Arthrospira: Difference between revisions

{{shortShort description|Genus of Cyanobacteria}}

| image_caption = A single ''Arthrospira platensis'' colony

[[File:Spira400xwetcr.jpg|300px|thumbnail|Spirulina powder 400x, unstainedfrom wetthe mount.genus Though''Arthrospira'', iton isunstained usuallywet calledmount Spirulinaunder powder,400x it actually contains the genus ''Arthrospira''.magnification]]

}}</ref> The ''A. maxima'' and ''A. platensis'' species were once classified in the genus [[Spirulina (genus)|''Spirulina'']]. Although the introduction of the two separate genera [''Arthrospira'' and ''Spirulina''] is now generally accepted, there has been much dispute in the past and the resulting taxonomical confusion is tremendous.<ref>{{cite thesis

| archiveurlarchive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160123203003/http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1198/1/1198.pdf

| archivedatearchive-date = 2016-01-23

The common name, [[Spirulina (dietary supplement)|spirulina]], refers to the dried biomass of ''A.[[Arthrospira platensis]]'',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gershwin |first1=ME |last2=Belay |first2=A |date=2007|title=Spirulina in human nutrition and health | publisher= CRC Press, USA}}</ref> whicha belongstype to the oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria that cover the groupsof [[Cyanobacteria]], andwhich Prochloralesare oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria. These photosynthetic organisms, Cyanobacteria, were first considered asto be algae, untila 1962very large and fordiverse thegroup firstof time[[Eukaryote|eukaryotic]] organisms, theseuntil blue-green1962 algaewhen they were addedreclassified toas prokaryote kingdom[[Prokaryote|prokaryotes]] and proposed to call these microorganisms asnamed Cyanobacteria .<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stanier |first1=RY |last2=Van Niel |first2=Y |title=The concept of a bacterium |journal=ArchArchiv Mikrobiolfür Mikrobiologie |volume=42 |pages=17–35 |date=January 1962 |doi=10.1007/bf00425185 |pmid=13916221|s2cid=29859498 }}</ref> where algae are considered to be a very large and diverse group of eukaryotic organisms. This designation was accepted and published in 1974 by ''[[Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology]]''.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |last1=Sánchez |first1=Bernal-Castillo |last2=Van Niel |first2=J |last3=Rozo |first3=C | last4=Rodríguez |first4=I |title=''Spirulina (arthrospiraArthrospira)'': an edible microorganism: a review |journal=Universitas Scientiarum |volume=8 | issue=1 |pages=7–24 |date=2003 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292588254 }}</ref> Scientifically, quite a distinction exists between the ''Spirulina'' and ''Arthrospira'' genera. Stizenberger, in 1852, gave the name ''Arthrospira'' based on the septa presence of septa, its helical form, and its multicellular structure, and [[Maurice Gomont|Gomont]], in 1892, confirmed the aseptate form of the genus '' Spirulina''. Geitler in 1932 reunified both members designating them as ''Spirulina'' without considering the septum.<ref name=":0">{{Citecite journal |urllast1=Siva Kiran |first1=RR http://www.iapen.co.in/jnutres/34-98-6-PB.pdf|titlelast2=Madhu |first2=GM |last3=Satyanarayana |first3=SV |title=''Spirulina'' in combating Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM) and Protein Energy Wasting (PEW) - A review|last |journal=Journal Sivaof Kiran|firstNutrition =Research RR|author2date=Madhu2016 GM|author3volume=Satyanarayana3 SV|date issue=1 2016|journal pages=62–79 Journal of Nutrition Research|doi = |pmid = 10.55289/jnutres/v3i1.5|doi-access-date = February 20, 2016free}}</ref> The worldwide researchResearch on [[microalgae]] was carried out in the name of ''Spirulina'', but the original species exploitedused asto foodproduce withthe excellentdietary healthsupplement propertiesspirulina belongs to the genus ''Arthrospira''. This commonmisnomer differencehas between scientists and customers isbeen difficult to changecorrect.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

At Howeverpresent, current taxonomy claimsstates that the name S''pirulina''spirulina for strains which are used as [[Spirulina (dietaryfood supplement)|food supplements]]s is inappropriate, and agreement exists that ''Arthrospira'' is a distinct genus, consisting of over 30 different species, including ''A. platensis'' and ''A. maxima''.<ref>

| lastname-authorlist-ampstyle = yesamp

| journal=DNA Res.Research

The genus ''Arthrospira'' comprises helical [[Trichome|trichomes]] of varying size and with various degrees of coiling, including tightly -coiled morphology to even a straight form.<ref name="ciferri"/>

''Arthrospira'' is very rich in [[protein]]s.,<ref name="ciferri" /><ref name="ReferenceBFAO Spirulina Review" /> Contents rangeand fromconstitute 53 to 68 percent by dry weight of the contents of the cell.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Phang|first1=S. M.|title=Spirulina cultivation in digested sago starch factory wastewater|journal=Journal of Applied Phycology|date=2000|volume=12|issue=3/5|pages=395–400|doi=10.1023/A:1008157731731|s2cid=20718419}}</ref>

Its protein harbours all [[Essential amino acid|essential amino acids]].<ref name="ReferenceBFAO Spirulina Review" /> ''Arthrospira'' also contain high amounts of [[polyunsaturated fatty acid]]s (PUFAs), about 1.5-25–2 percent, ofand thea total lipid content of 5-65–6 percent.<ref name="ReferenceBFAO Spirulina Review" /> These PUFAs contain the [[γ-Linoleniclinolenic acid]] (GLA), an essential Omega[[omega-6 Fattyfatty acid]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Spolaore|first1=Pauline|s2cid=16896655|display-authors=etal|title=Commercial applications of microalgae|journal=Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering|date=2006|volume=101|issue=2|pages=87–96|doi=10.1263/jbb.101.87|pmid=16569602}}</ref> Further ingredientscontents of ''Arthrospira'' include Vitaminsvitamins, Mineralsminerals and [[Photosynthetic pigment|photosynthetic pigments]].<ref name="ReferenceB"/>FAO A detailed composition of the proteins and nutrients can be found in the [[Spirulina (dietaryReview" supplement)]] article./>

Species of the genus ''Arthrospira'' have been isolated from alkaline [[Brackish water|brackish]] and [[Saline water|saline waters]] in tropical and subtropical regions. Among the various species included in the genus,'' A. platensis'' is the most widely distributed and is mainly found in Africa, but also in Asia. ''A. maxima'' is believed to be found in California and Mexico.<ref name=":0"/> ''A. platensis'' and ''A. maxima'' occur naturally in tropical and subtropical lakes with alkaline [[pH]] and high concentrations of [[carbonate]] and [[bicarbonate]].<ref name="FAO Spirulina Review">{{cite web|title=A Review on Culture, Production and Use of Spirulina as Food dor Humans and Feeds for Domestic Animals and Fish|url=ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/i0424e/i0424e00.pdf|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations|accessdateaccess-date=November 20, 2011|author=Habib, M. Ahsan B.|author2=Parvin, Mashuda|author3= Huntington, Tim C.|author4= Hasan, Mohammad R.|year=2008}}</ref> ''A. platensis'' occurs in Africa, Asia, and South America, whereas ''A. maxima'' is confined to Central America, and. ''A. pacifica'' is endemic to the Hawaiian islands.<ref name="vonshak">{{cite book|last1=Vonshak, A. (ed.). |first1=Avigad|title=''Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira)'': Physiology, Cell-biologyBiology andAnd Biotechnology.''|date=2002|publisher=CRC London: Taylor & Francis, 1997.Press|isbn=9780203483961|language=en}}</ref> Most cultivated spirulina is produced in open-channel [[raceway 70thRaceway pond|raceway ponds]]s, with paddle-wheels used to agitate the water.<ref name="FAO Spirulina Review" /> The largest commercial producers of spirulina are located in the [[United States]], [[Thailand]], [[India]], [[Taiwan]], [[China]], [[Pakistan]], [[Burma]] (a.k.a. Myanmar), [[Greece]] and [[Chile]].<ref name="vonshak"/>

Spirulina is widely known as a [[Spirulina (dietary supplement)|a food supplement]] today, but there’sthere a variety ofare other possible applicationsuses for this cyanobacterium. As an example, it is suggested to be used medically for patients for whom it is difficult to chew or swallow food, or as a natural and cheap drug delivery carriersystem.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Adiba|first1=B. D.|display-authors=etal|title=Preliminary characterization of food tablets from date ( ''Phoenix dactylifera'' L.) and spirulina ( ''Spirulina'' sp.) powders|journal=Powder Technology|date=2008|volume=208|issue=3|pages=725–730|doi=10.1016/j.powtec.2011.01.016}}</ref> Further, promising results in the treatment of certain cancers, allergies and anemia, as well as hepato-toxicityhepatotoxicity and vascular diseases were found.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Asghari|first1=A.|display-authors=etal|title=A Review on Antioxidant P ropertiesProperties of Spirulin|journal=Journal of Applied Biotechnology Reports|date=2016}}</ref> NextSpirulina to that, spirulina couldmay also be interestingused as a healthy additionaladdition to animal feed <ref>{{cite journal|last1=Holman|first1=B. W. B.|display-authors=etal|title=Spirulina as a livestock supplement and animal feed|journal=Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition|date=2012|volume=97|issue=4|pages=615–623|doi=10.1111/j.1439-0396.2012.01328.x|pmid=22860698|doi-access=free}}</ref> if the price of its production can be further reduced. Spirulina may alsocan be used in technical applications, such as the biosynthesis of [[silver nanoparticle]]s, which allows the formation of metallic silver in an environmentally friendly way.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mahdieh|title=Green biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles by ''Spirulina platensis'' |journal=Scientia Iranica|date=2012|volume=19|issue=3|pages=926–929|doi=10.1016/j.scient.2012.01.010|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Also inIn the creation of textiles it harbors some advantages, since it can be used for the production of antimicrobial textiles.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite journal|last1=Mahltig|first1=B|display-authors=etal|title=Modification of algae with zinc, copper and silver ions for usage as natural composite for antibacterial applications|journal=Materials Science and Engineering|date=2013|volume=33|issue=2|pages=979–983|doi=10.1016/j.msec.2012.11.033|pmid=25427514|doi-access=}}</ref> Andand paper or polymer materials may be produced with this versatile small organism.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> This microalga isThey also knownmay forhave itsan antioxidant activityeffect<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kumaresan V,|first1=Venkatesh |last2=Sannasimuthu A,|first2=Anbazahan |last3=Arasu M,|first3=Mariadhas Valan |last4=Al-Dhabi NA,|first4=Naif Abdullah |last5=Arockiaraj J.|first5=Jesu |title=Molecular insight into the metabolic activities of a protein-rich micro alga, ''Arthrospira platensis'' by de novo transcriptome analysis. Mol|journal=Molecular BiolBiology RepReports (|date=2018). https://rdcu|volume=45 |issue=5 |pages=829–838 |doi=10.be1007/20jCs11033-018-4229-1|pmid=29978380 |s2cid=254835532 }}</ref> and itmay maintainsmaintain the [[ecological balance]] in aquatic bodies and reduces various stresses in the aquatic environment.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kumaresan V,|first1=Venkatesh |last2=Nizam F,|first2=Faizal |last3=Ravichandran G,|first3=Gayathri |last4=Viswanathan K,|first4=Kasi |last5=Palanisamy R,|first5=Rajesh et|last6=Bhatt al.|first6=Prasanth |last7=Arasu |first7=Mariadhas Valan |last8=Al-Dhabi |first8=Naif Abdullah |last9=Mala |first9=Kanchana |last10=Arockiaraj |first10=Jesu |title=Transcriptome changes of blue-green algae, ''Arthrospira'' sp. in response to sulfate stress. |journal=Algal Research (|date=2017) |volume=23, 96-103.|pages=96–103 https://|doi.org/=10.1016/j.algal.2017.01.012}}</ref>.

Growth of ''ArthrospiraA. platensis'' depends on several factors. To achieve maximum output, factors such as the temperature, light and [[photoinhibition]], nutrients, and CO2carbon dioxide level, need to be adjusted.

When growing in water depths of 12–15&nbsp;cm, self-shading governs the growth of the individual cell.

The optimal growth temperature for ''A. platensis'' is 35 – 3835–38&nbsp;°C. This poses a major limiting factor outside the tropics, confining growth to the summer months.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Vonshak|first1=A|title=Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira). In Physiology, Cell Biology and Biotechnology|date=1997|publisher=Taylor and Francis|location=Basingstoke, Hants, London}}</ref> ''A. platensis'' has been grown in fresh water, as well as in brackish water and sea water.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Materassi|first1=R|display-authors=etal|title=''Spirulina'' culture in sea-water|journal=Appl.Applied Microbiol.Microbiology and Biotechnology Biotechnol.|date=1984|volume=19|issue=6|pages=384–386|doi=10.1007/bf00454374|s2cid=31267876}}</ref> Apart from mineral fertilizer, various sources such as, waste effluents, and effluents from fertilizer, starch and noodle factories have been used as a nutrient source.<ref name="vonshak"/>

Especially the wasteWaste effluents are alsomore readily available in rural locations, allowing small scale production.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Laliberte|first1=G|display-authors=etal|title=Mass cultivation and wastewater treatment using Spirulina. In A. Vonshak, ed. Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira platensis) Physiology, Cell Biology and Biotechnology|date=1997|publisher=Taylor and Francis|location=Basingstoke, Hants, London|pages=159–174}}</ref>

One of the major hurdles for largerlarge scale production is the complicated harvesting process that makeswhich upaccounts for 20-3020–30% of the total production costs. Due to their small cell size, and diluted cultures (mass concentration less than 1 g/L-1) with densities close to that of water microalgae, they are difficult to separate from their growing medium.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Barros|first1=Ana I.|display-authors=etal|title=Harvesting techniques applied to microalgae: A review|journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews|date=2015|volume=41|pages=1489–1500|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2014.09.037|url=https://repositorio-aberto.up.pt/handle/10216/103426|hdl=10216/103426|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

Open pond systems are the most common way to grow ''A. Platensisplatensis'' due to their comparatively low cost. Typically, channels are built in form of a raceway from concrete or PVC coated earth walls, and water is moved by paddle wheels. The open design, however allows contamination by foreign algae and/or microorganisms.<ref name="vonshak"/>

Another problem poses theincludes water loss due to evaporation. Both of these problems can be addressed by having transparent polyethylene film covering the channels.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Sánchez|first1=M.|display-authors=etal|title=Spirulinawith (Arthrospira):transparent An[[polyethylene]] edible microorganismfilm.<ref A Review.|urlname=http:"ReferenceA"//yalor.yru.ac.th/~dolah/notes/SPIRULINA.pdf}}{{Dead link|date=October 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Closed systems have the advantage of being controllableable into termscontrol ofthe physical, chemical and biological environment. This allows for increasingincreased yieldsyield, and influencingmore the nutrient ratiocontrol of the organismnutrient level. Typical forms such as tubes or polyethylene bags, also offer a larger surface -to -volume ratios than open pond systems,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tredici|first1=M|last2=Materassi|first2=R|title=From open ponds to vertical alveolar panels: the Italian experience in the development of reactors for the mass cultivation of phototrophic microorganisms|journal=Journal of Applied Phycology|date=1992|volume=4|issue=3|pages=221–231|doi=10.1007/bf02161208|s2cid=20554506}}</ref> thus increasing the amount of sunlight available for photosynthesis. These closed systems help expanding the growing period into the winter months, but often lead to overheating in summer.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tomaselli|first1=L|display-authors=etal|title=Recent research on ''Spirulina'' in Italy|journal=Hydrobiology|date=1987|volume=151/152|pages=79–82|doi=10.1007/bf00046110|s2cid=9903582}}</ref>

==Economy of arthrospira and its marketMarket potentials and feasibility==

Cultivation of arthrospira''Arthrospira'' has occurred for a long traditionperiod of time,{{Vague|reason=date?|date=December 2020}} especially in Mexico and around the Lake Chad on the African continent. During the twentieth21st century however, its beneficial properties were rediscovered and therefore studies about arthrospira''Arthrospira'' and its production increased.<ref name="ahsan">{{citeFAO book|last1=Ahsan|first1=M|display-authors=etal|title=ASpirulina Review" on Culture, Production and use of Spirulina as Food for Humans and Feeds for Domestic Animals and Fish|date=2008|publisher=FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular No. 1034|location=Rome}}</ref> In the past decades, large-scale production of the cyanobacterium developed.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|last1=Whitton|first1=B. A.|title=Ecology of Cyanobacteria II: Their Diversity in Space and Time|date=2012|publisher=Springer|pages=701–711}}</ref> Japan started in 1960, and in the following years Mexico and several other countries over all continents, such as China, India, Thailand, Myanmar and the United States started to produce on large-scale.<ref name="ahsanFAO Spirulina Review" /> In little time, China has become the largest producer worldwide.<ref name=":1" /> A particular advantage of the production and use of spirulina is that its production can be conducted at a number of different scales, from household culture to intensive commercial production over large areas.

Especially as a small-scale crop, ''Arthrospira'' still has considerable potential for development, for example for nutritional improvement.<ref name="smart fish">{{cite journal|date=2011|title=Spirulina – a livelihood and a business venture|journal=Report: SF/2011|author=Smart Fish}}</ref> New countries where this could happen, should dispose of alkaline-rich ponds on high altitudes or saline-alkaline-rich groundwater or coastal areas with high temperature.<ref name="FAO Spirulina Review" /> Otherwise, technical inputs needed for new spirulina farms are quite basic.<ref name="smart fish" />

The international market of spirulina is divided into two target groups: the one includes NGO’s and institutions focusing on malnutrition and the other includes health conscious people. There are still some countries, especially in Africa, that produce at a local level. Those could respond to the international demand by increasing production and [[economies of scale]]. Growing the product in Africa could offer an advantage in price, due to low costs of labour. On the other hand, African countries would have to surpass quality standards from importing countries, which could again result in higher costs.<ref name="smart fish" />

* {{AlgaeBase genus|name=Arthrospira|id=r81faff710221cf5a43076}}