 |website=[[Case Western Reserve University School of Law]] |pages=628 and 638}}</ref> [[China–North Korea relations|North Korea]] and [[China–Iran relations|Iran]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Martel |first=William C. |date=29 June 2012 |title=An Authoritarian Axis Rising? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2012/06/an-authoritarian-axis-rising |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216045110/https://thediplomat.com/2012/06/an-authoritarian-axis-rising |archive-date=16 December 2013 |work=[[The Diplomat]]}}</ref> China's close relationship with [[China–Myanmar relations|Myanmar]] has involved support for its ruling governments as well as for its ethnic rebel groups,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Maria Siow |date=27 March 2021 |title=Could Myanmar's ethnic armed groups turn the tide against the junta, with a little help from Beijing? |url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/3127236/could-myanmars-ethnic-armed-groups-turn-tide-against-junta |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231127152703/https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/3127236/could-myanmars-ethnic-armed-groups-turn-tide-against-junta |archive-date=27 November 2023 |access-date=27 November 2023 |website=[[South China Morning Post]] |language=en}}</ref> including the [[Arakan Army]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=DAVID BREWSTER |date=8 November 2022 |title=How China, India and Bangladesh could be drawn into Myanmar's conflict |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/how-china-india-bangladesh-could-be-drawn-myanmar-s-conflict |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240224140842/https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/how-china-india-bangladesh-could-be-drawn-myanmar-s-conflict |archive-date=24 February 2024 |access-date=28 March 2024 |website=[[Lowy Institute]] |language=en}}</ref> China has a [[China–Russia relations|close political, economic and military relationship]] with Russia,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Davidson |first=Helen |date=16 March 2022 |title=How close are China and Russia and where does Beijing stand on Ukraine? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/16/how-close-are-china-and-russia-and-where-does-beijing-stand-on-ukraine |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322172321/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/16/how-close-are-china-and-russia-and-where-does-beijing-stand-on-ukraine |archive-date=22 March 2022 |access-date=11 January 2023 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 June 2012 |title=Energy to dominate Russia President Putin's China visit |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-18327632 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214152040/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-18327632 |archive-date=14 February 2024 |access-date=16 January 2020 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Gladstone |first=Rick |date=19 July 2012 |title=Friction at the U.N. as Russia and China Veto Another Resolution on Syria Sanctions |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/20/world/middleeast/russia-and-china-veto-un-sanctions-against-syria.html |url-access=limited |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/20/world/middleeast/russia-and-china-veto-un-sanctions-against-syria.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |access-date=15 November 2012 |work=The New York Times}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=23 March 2013 |title=Xi Jinping: Russia-China ties 'guarantee world peace' |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-21911842 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120144520/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-21911842 |archive-date=20 January 2024 |access-date=23 March 2013 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> [[China–United States relations|China's relationship with the United States]] is complex, and includes deep trade ties but significant political differences.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Martin |first=Eric |last2=Monteiro |first2=Ana |date=7 February 2023 |title=US-China Goods Trade Hits Record Even as Political Split Widens |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-02-07/us-china-trade-climbs-to-record-in-2022-despite-efforts-to-split |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502105302/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-02-07/us-china-trade-climbs-to-record-in-2022-despite-efforts-to-split |archive-date=2 May 2023 |access-date=16 May 2023 |work=[[Bloomberg News]]}}</ref>▼
Since the early 2000s, China has followed a policy of [[Sino-African relations|engaging with African nations]] for trade and bilateral co-operation.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McLaughlin |first=Abraham |date=30 March 2005 |title=A rising China counters US clout in Africa |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0330/p01s01-woaf.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816123236/http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0330/p01s01-woaf.html |archive-date=16 August 2007 |access-date=18 January 2020 |work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lyman |first=Princeton |date=21 July 2005 |title=China's Rising Role in Africa |url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/8436 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715183929/http://www.cfr.org/publication/8436 |archive-date=15 July 2007 |access-date=26 June 2007 |website=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Politzer |first=Malia |date=6 August 2008 |title=China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration |url=https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/china-and-africa-stronger-economic-ties-mean-more-migration |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202014823/https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/china-and-africa-stronger-economic-ties-mean-more-migration |archive-date=2 December 2023 |access-date=26 January 2013 |website=[[Migration Policy Institute]]}}</ref> It maintains extensive and highly diversified trade links with the European Union, and became its largest trading partner for goods.<ref name="qz_EU_trade">{{Cite news |last=Timsit |first=Annabelle |date=15 February 2021 |title=China dethroned the US as Europe's top trade partner in 2020 |url=https://qz.com/1973067/china-dethroned-the-us-as-europes-top-trade-partner-in-2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002082249/https://qz.com/1973067/china-dethroned-the-us-as-europes-top-trade-partner-in-2020 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |access-date=18 March 2021 |work=Quartz}}</ref> China is increasing its influence in [[Central Asia]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wolff |first=Stefan |date=24 May 2023 |title=How China is increasing its influence in central Asia as part of global plans to offer an alternative to the west |url=https://theconversation.com/how-china-is-increasing-its-influence-in-central-asia-as-part-of-global-plans-to-offer-an-alternative-to-the-west-206035 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303040833/http://theconversation.com/how-china-is-increasing-its-influence-in-central-asia-as-part-of-global-plans-to-offer-an-alternative-to-the-west-206035 |archive-date=3 March 2024 |access-date=28 March 2024 |website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]}}</ref> and South Pacific.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Owen Greene |last2=Christoph Bluth |date=9 February 2024 |title=China's increasing political influence in the south Pacific has sparked an international response |url=https://theconversation.com/chinas-increasing-political-influence-in-the-south-pacific-has-sparked-an-international-response-222105 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303175200/https://theconversation.com/chinas-increasing-political-influence-in-the-south-pacific-has-sparked-an-international-response-222105 |archive-date=3 March 2024 |access-date=28 March 2024 |website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]}}</ref> The country has strong trade ties with [[ASEAN]] countries<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 2022 |title=ASEAN Statistical Yearbook 2022 |url=https://www.aseanstats.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/ASYB_2022_423.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516144951/https://www.aseanstats.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/ASYB_2022_423.pdf |archive-date=16 May 2023 |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=ASEAN}}</ref> and major South American economies,<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 February 2021 |title=The U.S. and China Are Battling for Influence in Latin America, and the Pandemic Has Raised the Stakes |url=https://time.com/5936037/us-china-latin-america-influence |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240323123844/https://time.com/5936037/us-china-latin-america-influence |archive-date=23 March 2024 |access-date=28 March 2021 |work=Time}}</ref> and is the largest trading partner of Brazil, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, Argentina, and several others.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Garrison |first=Cassandra |date=14 December 2020 |title=In Latin America, a Biden White House faces a rising China |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-latam-usa-china-insight/in-latin-america-a-biden-white-house-faces-a-rising-china-idUSKBN28O18R |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231108025932/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-latam-usa-china-insight/in-latin-america-a-biden-white-house-faces-a-rising-china-idUSKBN28O18R |archive-date=8 November 2023 |access-date=28 March 2021 |work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref>▼
▲The PRC officially maintains the [[One China|one-China principle]], which holds the view that there is only one sovereign state in the name of China, represented by the PRC, and that Taiwan is part of that China.<ref name="Drun-2017">{{Cite web |last=Drun |first=Jessica |date=28 December 2017 |title=One China, Multiple Interpretations |url=https://www.ccpwatch.org/single-post/2017/12/29/one-china-multiple-interpretations |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200309224301/https://www.ccpwatch.org/single-post/2017/12/29/One-China-Multiple-Interpretations |archive-date=9 March 2020 |access-date=11 January 2023 |website=Center for Advanced China Research}}</ref> The unique status of Taiwan has led to countries recognizing the PRC to maintain unique "one-China policies" that differ from each other; some countries explicitly recognize the PRC's claim over Taiwan, while others, including the U.S. and Japan, only ''acknowledge'' the claim.<ref name="Drun-2017" /> Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan,<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 January 2010 |title=Taiwan's Ma to stopover in US: report |url=http://www.mysinchew.com/node/33834 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150909170723/http://www.mysinchew.com/node/33834 |archive-date=9 September 2015 |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]}}</ref> especially in the matter of armament sales.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Macartney |first=Jane |date=1 February 2010 |title=China says US arms sales to Taiwan could threaten wider relations |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/china-says-us-arms-sales-to-taiwan-could-threaten-wider-relations-pl2j2pdn667 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230712030509/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/china-says-us-arms-sales-to-taiwan-could-threaten-wider-relations-pl2j2pdn667 |archive-date=12 July 2023 |access-date=18 January 2020 |work=[[The Times]]}}</ref> Most countries have switched recognition from the ROC to the PRC since the latter replaced the former in the UN in 1971.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hale |first=Erin |date=25 October 2021 |title=Taiwan taps on United Nations' door, 50 years after departure |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/25/chinas-un-seat-50-years-on |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129190345/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/25/chinas-un-seat-50-years-on |archive-date=29 January 2023 |access-date=11 January 2023 |work=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]]}}</ref>[[File:Russia and China sign major gas deal.jpeg|thumb|On 21 May 2014, China and [[Russia]] signed a $400 billion [[Natural gas in Russia|gas deal]]. Currently,{{When|date=July 2024}} Russia is supplying [[List of countries by natural gas exports|natural gas]] to China.]]Much of current [[Foreign policy of China|Chinese foreign policy]] is reportedly based on Premier [[Zhou Enlai]]'s [[Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence]], and is also driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences.<ref name="Keith">{{Cite book |last=Keith |first=Ronald C. |title=China from the inside out – fitting the People's republic into the world |publisher=PlutoPress |pages=135–136}}</ref> This policy may have led China to support or maintain close ties with states that are [[rogue state|regarded as dangerous]] and repressive by Western nations, such as [[China–Sudan relations|Sudan]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Timothy Webster |date=17 May 2013 |title=China's Human Rights Footprint in Africa |url=https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1619&context=faculty_publications |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229040705/https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1619&context=faculty_publications |archive-date=29 February 2024 |access-date=28 March 2024 |website=[[Case Western Reserve University School of Law]] |pages=628 and 638}}</ref> [[China–North Korea relations|North Korea]] and [[China–Iran relations|Iran]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Martel |first=William C. |date=29 June 2012 |title=An Authoritarian Axis Rising? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2012/06/an-authoritarian-axis-rising |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216045110/https://thediplomat.com/2012/06/an-authoritarian-axis-rising |archive-date=16 December 2013 |work=[[The Diplomat]]}}</ref> China's close relationship with [[China–Myanmar relations|Myanmar]] has involved support for its ruling governments as well as for its ethnic rebel groups,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Maria Siow |date=27 March 2021 |title=Could Myanmar's ethnic armed groups turn the tide against the junta, with a little help from Beijing? |url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/3127236/could-myanmars-ethnic-armed-groups-turn-tide-against-junta |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231127152703/https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/3127236/could-myanmars-ethnic-armed-groups-turn-tide-against-junta |archive-date=27 November 2023 |access-date=27 November 2023 |website=[[South China Morning Post]] |language=en}}</ref> including the [[Arakan Army]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=DAVID BREWSTER |date=8 November 2022 |title=How China, India and Bangladesh could be drawn into Myanmar's conflict |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/how-china-india-bangladesh-could-be-drawn-myanmar-s-conflict |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240224140842/https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/how-china-india-bangladesh-could-be-drawn-myanmar-s-conflict |archive-date=24 February 2024 |access-date=28 March 2024 |website=[[Lowy Institute]] |language=en}}</ref> China has a [[China–Russia relations|close political, economic and military relationship]] with Russia,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Davidson |first=Helen |date=16 March 2022 |title=How close are China and Russia and where does Beijing stand on Ukraine? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/16/how-close-are-china-and-russia-and-where-does-beijing-stand-on-ukraine |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322172321/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/16/how-close-are-china-and-russia-and-where-does-beijing-stand-on-ukraine |archive-date=22 March 2022 |access-date=11 January 2023 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 June 2012 |title=Energy to dominate Russia President Putin's China visit |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-18327632 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214152040/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-18327632 |archive-date=14 February 2024 |access-date=16 January 2020 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Gladstone |first=Rick |date=19 July 2012 |title=Friction at the U.N. as Russia and China Veto Another Resolution on Syria Sanctions |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/20/world/middleeast/russia-and-china-veto-un-sanctions-against-syria.html |url-access=limited |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/20/world/middleeast/russia-and-china-veto-un-sanctions-against-syria.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |access-date=15 November 2012 |work=The New York Times}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=23 March 2013 |title=Xi Jinping: Russia-China ties 'guarantee world peace' |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-21911842 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120144520/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-21911842 |archive-date=20 January 2024 |access-date=23 March 2013 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> [[China–United States relations|China's relationship with the United States]] is complex, and includes deep trade ties but significant political differences.<ref>{{Cite news |
In 2013, China initiated the [[Belt and Road Initiative]] (BRI), a large global infrastructure building initiative with funding on the order of $50–100 billion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dollar |first=David |date=October 2020 |title=Seven years into China's Belt and Road |url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/10/01/seven-years-into-chinas-belt-and-road |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530150820/https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/10/01/seven-years-into-chinas-belt-and-road |archive-date=30 May 2023 |access-date=1 December 2020 |website=Brookings}}</ref> BRI could be one of the largest development plans in modern history.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cai |first=Peter |title=Understanding China's Belt and Road Initiative |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/publications/understanding-belt-and-road-initiative |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901063800/http://www.lowyinstitute.org/publications/understanding-belt-and-road-initiative |archive-date=1 September 2022 |access-date=30 November 2020 |website=[[Lowy Institute]]}}</ref> It has expanded significantly over the last six years and, {{As of|2020|April|lc=y}}, includes 138 countries and 30 international organizations. In addition to intensifying foreign policy relations, the focus is particularly on building efficient transport routes, especially the [[21st Century Maritime Silk Road|maritime Silk Road]] with its connections to East Africa and Europe. However many loans made under the program are unsustainable and China has faced a number of calls for [[debt relief]] from debtor nations.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kynge |first=James |author-link=James Kynge |last2=Sun |first2=Yu |date=30 April 2020 |title=China faces wave of calls for debt relief on 'Belt and Road' projects |url=https://www.ft.com/content/5a3192be-27c6-4fe7-87e7-78d4158bd39b |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/5a3192be-27c6-4fe7-87e7-78d4158bd39b |archive-date=10 December 2022 |access-date=28 October 2022 |work=[[Financial Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Broadman |first=Harry G. |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10986/7186 |title=Africa's Silk Road: China and India's New Economic Frontier |date=2007 |publisher=World Bank |isbn=978-0-8213-6835-0 |hdl=10986/7186 |access-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160049/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/entities/publication/ba2454cc-7c86-58e3-b0ad-c9b0968b70eb |archive-date=28 March 2024 |url-status=live}}▼
▲Since the early 2000s, China has followed a policy of [[Sino-African relations|engaging with African nations]] for trade and bilateral co-operation.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McLaughlin |first=Abraham |date=30 March 2005 |title=A rising China counters US clout in Africa |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0330/p01s01-woaf.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816123236/http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0330/p01s01-woaf.html |archive-date=16 August 2007 |access-date=18 January 2020 |work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lyman |first=Princeton |date=21 July 2005 |title=China's Rising Role in Africa |url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/8436 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715183929/http://www.cfr.org/publication/8436 |archive-date=15 July 2007 |access-date=26 June 2007 |website=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Politzer |first=Malia |date=6 August 2008 |title=China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration |url=https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/china-and-africa-stronger-economic-ties-mean-more-migration |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202014823/https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/china-and-africa-stronger-economic-ties-mean-more-migration |archive-date=2 December 2023 |access-date=26 January 2013 |website=[[Migration Policy Institute]]}}</ref> It maintains extensive and highly diversified trade links with the European Union, and became its largest trading partner for goods.<ref name="qz_EU_trade">{{Cite news |last=Timsit |first=Annabelle |date=15 February 2021 |title=China dethroned the US as Europe's top trade partner in 2020 |url=https://qz.com/1973067/china-dethroned-the-us-as-europes-top-trade-partner-in-2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002082249/https://qz.com/1973067/china-dethroned-the-us-as-europes-top-trade-partner-in-2020 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |access-date=18 March 2021 |work=Quartz}}</ref> China is increasing its influence in [[Central Asia]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wolff |first=Stefan |date=24 May 2023 |title=How China is increasing its influence in central Asia as part of global plans to offer an alternative to the west |url=https://theconversation.com/how-china-is-increasing-its-influence-in-central-asia-as-part-of-global-plans-to-offer-an-alternative-to-the-west-206035 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303040833/http://theconversation.com/how-china-is-increasing-its-influence-in-central-asia-as-part-of-global-plans-to-offer-an-alternative-to-the-west-206035 |archive-date=3 March 2024 |access-date=28 March 2024 |website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]}}</ref> and South Pacific.<ref>{{Cite web |
▲In 2013, China initiated the [[Belt and Road Initiative]] (BRI), a large global infrastructure building initiative with funding on the order of $50–100 billion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dollar |first=David |date=October 2020 |title=Seven years into China's Belt and Road |url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/10/01/seven-years-into-chinas-belt-and-road |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530150820/https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/10/01/seven-years-into-chinas-belt-and-road |archive-date=30 May 2023 |access-date=1 December 2020 |website=Brookings}}</ref> BRI could be one of the largest development plans in modern history.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cai |first=Peter |title=Understanding China's Belt and Road Initiative |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/publications/understanding-belt-and-road-initiative |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901063800/http://www.lowyinstitute.org/publications/understanding-belt-and-road-initiative |archive-date=1 September 2022 |access-date=30 November 2020 |website=[[Lowy Institute]]}}</ref> It has expanded significantly over the last six years and, {{As of|2020|April|lc=y}}, includes 138 countries and 30 international organizations. In addition to intensifying foreign policy relations, the focus is particularly on building efficient transport routes, especially the [[21st Century Maritime Silk Road|maritime Silk Road]] with its connections to East Africa and Europe. However many loans made under the program are unsustainable and China has faced a number of calls for [[debt relief]] from debtor nations.<ref>{{Cite news |
* {{Cite book |author1=Wolf D. Hartmann |title=Chinas neue Seidenstraße Kooperation statt Isolation - der Rollentausch im Welthandel |author2=Wolfgang Maennig |author3=Run Wang |publisher=Frankfurter Allgemeine Buch |date=2017 |isbn=978-3-9560-1224-2 |page=59}}
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The situation of [[human rights in China]] has attracted significant criticism from foreign governments, foreign press agencies, and non-governmental organizations, alleging widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced confessions, torture, restrictions of fundamental rights, and [[Capital punishment in China|excessive use of the death penalty]].<ref name="freedomhouse" /><ref name="Amnesty-2023">{{Cite web |title=China |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/east-asia/china |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515180810/https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/east-asia/china |archive-date=15 May 2023 |access-date=15 May 2023 |publisher=[[Amnesty International]]}}</ref> Since its inception, [[Freedom House]] has ranked China as "not free" in its ''[[Freedom in the World]]'' survey,<ref name="freedomhouse" /> while [[Amnesty International]] has documented significant human rights abuses.<ref name="Amnesty-2023" /> The Chinese constitution states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens include [[freedom of speech]], [[freedom of the press]], the [[right to a fair trial]], [[freedom of religion]], [[universal suffrage]], and [[property|property rights]]. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state.<ref name="books.google">{{Cite book |last=Sorman |first=Guy |title=Empire of Lies: The Truth About China in the Twenty-First Century |date=2008 |publisher=[[Encounter Books]] |isbn=978-1-5940-3284-4 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aRaLevXMZf4C&pg=PA46 46, 152]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=World Report 2022: China |date=2 December 2021 |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |chapter=China: Events of 2021 |access-date=15 May 2023 |chapter-url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022/country-chapters/china-and-tibet |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517074437/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022/country-chapters/china-and-tibet |archive-date=17 May 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> China has limited protections regarding [[LGBT rights in China|LGBT rights]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 June 2023 |title=For China's LGBTQ community, safe spaces are becoming harder to find |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/china-beijing-lgbt-center-rcna85528 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119214528/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/china-beijing-lgbt-center-rcna85528 |archive-date=19 January 2024 |access-date=8 August 2023 |publisher=NBC News}}</ref>
Although some criticisms of government policies and the ruling CCP are tolerated, censorship of political speech and information are amongst the harshest in the world and routinely used to prevent collective action.<ref>{{Cite journal |
[[File:Xinjiang Internment Map, US-Aus Gov Assessment.jpg|thumb|In [[Xinjiang]], China has been accused of committing genocide against Uyghurs and detaining more than one million [[Uyghurs]] and other ethnic minorities in camps.<ref name="BBC News-2021">{{Cite news |date=8 February 2021 |title=Uighurs: 'Credible case' China carrying out genocide |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55973215 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210208184814/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55973215 |archive-date=8 February 2021 |access-date=8 February 2021 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref>]]
China is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in [[Human rights in Tibet|Tibet]] and Xinjiang,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anna Morcom |date=June 2018 |title=The Political Potency of Tibetan Identity in Pop Music and Dunglen |url=https://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2348&context=himalaya |url-status=live |journal=Himalaya |publisher=[[Royal Holloway, University of London]] |volume=38 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002090307/https://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2348&context=himalaya |archive-date=2 October 2021 |access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=7 November 2011 |title=Dalai Lama hits out over burnings |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-15617026 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191103141911/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-15617026 |archive-date=3 November 2019 |access-date=28 March 2024 |work=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |
[[File:Hong Kong anti-extradition bill protest (48108594957).jpg|thumb|[[2019–20 Hong Kong protests]]]]
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{{For|Economic history of China|Economic history of China before 1912|Economic history of China (1912–1949)|Economic history of China (1949–present)}}
China has the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|second-largest economy]] in terms of [[nominal GDP]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kollewe |first=Justin McCurry Julia |date=14 February 2011 |title=China overtakes Japan as world's second-largest economy |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2011/feb/14/china-second-largest-economy |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719223048/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2011/feb/14/china-second-largest-economy |archive-date=19 July 2019 |access-date=8 July 2019 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> and the world's [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|largest]] in terms of [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018 |title=GDP PPP (World Bank) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.PP.CD?locations=CN-US&start=2000&year_high_desc=true |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190219072932/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.PP.CD?locations=CN-US&start=2000&year_high_desc=true |archive-date=19 February 2019 |access-date=18 February 2019 |publisher=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> {{As of|2022}}, China accounts for around 18% of the [[World economy|global economy]] by nominal GDP.<ref name="IMF-2023">{{Cite web |date=April 2023 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413194731/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April |archive-date=13 April 2023 |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=[[International Monetary Fund]]}}</ref> China is one of the world's [[List of countries by real GDP growth rate|fastest-growing]] major economies,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Overview |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/china/overview |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930014300/https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/china/overview |archive-date=30 September 2020 |access-date=13 September 2020 |publisher=World Bank}}</ref> with its economic growth having been almost consistently above 6 percent since the introduction of [[Chinese economic reform|economic reforms in 1978]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=GDP growth (annual %) – China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?end=2016&locations=CN&start=1961&year_high_desc=true |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531173009/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?end=2016&locations=CN&start=1961&year_high_desc=true |archive-date=31 May 2022 |access-date=25 May 2018 |publisher=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> According to the World Bank, China's GDP grew from $150 billion in 1978 to $17.96 trillion by 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GDP (current US$) – China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=CN |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906052638/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=CN |archive-date=6 September 2019 |access-date=7 July 2023 |publisher=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> It ranks at [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|64th at nominal GDP per capita]], making it an upper-middle income country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018 |title=GDP PPP (World Bank) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.CD?locations=CN-US&start=2000&year_high_desc=true |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902074129/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.CD?locations=CN-US&start=2000&year_high_desc=true |archive-date=2 September 2019 |access-date=18 February 2019 |publisher=World Bank}}</ref> Of the world's [[Fortune Global 500|500 largest companies]], 135 are headquartered in China.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global 500 |url=https://fortune.com/ranking/global500 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116163740/https://fortune.com/ranking/global500 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |access-date=3 August 2023 |website=[[Fortune Global 500]]}}</ref> As of at least 2024, China has the world's second-largest equity markets and futures markets, as well as the third-largest bond market.<ref name=":Curtis&Klaus">{{Cite book |
China [[Economic history of China before 1912|was one of the world's foremost economic powers]] throughout the arc of [[Economy of East Asia#China|East Asian]] and [[Economic history of China before 1912|global history]]. The country [[List of regions by past GDP (PPP)|had one of the largest economies]] in the world for most of the [[Pax Sinica|past two millennia]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Maddison |first=Angus |author-link=Angus Maddison |title=Contours of the World Economy 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History |date=2007 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-1916-4758-1 |page=379}}</ref> during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline.<ref name="Dahlman Aubert 2001"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Angus Maddison. Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run. Development Centre Studies. |url=http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/Maddison98.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/Maddison98.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |access-date=15 September 2017 |page=29}}</ref> Since economic reforms began in 1978, China has developed into a highly diversified economy and one of the most consequential players in international trade. Major sectors of competitive strength include manufacturing, retail, [[Mining industry of China|mining]], [[Steel industry in China|steel]], textiles, automobiles, energy generation, green energy, banking, electronics, telecommunications, real estate, e-commerce, and tourism. China has three out of the ten [[List of major stock exchanges|largest stock exchanges]] in the world<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 February 2019 |title=Top 10 Largest Stock Exchanges in the World By Market Capitalization |url=https://www.valuewalk.com/2019/02/top-10-largest-stock-exchanges/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20190515114023/https://www.valuewalk.com/2019/02/top-10-largest-stock-exchanges/ |archive-date=15 May 2019 |access-date=28 November 2019 |website=ValueWalk}}</ref>—[[Shanghai Stock Exchange|Shanghai]], [[Hong Kong Stock Exchange|Hong Kong]] and [[Shenzhen Stock Exchange|Shenzhen]]—that together have a market capitalization of over $15.9 trillion, {{As of|2020|October|lc=y}}.<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 October 2020 |title=China's Stock Market Tops $10 Trillion First Time Since 2015 |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-10-13/china-s-stock-market-tops-10-trillion-for-first-time-since-2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031042855/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-10-13/china-s-stock-market-tops-10-trillion-for-first-time-since-2015 |archive-date=31 October 2020 |access-date=28 October 2020 |publisher=Bloomberg L.P.}}</ref> China has four ([[Shanghai]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Beijing]], and [[Shenzhen]]) out of the world's top ten most competitive financial centers, which is more than any other country in the 2020 [[Global Financial Centres Index]].<ref name="GFCI2">{{Cite web |date=September 2020 |title=The Global Financial Centres Index 28 |url=https://www.longfinance.net/media/documents/GFCI_28_Full_Report_2020.09.25_v1.1.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.longfinance.net/media/documents/GFCI_28_Full_Report_2020.09.25_v1.1.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |access-date=26 September 2020 |publisher=Long Finance}}</ref>
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[[File:Graph of Major Developing Economies by Real GDP per capita at PPP 1990-2013.png|thumb|China and other major developing economies by [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita at purchasing-power parity]], 1990–2013. The rapid economic growth of China (blue) is readily apparent.<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank World Development Indicators |url=http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220032256/http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators |archive-date=20 December 2014 |access-date=8 December 2014 |publisher=World Bank}}</ref>]]
Modern-day China is often described as an example of [[state capitalism]] or [[party-state capitalism]].<ref name="Pearson-2021">{{Cite journal |
China has been the world's [[Manufacturing#List of countries by manufacturing output|largest manufacturing nation]] since 2010, after overtaking the U.S., which had been the largest for the previous hundred years.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Marsh |first=Peter |date=13 March 2011 |title=China noses ahead as top goods producer |url=https://www.ft.com/content/002fd8f0-4d96-11e0-85e4-00144feab49a |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/002fd8f0-4d96-11e0-85e4-00144feab49a |archive-date=10 December 2022 |access-date=18 January 2020 |work=[[Financial Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Levinson |first=Marc |date=21 February 2018 |title=U.S. Manufacturing in International Perspective |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42135.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42135.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |website=Federation of American Scientists}}</ref> China has also been the second-largest in [[high-tech]] manufacturing country since 2012, according to US [[National Science Foundation]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Report – S&E Indicators 2018 |url=https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2018/nsb20181/report/sections/industry-technology-and-the-global-marketplace/patterns-and-trends-of-knowledge--and-technology-intensive-industries#medium-high-technology-industries-in-china |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923083925/https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2018/nsb20181/report/sections/industry-technology-and-the-global-marketplace/patterns-and-trends-of-knowledge--and-technology-intensive-industries#medium-high-technology-industries-in-china |archive-date=23 September 2023 |access-date=8 July 2019 |website=nsf.gov}}</ref> China is the second-largest retail market after the United States.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Shane |first=Daniel |date=23 January 2019 |title=China will overtake the US as the world's biggest retail market this year |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/01/23/business/china-retail-sales-us/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240425193226/https://www.cnn.com/2019/01/23/business/china-retail-sales-us/index.html |archive-date=25 April 2024 |access-date=18 February 2019 |work=[[CNN]]}}</ref> China leads the world in e-commerce, accounting for over 37% of the global market share in 2021.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cameron |first=Isabel |date=9 August 2022 |title=China continues to lead global ecommerce market with over $2 trillion sales in 2022 |url=https://www.chargedretail.co.uk/2022/08/09/china-continues-to-lead-global-ecommerce-market-with-over-2-trillion-sales-in-2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202091337/https://www.chargedretail.co.uk/2022/08/09/china-continues-to-lead-global-ecommerce-market-with-over-2-trillion-sales-in-2022 |archive-date=2 December 2023 |access-date=19 May 2023 |work=Charged}}</ref> China is the world's leader in electric vehicle consumption and production, manufacturing and buying half of all the plug-in electric cars (BEV and PHEV) in the world {{As of|2022|lc=y}}.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Baraniuk |first=Chris |date=11 October 2022 |title=China's electric car market is booming but can it last? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-62825830 |access-date=13 April 2023 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> China is also the leading producer of batteries for electric vehicles as well as several key raw materials for batteries.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 September 2020 |title=China Dominates the Global Lithium Battery Market |url=https://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/renewable/china-dominates-the-global-lithium-battery-market/ |access-date=28 March 2021 |website=Institute for Energy Research}}</ref>
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[[File:20045-Shanghai-Pano (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Skyline of [[Lujiazui]] in Shanghai]]
China [[List of countries by total wealth|accounted for 17.9%]] of the world's total wealth in 2021, second highest in the world after the U.S.<ref name="databook20222">{{Cite book |
From 1978 to 2018, the average standard of living multiplied by a factor of twenty-six.<ref name="Bergsten 2022">{{Cite book |last=Bergsten |first=C. Fred |title=The United States vs. China: The Quest for Global Economic Leadership |date=2022 |publisher=Polity Press |isbn=978-1-5095-4735-7}}</ref> Wages in China have grown significantly in the last 40 years—real (inflation-adjusted) wages grew seven-fold from 1978 to 2007.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rising Wages: Has China Lost Its Global Labor Advantage? |url=https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/5008/rising-wages-has-china-lost-its-global-labor-advantage |access-date=21 February 2019 |website=iza.org}}</ref> Per capita incomes have also risen significantly – when the PRC was founded in 1949, per capita income in China was one-fifth of the world average; per capita incomes now equal the world average itself.<ref name="Bergsten 2022" /> China's development is highly uneven. Its major cities and coastal areas are far more prosperous compared to rural and interior regions.<ref>{{Cite news |last=King |first=Stephen |date=2 February 2016 |title=China's path to tackling regional inequality |url=https://www.ft.com/content/9c6203d8-e1d9-3ca3-818a-e55b409ece94 |work=Financial Times}}</ref> It has a high level of economic inequality,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Duggan |first=Jennifer |date=12 January 2013 |title=Income inequality on the rise in China |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/12/2012122311167503363.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722192442/http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/12/2012122311167503363.html |archive-date=22 July 2013 |access-date=14 January 2020 |publisher=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]]}}</ref> which has increased quickly after the economic reforms,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tobin |first=Damian |date=29 June 2011 |title=Inequality in China: Rural poverty persists as urban wealth balloons |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-13945072 |access-date=14 January 2020 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> though has decreased significantly in the 2010s.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 October 2021 |title=Just how Dickensian is China? |url=https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2021/10/02/just-how-dickensian-is-china |access-date=15 May 2023 |
{{As of|2024|March}}, China was second in the world, after the U.S., in [[List of countries by number of billionaires|total number of billionaires]] and [[List of countries by number of millionaires|total number of millionaires]], with 473 Chinese billionaires<ref>{{Cite web |title=Forbes World's Billionaires List: The Richest People in the World 2023 |url=https://www.forbes.com/billionaires |access-date=15 May 2023 |website=[[Forbes]]}}</ref> and 6.2 million millionaires.<ref name="databook20222" /> In 2019, China overtook the U.S. as the home to the highest number of people who have a net personal wealth of at least $110,000, according to the global wealth report by [[Credit Suisse]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Khan |first=Yusuf |date=22 October 2019 |title=China has overtaken the US to have the most wealthy people in the world {{!}} Markets Insider |url=http://markets.businessinsider.com/news/stocks/china-has-overtaken-the-us-to-have-the-most-wealthy-people-in-the-world-1028618107 |access-date=12 November 2019 |work=[[Business Insider]]}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Dawkins |first=David |date=21 October 2019 |title=China Overtakes U.S. In Global Household Wealth Rankings 'Despite' Trade Tensions – Report |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/daviddawkins/2019/10/21/china-overtakes-us-in-global-household-wealth-rankings-despite-trade-tensionsreport/ |access-date=12 November 2019 |work=Forbes}}</ref> China had 85 female billionaires {{As of|2021|January|lc=y}}, two-thirds of the global total.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Chen |first=Qin |date=27 March 2021 |title=China is now home to two-thirds of the world's top women billionaires, four times more than the US, Hurun research institute reveals |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/people-culture/article/3127254/china-now-home-two-thirds-worlds-top-women-billionaires-four |access-date=28 March 2021 |work=South China Morning Post}}</ref> China has had the world's largest middle-class population since 2015;<ref>{{Cite news |last=Zheping |first=Huang |date=14 October 2015 |title=China's middle class has overtaken the US's to become the world's largest |url=https://qz.com/523626/chinas-middle-class-has-overtaken-the-uss-to-become-the-worlds-largest |access-date=22 June 2019 |work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]]}}</ref> the middle-class grew to 500 million by 2024.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Zuo |first=Mandy |date=3 March 2024 |title=China's middle-income population passes 500 million mark, state-owned newspaper says |url=https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3253995/chinas-middle-income-population-passes-500-million-mark-says-state-owned-newspaper |access-date=21 May 2024 |work=[[South China Morning Post]]}}</ref>
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China has been a member of the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] since 2001 and is the world's largest trading power.<ref>{{Cite news |last=He |first=Laura |date=13 January 2023 |title=China's exports plunge as global demand weakens, but trade with Russia hits record high |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2023/01/13/economy/china-exports-struggle-reopening-2022-intl-hnk/index.html |access-date=19 May 2023 |work=[[CNN]]}}</ref> By 2016, China was the largest trading partner of 124 countries.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Desjardins |first=Jeff |date=27 April 2016 |title=Four Maps Showing China's Rising Dominance in Trade |url=https://www.visualcapitalist.com/four-maps-showing-chinas-rising-dominance-trade |access-date=4 December 2019 |website=Visual Capitalist}}</ref> China became the world's largest trading nation in 2013 by the sum of imports and exports, as well as the world's largest commodity importer, accounting for roughly 45% of maritime's [[Shipping markets|dry-bulk market]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Monaghan |first=Angela |date=10 January 2014 |title=China surpasses US as world's largest trading nation |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2014/jan/10/china-surpasses-us-world-largest-trading-nation |access-date=4 December 2019 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Paris |first=Costas |date=27 April 2021 |title=China's Imports of Commodities Drive a Boom in Dry-Bulk Shipping |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-imports-of-commodities-drive-a-boom-in-dry-bulk-shipping-11619541574 |access-date=29 April 2021 |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]}}</ref>
[[Foreign-exchange reserves of China|China's foreign exchange reserves]] reached US$3.246 trillion {{As of|2024|March|lc=y}}, making its reserves by far the world's largest.<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 April 2024 |title=China forex reserves rise to $3.246 trln in March |url=https://www.reuters.com/markets/currencies/china-forex-reserves-rise-3246-trln-march-2024-04-07 |access-date=21 May 2024 |work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> In 2022, China was amongst the world's largest recipient of inward [[foreign direct investment]] (FDI), attracting $180 billion, though most of these were speculated to be from Hong Kong.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 January 2023 |title=China Foreign Investment Posts Record Slump as Covid Zero Ended |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-01-19/china-foreign-investment-posts-record-slump-as-covid-zero-ended |access-date=15 May 2023 |work=[[Bloomberg News]]}}</ref> In 2021, China's foreign exchange remittances were $US53 billion making it the second-largest recipient of remittances in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |date=21 July 2022 |title=With $87 billion, India beats China as top remittance recipient in 2021 |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/business/story/india-china-top-remittance-recipient-2021-un-report-1978008-2022-07-20 |access-date=15 May 2023 |work=[[India Today]]}}</ref> China also invests abroad, with a total outward FDI of $147.9 billion in 2023,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chow |first=Loletta |date=5 February 2024 |title=Overview of China outbound investment of 2023 |url=https://www.ey.com/en_cn/china-overseas-investment-network/overview-of-china-outbound-investment-of-2023 |access-date=21 May 2024 |website=[[Ernst & Young]] |language=en-CN}}</ref> and a number of major takeovers of foreign firms by Chinese companies.<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 November 2010 |title=Being eaten by the dragon |url=http://www.economist.com/node/17460954 |
Economists have argued that the [[renminbi]] is undervalued, due to [[currency intervention]] from the Chinese government, giving China an unfair trade advantage.<ref>{{Cite web |last=He |first=Laura |date=4 June 2021 |title=China's stronger currency means difficult choices for Beijing |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2021/06/04/investing/china-yuan-financial-risks-intl-hnk/index.html |access-date=27 July 2022 |website=[[CNN Business]] |publisher=CNN}}</ref> China has also been widely criticized for manufacturing large quantities of [[counterfeit]] goods.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 2005 |title=Intellectual Property Rights |url=http://www.asiabusinesscouncil.org/docs/IntellectualPropertyRights.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326093314/http://www.asiabusinesscouncil.org/docs/IntellectualPropertyRights.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2010 |access-date=13 January 2012 |website=Asia Business Council |publisher=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=MIT CIS: Publications: Foreign Policy Index |url=http://web.mit.edu/cis/fpi_china.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070214212158/http://web.mit.edu/CIS/fpi_china.html |archive-date=14 February 2007 |access-date=15 May 2010 |website=[[MIT Center for International Studies]]}}</ref> The U.S. government has also alleged that China does not respect [[Intellectual property in China|intellectual property]] (IP) rights and [[Allegations of intellectual property theft by China|steals IP through espionage operations]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 February 2020 |title=China theft of technology is biggest law enforcement threat to US, FBI says |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/06/china-technology-theft-fbi-biggest-threat |access-date=19 December 2022 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> In 2020, [[Harvard University]]'s [[Economic Complexity Index]] ranked complexity of China's exports 17th in the world, up from 24th in 2010.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hancock |first=Tom |date=26 January 2023 |title=The US Hasn't Noticed That China-Made Cars Are Taking Over the World |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-01-26/how-china-is-quietly-dominating-the-global-car-market |access-date=16 May 2023 |work=[[Bloomberg News]]}}</ref>
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==== Modern era ====
Since the end of the [[Cultural Revolution]], China has made significant investments in scientific research<ref name="CWRD">{{Cite web |last=Jia |first=Hepeng |date=9 September 2014 |title=R&D share for basic research in China dwindles |url=http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/2014/09/research-development-rd-share-basic-research-china-dwindles |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219044130/http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/2014/09/research-development-rd-share-basic-research-china-dwindles |archive-date=19 February 2015 |access-date=21 January 2020 |website=[[Chemistry World]]}}</ref> and is quickly catching up with the U.S. [[List of sovereign states by research and development spending|in R&D spending]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Normile |first=Dennis |date=10 October 2018 |title=Surging R&D spending in China narrows gap with United States |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/surging-rd-spending-china-narrows-gap-united-states |access-date=20 February 2019 |work=[[Science (journal)|Science]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=China Has Surpassed the U.S. in R&D Spending, According to New National Academy of Arts and Sciences Report – ASME |url=https://www.asme.org/government-relations/capitol-update/china-has-surpassed-the-u-s-in-r-d-spending,-according-to-new-national-academy-of-arts-and-sciences-report |access-date=26 October 2020 |website=asme.org}}</ref> China officially spent around 2.6% of its GDP on R&D in 2023, totaling to around $458.5 billion.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 March 2024 |title=China's R&D expenditure exceeds 3.3 trln yuan in 2023: minister |url=https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202403/05/content_WS65e6ff4dc6d0868f4e8e4b66.html |access-date=21 May 2024 |website=[[State Council of the People's Republic of China]]}}</ref> According to the [[World Intellectual Property Indicators]], China received more applications than the U.S. did in 2018 and 2019 and ranked first globally in patents, utility models, trademarks, industrial designs, and creative goods exports in 2021.<ref name="Dutta-2021">{{Cite book |
China is developing [[Education in China|its education system]] with an emphasis on [[science, technology, engineering, and mathematics]] (STEM).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Colvin |first=Geoff |date=29 July 2010 |title=Desperately seeking math and science majors |url=https://money.cnn.com/2010/07/29/news/international/china_engineering_grads.fortune/index.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101017232727/https://money.cnn.com/2010/07/29/news/international/china_engineering_grads.fortune/index.htm |archive-date=17 October 2010 |access-date=9 April 2012 |work=[[CNN Business]]}}</ref> [[Academic publishing in China|Its academic publication apparatus]] became the world's [[List of countries by number of scientific and technical journal articles|largest publisher of scientific papers]] in 2016.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Orszag |first=Peter R. |date=12 September 2018 |title=China is Overtaking the U.S. in Scientific Research |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/amp/opinion/articles/2018-09-12/chinese-researchers-are-outperforming-americans-in-science |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190220183147/https://www.bloomberg.com/amp/opinion/articles/2018-09-12/chinese-researchers-are-outperforming-americans-in-science |archive-date=20 February 2019 |access-date=19 February 2019 |work=[[Bloomberg News]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tollefson |first=Jeff |date=18 January 2018 |title=China declared world's largest producer of scientific articles |journal=Nature |volume=553 |issue=7689 |page=390 |bibcode=2018Natur.553..390T |doi=10.1038/d41586-018-00927-4 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Koshikawa |first=Noriaki |date=8 August 2020 |title=China passes US as world's top researcher, showing its R&D might |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Science/China-passes-US-as-world-s-top-researcher-showing-its-R-D-might |access-date=8 June 2022 |work=[[Nikkei Asia]]}}</ref> In 2022, China overtook the US in the [[Nature Index]], which measures the share of published articles in leading scientific journals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baker |first=Simon |date=19 May 2023 |title=China overtakes United States on contribution to research in Nature Index |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-01705-7 |journal=Nature |language=en |doi=10.1038/d41586-023-01705-7 |pmid=37208516}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Hawkins |first=Amy |date=24 May 2023 |title=China overtakes US in contributions to nature and science journals |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/may/24/china-overtakes-us-in-contributions-to-nature-and-science-journals |access-date=23 September 2024 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
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In 2003, China became the third country in the world to independently send humans into space with [[Yang Liwei]]'s spaceflight aboard [[Shenzhou 5]]. As of 2023, [[List of Chinese astronauts|eighteen Chinese nationals]] have journeyed into space, including two women. In 2011, China launched its first space station testbed, [[Tiangong-1]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Amos |first=Jonathan |date=29 September 2011 |title=Rocket launches Chinese space lab |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15112760 |access-date=20 May 2012 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> In 2013, a Chinese robotic rover ''[[Yutu (rover)|Yutu]]'' successfully touched down on the lunar surface as part of the [[Chang'e 3]] mission.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rincon |first=Paul |date=14 December 2013 |title=China lands Jade Rabbit robot rover on Moon |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-25356603 |access-date=26 July 2014 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref>
In 2019, China became the first country to land a probe—[[Chang'e 4]]—on the [[far side of the Moon]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lyons |first=Kate |title=Chang'e 4 landing: China probe makes historic touchdown on far side of the moon |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/jan/03/china-probe-change-4-land-far-side-moon-basin-crater |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103043232/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/jan/03/china-probe-change-4-land-far-side-moon-basin-crater |archive-date=3 January 2019 |access-date=3 January 2019 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> In 2020, [[Chang'e 5]] successfully returned Moon samples to the Earth, making China the third country to do so independently.<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 December 2020 |title=Moon rock samples brought to Earth for first time in 44 years |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Science/Spacebound/2020/1217/Moon-rock-samples-brought-to-Earth-for-first-time-in-44-years |access-date=23 February 2021 |work=The Christian Science Monitor}}</ref> In 2021, China became the third country to land a spacecraft on Mars and the second one to deploy a [[Zhurong (rover)|rover (''Zhurong'')]] on Mars.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 May 2021 |title=China succeeds on country's first Mars landing attempt with Tianwen-1 |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/05/china-first-mars-landing-attempt-tianwen-1 |access-date=15 May 2021 |website=NASASpaceFlight.com}}</ref> China completed its own modular [[space station]], the [[Tiangong space station|Tiangong]], in [[low Earth orbit]] on 3 November 2022.<ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1587984835808665600 |user=CNSpaceflight |title=Official completion time of #Mengtian relocation is 01:32UTC |author=China 'N Asia Spaceflight |date=3 November 2022 |access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Skibba |first=Ramin |title=China Is Now a Major Space Power |url=https://www.wired.com/story/china-is-now-a-major-space-power-tiangong-space-station/ |access-date=4 November 2022 |magazine=Wired}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Celestial second fiddle no more, China completes its space station |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/11/05/china-space-station-tiangong/ |access-date=24 November 2022 |
In May 2023, China announced a plan to [[Moon landing|land humans on the Moon]] by 2030.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wang |first=Vivian |date=29 May 2023 |title=China Announces Plan to Land Astronauts on Moon by 2030 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/29/world/asia/china-space-moon-2030.html |work=The New York Times}}</ref> To that end, China currently is developing a lunar-capable super-heavy launcher, the [[Long March 10]], a new [[next-generation crewed spacecraft|crewed spacecraft]], and a [[Chinese crewed lunar lander|crewed lunar lander]].<ref name="AJ-06Mar2022">{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |date=6 March 2022 |title=China wants its new rocket for astronaut launches to be reusable |url=https://www.space.com/china-reusable-rockets-for-astronaut-launches |access-date=5 October 2023 |website=[[Space.com]]}}</ref><ref name="AJ17072023">{{Cite news |last=Jones |first=Andrew |date=17 July 2023 |title=China sets out preliminary crewed lunar landing plan |url=https://spacenews.com/china-sets-out-preliminary-crewed-lunar-landing-plan |access-date=24 July 2023 |work=spacenews.com}}</ref>
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== Infrastructure ==
After a decades-long infrastructural boom,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Qu |first=Hongbin |title=China's infrastructure builds foundation for growth |url=https://www.gbm.hsbc.com/insights/global-research/china-infrastructure-builds-foundation-for-growth |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528202857/https://www.gbm.hsbc.com/insights/global-research/china-infrastructure-builds-foundation-for-growth |archive-date=28 May 2022 |access-date=1 December 2020 |website=HSBC}}</ref> China has produced numerous world-leading infrastructural projects: it has the [[List of high-speed railway lines in China|largest high-speed rail network]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 January 2017 |title=China has built the world's largest bullet-train network |url=https://www.economist.com/china/2017/01/13/china-has-built-the-worlds-largest-bullet-train-network |access-date=13 September 2020 |
=== Telecommunications ===
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Given concerns about population growth, China implemented a two-child limit during the 1970s, and, in 1979, began to advocate for an even stricter limit of one child per family. Beginning in the mid-1980s, however, given the unpopularity of the strict limits, China began to allow some major exemptions, particularly in rural areas, resulting in what was actually a "1.5"-child policy from the mid-1980s to 2015; ethnic minorities were also exempt from one-child limits.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |last=Kızlak |first=Kamuran |date=21 June 2021 |title=Çin'de üç çocuk: Siz yapın, biz bakalım |trans-title=Three children in China: You do it, we'll see |url=https://www.birgun.net/haber/cin-de-uc-cocuk-siz-yapin-biz-bakalim-349097 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816120012/https://www.birgun.net/haber/cin-de-uc-cocuk-siz-yapin-biz-bakalim-349097 |archive-date=16 August 2022 |website=[[BirGün]] |language=Turkish}}</ref> The next major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing families to have two children if one parent is an only child.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 December 2013 |title=China formalizes easing of one-child policy |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/12/28/china-one-child-policy/4230785 |access-date=16 May 2023 |work=[[USA Today]]}}</ref> In 2016, the one-child policy was replaced in favor of a [[two-child policy]].<ref name="Birtles-2021">{{Cite news |last=Birtles |first=Bill |author-link=Bill Birtles |date=31 May 2021 |title=China introduces three-child policy to alleviate problem of ageing population |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-05-31/china-introduces-three-child-policy/100179832 |access-date=31 May 2021 |work=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]]}}</ref> A [[three-child policy]] was announced on 31 May 2021, due to [[Aging of China|population aging]],<ref name="Birtles-2021" /> and in July 2021, all family size limits as well as penalties for exceeding them were removed.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cheng |first=Evelyn |date=21 July 2021 |title=China scraps fines, will let families have as many children as they'd like |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/07/21/china-scraps-fines-for-families-violating-childbirth-limits.html |access-date=29 April 2022 |work=[[CNBC]]}}</ref> In 2023, the [[total fertility rate]] was reported to be 1.09, ranking [[List of countries by total fertility rate|among the lowest in the world]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Qi |first=Liyan |date=19 August 2023 |title=China's Fertility Rate Dropped Sharply, Study Shows |url=https://www.wsj.com/world/china/chinas-fertility-rate-dropped-sharply-study-shows-e97e647f |url-access=subscription |access-date=12 December 2023 |website=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2023, [[National Bureau of Statistics of China|National Bureau of Statistics]] estimated that the population fell 850,000 from 2021 to 2022, the first decline since 1961.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ng |first=Kelly |date=17 January 2023 |title=China's population falls for first time since 1961 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-64300190 |access-date=17 January 2023 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref>
According to one group of scholars, one-child limits had little effect on population growth<ref name="Wang Judge">{{Cite journal |
The cultural preference for male children, combined with the one-child policy, led to an excess of female child orphans in China, and in the 1990s through around 2007, there was an active stream of adoptions of (mainly female) babies by American and other foreign parents.<ref name="GirlBabyAdoptions">[https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2008/08/adoption200808 The Chinese Adoption Effect] by Diane Clehane, ''Vanity Fair'', August 2008 Issue. Last access 31 August 2024.</ref> However, increased restrictions by the Chinese Government slowed foreign adoptions significantly in 2007 and again in 2015.<ref name="AdoptionRestrictions">[https://digitalcommons.law.uga.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2374&context=gjicl Adoption in China: Past, Present and Yet to Come] by Margaret Gyznar, Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, 17 May 2017. See pages 40-42. Last access 31 August 2024.</ref>
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{{See also|List of cities in China|List of cities in China by population|Megalopolises in China}}
[[File:China Top 10 Biggest Cities.png|thumb|Map of the ten [[List of cities in China by population|largest cities]] in China (2010)]]
China [[Urbanization in China|has urbanized]] significantly in recent decades. The percent of the country's population living in urban areas increased from 20% in 1980 to over 66% in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urban population (% of total) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=CN |access-date=28 May 2018 |website=[[World Bank]]}}</ref><ref name="Economist-2014">{{Cite news |date=16 April 2014 |title=Where China's future will happen |url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2014/04/16/where-chinas-future-will-happen |access-date=18 February 2023 |
{{Most populous cities in the People's Republic of China|class=info}}
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[[File:China ethnolinguistic 1967.jpg|thumb|Ethnolinguistic map of China in 1967]]
China legally recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, who comprise the ''[[Zhonghua minzu]]''. The largest of these nationalities are the [[Han Chinese]], who constitute more than 91% of the total population.<ref name="2020_census2" /> The Han Chinese – the world's largest single ethnic group<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lilly |first=Amanda |date=7 July 2009 |title=A Guide to China's Ethnic Groups |url=https://articles.washingtonpost.com/2009-07-07/world/36836997_1_muslim-uighurs-chinese-government-xinjiang-province |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209112957/http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2009-07-07/world/36836997_1_muslim-uighurs-chinese-government-xinjiang-province |archive-date=9 December 2013 |access-date=19 May 2023 |
=== Languages ===
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[[File:Lihaozhai High School - P1360829.JPG|thumb|left|Lihaozhai High School in [[Jianshui]], [[Yunnan]]. The sign is in [[Hani language|Hani]] (Latin alphabet), [[Nisu language|Nisu]] ([[Yi script]]), and Chinese.]]
There are as many as 292 [[living language]]s in China.<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=CN Languages of China] – from Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International.</ref> The languages most commonly spoken belong to the [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic branch]] of the [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan language]] family, which contains [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] (spoken by 80% of the population),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Over 80 percent of Chinese population speak Mandarin |url=http://en.people.cn/n3/2020/1016/c90000-9769716.html |access-date=15 September 2023 |website=People's Daily Online}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |
[[Standard Chinese|Standard Mandarin]], a variety of Mandarin based on the [[Beijing dialect]], is the national language and ''de facto'' official language of China.<ref name="Adamson & Feng"/> It is used as a [[lingua franca]] between people of different linguistic backgrounds.<ref name="langlaw">{{Cite web |date=31 October 2000 |title=Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37) |url=http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724204951/http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm |archive-date=24 July 2013 |access-date=21 June 2013 |publisher=Chinese Government |quote=For purposes of this Law, the standard spoken and written Chinese language means Putonghua (a common speech with pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect) and the standardized Chinese characters.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Rough Guide Phrasebook: Mandarin Chinese |date=2011 |publisher=Rough Guides |isbn=978-1-4053-8884-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jlM3TMYg8HQC&pg=PA19 19]}}</ref> In the [[autonomous regions of China]], other languages may also serve as a lingua franca, such as Uyghur in Xinjiang, where governmental services in Uyghur are constitutionally guaranteed.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last=[[:nl:Lode Vanoost]] |date=10 March 2024 |title=Op bezoek bij de Oeigoeren in Xinjiang |trans-title=Visiting the Uyghurs in Xinjiang |url=https://www.dewereldmorgen.be/artikel/2024/03/10/op-bezoek-bij-de-oeigoeren-in-xinjiang |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240404054333/https://www.dewereldmorgen.be/artikel/2024/03/10/op-bezoek-bij-de-oeigoeren-in-xinjiang |archive-date=4 April 2024 |work=[[DeWereldMorgen]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dwyer |first=Arienne M. |title=The Xinjiang Conflict: Uyghur Identity, Language Policy, and Political Discourse |date=2005 |publisher=East-West Center Washington |isbn=978-1-9327-2828-6 |pages=43–44 |language=en}}</ref>
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[[Freedom of religion]] is guaranteed by China's constitution (Chapter 2, Article 36), although religious organizations that lack official approval can be subject to state persecution.<ref name="Constitution"/> The government of the country is officially [[atheist]]. Religious affairs and issues in the country are overseen by the National Religious Affairs Administration, under the [[United Front Work Department]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=国家宗教事务局 |trans-title=National Religious Affairs Administration |url=https://www.sara.gov.cn/ |publisher=Chinese Government |language=zh}}</ref>
Over the millennia, the Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements. The "[[three teachings|three doctrines]]", including [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], and [[Buddhism]] ([[Chinese Buddhism]]), historically have a significant role in shaping Chinese culture,<ref name="Yao2011">{{Cite book |last=Yao |first=Xinzhong |title=Chinese Religion: A Contextual Approach |date=2010 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-8470-6475-2 |location=London |authorlink1=Yao Xinzhong}} pp. 9–11.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=James |title=Chinese Religions in Contemporary Societies |date=2006 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-8510-9626-8}} p. 57.</ref> enriching a [[Chinese theology|theological and spiritual framework]] of traditional religion which harks back to the early [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] and [[Zhou dynasty]]. [[Chinese folk religion]], which is framed by the three doctrines and by other traditions,<ref>Tam Wai Lun, "Local Religion in Contemporary China", in {{Cite book |last=Xie |first=Zhibin |title=Religious Diversity and Public Religion in China |date=2006 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=978-0-7546-5648-7}} p. 73.</ref> consists in allegiance to the ''[[shen (Chinese religion)|shen]]'' (神), a character that signifies the "[[Chinese gods and immortals|energies of generation]]", who can be [[deity|deities]] of the surrounding nature or [[progenitor|ancestral principles]] of human groups, concepts of civility, [[culture hero]]es, many of whom feature in [[Chinese mythology]] and history.<ref>{{Citation |last=Teiser |first=Stephen F. |title=Religions of China in Practice |date=1996 |editor-last=Donald S. Lopez Jr. |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/main/spirits_of_chinese_religion.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |chapter=The Spirits of Chinese Religion |chapter-url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/main/spirits_of_chinese_religion.pdf |place=Princeton, NJ |publisher=Princeton University Press}}. Extracts in ''[http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/bgov/cosmos.htm The Chinese Cosmos: Basic Concepts]''.</ref> Amongst the most popular [[cult (religious practice)|cults]] of folk religion are those of [[Yellow Emperor|Huangdi]], embodiment of the God of Heaven and one of the two [[Yan Huang Zisun|divine patriarchs]] of the Chinese people,<ref name="Laliberte2011">{{Cite journal |last=Laliberté |first=André |date=2011 |title=Religion and the State in China: The Limits of Institutionalization |url=http://journals.sub.uni-hamburg.de/giga/jcca/article/view/415/413 |journal=Journal of Current Chinese Affairs |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=3–15 |doi=10.1177/186810261104000201 |s2cid=30608910 |doi-access=free}} p. 7.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sautman |first=Barry |author-link=Barry Sautman |title=The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives |date=1997 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-9-6220-9443-7 |editor-last=Dikötter |editor-first=Frank |chapter=Myths of Descent, Racial Nationalism and Ethnic Minorities in the People's Republic of China}} pp. 80–81.</ref> of [[Mazu (goddess)|Mazu]] (goddess of the seas),<ref name="Laliberte2011" /> [[Guan Yu|Guandi]] (god of war and business), [[Caishen]] (god of prosperity and richness), [[Pangu]] and many others. In the early decades of the 21st century, the Chinese government has been engaged in a rehabilitation of folk cults — formally recognizing them as "folk beliefs" (a category different from that of doctrinal religions),<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=The Secular in South, East, and Southeast Asia. Global Diversities |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan Cham |last=Wang |first=Xiaoxuan |date=2019 |editor-last=Dean |editor-first=Kenneth |pages=137–164 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-89369-3_7 |isbn=978-3-0300-7751-8 |contribution='Folk Belief', Cultural Turn of Secular Governance and Shifting Religious Landscape in Contemporary China |editor-last2=Van der Veer |editor-first2=Peter |s2cid=158975292 |contribution-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325765161}}</ref> and often reconstructing them into forms of "highly curated" [[civil religion]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Johnson |first=Ian |date=21 December 2019 |title=China's New Civil Religion |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/21/opinion/sunday/chinas-religion-xi.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200419190905/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/21/opinion/sunday/chinas-religion-xi.html |archive-date=19 April 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |authorlink=Ian Johnson (writer)}}</ref> — as well as in a national and international promotion of Buddhism.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/berkley-center/201111TheChineseStatesGlobalPromotionOfBuddhism.pdf |title=The Chinese State's Global Promotion of Buddhism |
[[File:中国道教 拜章昇疏 01.jpg|thumb|Taoism has been nominated as a state religion a number of times throughout China's history.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Daoism – World Religions |url=https://fscj.pressbooks.pub/worldreligions/chapter/daoism/ |journal=[[Florida State College at Jacksonville]]}}</ref>]]
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Compulsory education in China comprises [[primary school|primary]] and [[middle school|junior secondary school]], which together last for nine years from the age of 6 and 15.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 July 2009 |title=Compulsory Education Law of the People's Republic of China |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/documents/laws_policies/201506/t20150626_191391.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319045258/https://en.moe.gov.cn/documents/laws_policies/201506/t20150626_191391.html |archive-date=19 March 2022 |access-date=3 November 2021 |website=[[Ministry of Education (China)|Ministry of Education]]}}</ref> The [[Gaokao]], China's national university entrance exam, is a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions. Vocational education is available to students at the secondary and [[tertiary education|tertiary]] level.<ref name="Ministry of Edu China-2022">{{Cite web |date=3 April 2023 |title=Statistical report on China's educational achievements in 2022 |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/documents/reports/202304/t20230403_1054100.html |access-date=17 December 2023 |website=[[Ministry of Education (China)|Ministry of Education]]}}</ref> More than 10 million Chinese students graduated from vocational colleges every year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 March 2021 |title=Zheng Yali: vocational education entering a new development stage |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/features/2021TwoSessions/Voices/VocationalEducation/202103/t20210323_522096.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128011150/http://en.moe.gov.cn/features/2021TwoSessions/Voices/VocationalEducation/202103/t20210323_522096.html |archive-date=28 January 2023 |access-date=3 November 2021 |website=[[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China]]}}</ref> In 2023, about 91.8 percent of students continued their education at a three-year senior secondary school, while 60.2 percent of secondary school graduates were enrolled in higher education.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 March 2024 |title=MOE press conference presents China's educational achievements in 2023 |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/news/press_releases/202403/t20240311_1119782.html |access-date=23 March 2024 |website=Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China}}</ref>
China has the largest education system in the world,<ref name="UNICEF-2021">{{Cite web |date=August 2021 |title=China Case Study: Situation Analysis of the Effect of and Response to COVID-19 in Asia |url=https://www.unicef.org/eap/media/9321/file/Sit%20An%20-%20China%20Case%20Study.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.unicef.org/eap/media/9321/file/Sit%20An%20-%20China%20Case%20Study.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |access-date=3 November 2021 |website=UNICEF |page=21}}</ref> with about 291 million students and 18.92 million full-time teachers in over 498,300 schools in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 March 2024 |title=MOE press conference presents China's educational achievements in 2023 |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/news/press_releases/202403/t20240311_1119782.html |access-date=23 March 2024 |website=Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China}}</ref> Annual education investment went from less than US$50 billion in 2003 to more than US$817 billion in 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |date=16 January 2013 |title=In Education, China Takes the Lead |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2013/01/16/business/In-Education-China-Takes-the-Lead.html |access-date=17 June 2023 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=7 May 2021 |title=MOE releases 2020 Statistical Bulletin on Educational Spending |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/news/press_releases/202105/t20210512_531041.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321225632/http://en.moe.gov.cn/news/press_releases/202105/t20210512_531041.html |archive-date=21 March 2023 |access-date=3 November 2021 |website=[[Ministry of Education (China)|Ministry of Education]]}}</ref> However, there remains an inequality in education spending. In 2010, the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totalled ¥20,023, while in [[Guizhou]], one of the [[List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP per capita|poorest provinces]], only totalled ¥3,204.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Roberts |first=Dexter |date=4 April 2013 |title=Chinese Education: The Truth Behind the Boasts |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-04-04/chinese-education-the-truth-behind-the-boasts |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130406202405/http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-04-04/chinese-education-the-truth-behind-the-boasts |archive-date=6 April 2013 |access-date=17 June 2023 |work=[[Bloomberg News]]}}</ref> China's literacy rate has grown dramatically, from only 20% in 1949 and 65.5% in 1979,<ref>{{Cite book |
{{As of|2023}}, China has over 3,074 universities, with over 47.6 million students enrolled in mainland China, giving China the largest higher education system in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 March 2024 |title=MOE press conference presents China's educational achievements in 2023 |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/news/press_releases/202403/t20240311_1119782.html |access-date=23 March 2024 |website=Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Zou |first=Shuo |date=3 December 2020 |title=China's higher education system is world's largest, officials say |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202012/03/WS5fc86ab2a31024ad0ba9999e.html |access-date=3 November 2021 |work=[[China Daily]]}}</ref> {{As of|2023}}, China had the world's highest [[Rankings of universities in China|number of top universities]].<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=15 August 2023 |title=ShanghaiRanking's Academic Ranking of World Universities 2023 Press Release |url=http://www.shanghairanking.com/news/arwu/2023 |access-date=26 December 2023 |website=ShanghaiRanking}}</ref><ref name=":112">{{Cite web |date=25 October 2022 |title=U.S. News Unveils 2022–2023 Best Global Universities Rankings |url=https://www.usnews.com/info/blogs/press-room/articles/2022-10-25/u-s-news-unveils-2022-2023-best-global-universities-rankings |access-date=26 December 2023 |website=U.S. News & World Report}}</ref> Currently, China trails only the United States and the United Kingdom in terms of representation on lists of the top 200 universities according to the 2023 ''Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities'', a composite ranking system of three world-most followed university rankings ([[Academic Ranking of World Universities|ARWU]]+[[QS World University Rankings|QS]]+ [[Times Higher Education World University Rankings|THE]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Country Analysis {{!}} Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities 2023 |url=https://research.unsw.edu.au/artu/indicator |access-date=26 December 2023 |website=UNSW Research}}</ref> China is home to two of the highest-ranking universities ([[Tsinghua University]] and [[Peking University]]) in [[Asia]] and [[Emerging market|emerging economies]], according to the [[Times Higher Education World University Rankings]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 October 2022 |title=World University Rankings 2023 |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2023/world-ranking |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=[[Times Higher Education World University Rankings]]}}</ref> and the [[QS World University Rankings]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=QS World University Rankings 2023: Top Global Universities |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2023 |access-date=9 June 2022 |website=Top Universities}}</ref> These universities are members of the [[C9 League]], an alliance of elite [[List of universities in China|Chinese universities]] offering comprehensive and leading education.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 February 2011 |title=Eastern stars: Universities of China's C9 League excel in select fields |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/eastern-stars-universities-of-chinas-c9-league-excel-in-select-fields/415193.article |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=[[Times Higher Education World University Rankings]]}}</ref>
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The [[National Health Commission]], together with its counterparts in the local commissions, oversees the health needs of the population.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What we do |url=http://en.nhc.gov.cn/2018-09/22/c_74499.htm |access-date=17 December 2023 |website=[[National Health Commission]]}}</ref> An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine has characterized Chinese health policy since the early 1950s. The Communist Party started the [[Patriotic Health Campaign]], which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, as well as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such as [[cholera]], [[typhoid]] and [[scarlet fever]], which were previously rife in China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 December 2015 |title=Peking University of Health Sciences |url=https://liemgthailand.com/en/peking-university-of-health-sciences |access-date=9 June 2023}}</ref>
After [[Deng Xiaoping]] began instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly because of better nutrition, although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared. [[Healthcare in China]] became mostly privatized, and experienced a significant rise in quality. In 2009, the government began a three-year large-scale healthcare provision initiative worth US$124 billion.<ref>{{Cite news |
{{As of|2023||df=US}}, the life expectancy at birth exceeds 78 years.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Li |first=David Daokui |author-link=David Daokui Li |title=China's World View: Demystifying China to Prevent Global Conflict |date=2024 |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |isbn=978-0-3932-9239-8 |location=New York, NY}}</ref>{{Rp|page=163}} {{As of|2021||df=US}}, the [[infant mortality]] rate is 5 per thousand.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) – China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN?locations=CN |access-date=28 October 2013 |publisher=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> Both have improved significantly since the 1950s.{{efn|The national life expectancy at birth rose from about 31 years in 1949 to 75 years in 2008,<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 October 2009 |title=Life expectancy increases by 44 years from 1949 in China's economic powerhouse Guangdong |url=http://english.people.com.cn/90001/90776/90882/6776688.html |work=People's Daily}}</ref> and infant mortality decreased from 300 per thousand in the 1950s to around 33 per thousand in 2001.<ref name="Ref_abcu">[http://www.china.org.cn/english/19012.htm "China's Infant Mortality Rate Down"]. 11 September 2001. China.org.cn. Retrieved 3 May 2006.</ref>}} Rates of [[Stunted growth|stunting]], a condition caused by [[malnutrition]], have declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 9.9% in 2010.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stone |first=R. |year=2012 |title=Despite Gains, Malnutrition Among China's Rural Poor Sparks Concern |journal=Science |volume=336 |issue=6080 |page=402 |doi=10.1126/science.336.6080.402 |pmid=22539691}}</ref> Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses caused by [[Air pollution in China|widespread air pollution]],<ref name="FT-china-pollution">{{Cite web |last=McGregor |first=Richard |date=2 July 2007 |title=750,000 a year killed by Chinese pollution |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/8f40e248-28c7-11dc-af78-000b5df10621.html |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/8f40e248-28c7-11dc-af78-000b5df10621.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |access-date=22 July 2007 |website=[[Financial Times]]}}</ref> [[Smoking in China|hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tatlow |first=Didi Kirsten |date=10 June 2010 |title=China's Tobacco Industry Wields Huge Power |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/11/world/asia/11iht-letter.html |url-access=limited |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/11/world/asia/11iht-letter.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |access-date=16 January 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and an increase in [[obesity]] among urban youths.<ref name="Ref_abcy">[http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1999/china.50/dispatches/09.23.health/ "Serving the people?"]. 1999. Bruce Kennedy. CNN. Retrieved 17 April 2006.</ref><ref name="Ref_abcz">[http://english.people.com.cn/english/200008/04/eng20000804_47271.html "Obesity Sickening China's Young Hearts"]. 4 August 2000. ''People's Daily''. Retrieved 17 April 2006.</ref> In 2010, air pollution caused 1.2 million premature deaths in China.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wong |first=Edward |date=1 April 2013 |title=Air Pollution Linked to 1.2 Million Premature Deaths in China |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/02/world/asia/air-pollution-linked-to-1-2-million-deaths-in-china.html |url-access=limited |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/02/world/asia/air-pollution-linked-to-1-2-million-deaths-in-china.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |access-date=14 January 2020 |work=The New York Times}}{{cbignore}}</ref> [[Mental health in China|Chinese mental health]] services are inadequate.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 February 2019 |title=Chinese mental health services falling short: report |url=https://chinaplus.cri.cn/chinaplus/news/china/9/20190225/253543.html |website=[[China Radio International|China Plus]]}}</ref> China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks, such as [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|SARS]] in 2003, although this has since been largely contained.<ref name="Ref_abcda">[https://web.archive.org/web/20040824014230/http://www.who.int/csr/don/2004_05_18a/en/index.html "China's latest SARS outbreak has been contained, but biosafety concerns remain"]. 18 May 2004. [[World Health Organization]]. Retrieved 17 April 2006.</ref> The [[COVID-19 pandemic]] was first identified in [[Wuhan]] in December 2019;<ref name="auto12">{{Cite journal |date=20 February 2020 |title=The Epidemiological Characteristics of an Outbreak of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Diseases (COVID-19) – China, 2020 |url=http://www.ne.jp/asahi/kishimoto/clinic/cash/COVID-19.pdf |url-status=live |journal=China CDC Weekly |volume=2 |pages=1–10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222141550/http://www.ne.jp/asahi/kishimoto/clinic/cash/COVID-19.pdf |archive-date=22 February 2020 |via=Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia Emergency Response Epidemiology Team |date=17 February 2020 |title=The Epidemiological Characteristics of an Outbreak of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Diseases (COVID-19) in China |journal=China CDC Weekly |language=zh |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=145–151 |doi=10.3760/cma.j.issn.0254-6450.2020.02.003 |pmid=32064853 |s2cid=211133882 |script-journal=zh:中华流行病学杂志}}</ref> pandemic led the government to enforce [[zero-COVID|strict public health measures]] intended to completely eradicate the virus, a goal that was eventually abandoned in December 2022 after [[2022 COVID-19 protests in China|protests against the policy]].<ref>{{Cite news |
== Culture and society==
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{{Main|Chinese architecture|3 = List of World Heritage Sites in China}}
[[Chinese architecture]] has developed over millennia in China and has remained a vestigial source of perennial influence on the development of East Asian architecture,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goodrich |first=L. Carrington |title=A Short History of the Chinese People |date=2007 |publisher=Sturgis Press |isbn=978-1-4067-6976-0 |edition=Third}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Formichi |first=Chiara |title=Religious pluralism, state and society in Asia |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-1345-7542-8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |
Chinese architecture is characterized by bilateral symmetry, use of enclosed open spaces, [[feng shui]] (e.g. directional [[Hierarchy|hierarchies]]),<ref>{{Cite book |
Chinese architecture varies widely based on status or affiliation, such as whether the structures were constructed for emperors, commoners, or for religious purposes. Other variations in Chinese architecture are shown in vernacular styles associated with different [[Geography|geographic]] regions and different ethnic heritages, such as the [[stilt house]]s in the south, the [[Yaodong|Yaodong buildings]] in the northwest, the [[Yurt|yurt buildings]] of nomadic people, and the [[Siheyuan|Siheyuan buildings]] in the north.<ref>{{Cite book |last=徐怡涛. |title=Zhong guo jian zhu |date=2010 |publisher=Gao deng jiao yu chu ban she |others=Xu yi tao, 徐怡涛. |isbn=978-7-0402-7421-9}}</ref>
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China has one of the [[Sport in China|oldest sporting cultures]]. There is evidence that [[archery]] (''shèjiàn'') was practiced during the [[Western Zhou dynasty]]. Swordplay (''jiànshù'') and ''[[cuju]]'', a sport loosely related to [[association football]]<ref>{{Cite book |title=Historical Dictionary of Soccer |date=2011 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7188-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9j1wbp2t1usC&pg=PA2 2]}}</ref> date back to China's early dynasties as well.<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 August 2013 |title=Sport in Ancient China |url=http://www.theworldofchinese.com/2013/08/sport-in-ancient-china/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010152027/http://www.theworldofchinese.com/2013/08/sport-in-ancient-china/ |archive-date=10 October 2017 |access-date=28 June 2014 |publisher=JUE LIU (刘珏) (The World of Chinese)}}</ref>
[[Physical fitness]] is widely emphasized in Chinese culture, with morning exercises such as ''[[qigong]]'' and [[tai chi]] widely practiced,<ref>{{Cite journal |
China has [[China at the Olympics|participated in the Olympic Games]] since 1932, although it has only participated as the PRC [[China at the 1952 Summer Olympics|since 1952]]. China hosted the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] in Beijing, where its athletes received 48 gold medals – the [[2008 Summer Olympics medal table|highest number of any participating nation that year]].<ref name="Ref_abcdeo">{{Cite news |date=27 August 2008 |title=China targets more golds in 2012 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics/7583735.stm |access-date=27 November 2011 |work=BBC Sport}}</ref> China also won the most medals at the [[2012 Summer Paralympics]], with 231 overall, including 95 gold.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Medal Count |url=http://www.london2012.com/paralympics/medals/medal-count/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120830230101/http://www.london2012.com/paralympics/medals/medal-count |archive-date=30 August 2012 |access-date=9 September 2012 |website=London2012.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=9 September 2012 |title=China dominates medals; U.S. falls short at Paralympics |url=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/story/2012/09/9/china-dominates-medals-us-falls-short-at-paralympics/57719222/1 |access-date=19 June 2013 |work=[[USA Today]]}}</ref> In 2011, Shenzhen hosted the [[2011 Summer Universiade]]. China hosted the [[2013 East Asian Games]] in Tianjin and the [[2014 Summer Youth Olympics]] in Nanjing, the first country to host both regular and Youth Olympics. Beijing and its nearby city [[Zhangjiakou]] collaboratively hosted the [[2022 Winter Olympics]], making Beijing the first dual Olympic city by holding both the Summer Olympics and the Winter Olympics.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Beijing: The world's first dual Olympic city |url=https://olympics.com/en/news/100-days-to-go-beijing-worlds-first-dual-olympic-city |access-date=6 February 2022 |publisher=olympics.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=23 February 2018 |title=Beijing 2022 Winter Games Olympics – results & video highlights |url=https://www.olympic.org/beijing-2022 |access-date=23 February 2018 |publisher=International Olympic Committee}}</ref>
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