Oriental Crisis of 1840: Difference between revisions

|date= Summer-NovemberSummer–November 1840

|place= [[Nile Delta]], [[Beirut]], [[Acre, SanjakIsrael|Acre]]

|territory=

|result= [[Convention of London (1840)|Convention of London]] enforced by allied powers, whileand [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]] secures his position in [[Egypt]]

|combatant1= {{flagicon|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]<br />{{flag|Austrian Empire}}<br />{{flagflagcountry|Kingdom of Prussia|1803}}<br />{{flag|Russian Empire}}<br />{{flag|Ottoman Empire}}

|combatant2= {{flagicon|Egypt|Ottoman Eyalet}} [[Egypt Province, Ottoman Empire|Province of EgyptEyalet]]

|commander1 = {{flagicon|Austrian Empire}} [[Archduke Friedrich of Austria (1821–1847)|Archduke Friedrich]]<br>{{flagicon|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} Admiral [[Robert Stopford (Royal Navy officer)|Robert Stopford]]

* [[JohnHenry OmmanneyCodrington]]

* [[HenryArthur CodringtonFanshawe]]

|strength1strength2 =

The '''Oriental Crisis of 1840''' was an episode in the [[Egyptian–Ottoman War (1839–1841)|Egyptian–Ottoman War]] in the eastern [[Mediterranean]], triggered by the self-declared [[Khedive]] of Egypt and Sudan [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]]'s aims to establish a personal empire in the [[Egypt Province, Ottoman EmpireEyalet|Ottoman province of Egypt]].

In the preceding decades, Muhammad Ali had expanded and strengthened his hold on Ottoman territory, beginning with Egypt, where he acted as a viceroy for the Sultan. Called upon to assist the Ottomans in the [[Greek War of Independence]], Muhammad Ali in return demanded parts of [[Ottoman Syria]] to be transferred to his personal rule. When the war ended and the [[Sublime Porte|Porte]] didn'tfailed liveto up tokeep its promise, Muhammad Ali [[Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833)|launched a military campaign]] against his Ottoman masters and easily took most of the Syrian lands.

[[Image:Egypt under Muhammad Ali map de.pngsvg|thumb|Extent of Muhammad Ali's rule in 1840]]

In 1839, the Ottoman Empire attempted to retake Syria from Muhammad Ali but was defeated by his son, [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]] in the [[Battle of Nezib]]. Following thisThus, a [[Egyptian–Ottoman War (1839–1841)|a new war]] between Muhammad Ali and the Ottomans escalated, with the latter failing once again failing to wage it successfully. In June 1840, the entire Ottoman navy defected to Muhammad Ali, and the French planned to offer full support to Muhammad Ali'shis cause.<ref>Efraim Karsh, Inari Karsh, ''Empires of the Sand: The Struggle for Mastery in the Middle East, 1789-19231789–1923'', (Harvard University Press, 2001), 36-3736–37.</ref>

By the [[Convention of London (1840)|Convention of London]], signed on 15 July 1840, the Great Powers offered Muhammad Ali [[Muhammad Ali Dynasty|and his heirs]] permanent control over Egypt, Sudan, and the [[Eyalet of Acre]], provided thatif thesethose territories would nominally remain part of the Ottoman Empire. If he did not accept the withdrawal of his forces within ten days, he would lose the offer in [[Ottoman Syria|southern Syria]];. ifIf he delayed acceptance more than 20 days, he would forfeit everything offered.<ref>Geoffrey G. Butler, Simon Maccoby, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hEK83BhHp-4C&pg=PA440& The Development of International Law], p. 440</ref> The European powers agreed to use all possible means of persuasion to effectaffect the agreement, but Muhammad Ali hesitated, believingsince he believed in support from [[July Monarchy|France]].<ref>Efraim Karsh, Inari Karsh, ''Empires of the Sand: The Struggle for Mastery in the Middle East, 1789-19231789–1923'', (Harvard University Press, 2001), 38.</ref>

The French, under the newly -formed cabinet of [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]] [[Adolphe Thiers]], sought to increase French influence in North Africa followingafter their [[French conquest of Algeria|conquest of Algeria]]. For this, supportingSupporting Muhammad Ali's so far thus-successful revolt seemed suitable. [[Counter Admiral]] [[Julien Pierre Anne Lalande]] was dispatched to the Mediterranean to eventually join forces with the defected Ottoman fleet.<ref>Efraim Karsh, Inari Karsh, ''Empires of the Sand: The Struggle for Mastery in the Middle East, 1789-19231789–1923'', (Harvard University Press, 2001), 37.</ref> ButHowever, France became politically isolated when the other Great Powers backed up the Sultan, and Thiers wasn'twas preparedunprepared to bring thehis country into open war with Britain. France switched sides and aligned against Muhammad Ali in October 1840.

[[Image:HMSThe PhoenixBombardment and Capture of St Jean D'Acre. Scene 2. 45324.jpg|right|thumb|{{HMS|Phoenix|1832}} in the bombardment of Acre, 1840]]

[[Alexandria]] was the port where the defecting [[Ottoman Navy|Ottoman fleet]] had withdrawn. After the [[Royal Navy]] and the [[Austro-Hungarian Navy|Austrian Navy]] first blockaded the [[Nile delta]] coastline, they moved east to shell [[Sidon]] and [[Beirut]] on 11 September 1840. British and Austrian forces then attacked [[Battle of Acre, Israel(1840)|Acre]]. Following the bombardment of the city and the port on [[Battle of Acre (1840)|3 November 1840]] a small landing party of Austrian, British and Ottoman troops, (which were led personally by the Austrian fleet commander, [[Friedrich Ferdinand Leopold of Austria|Archduke Friedrich]]), took the citadel after Muhammad Ali's Egyptian garrison in Acre had fled.

After the surrender of Acre, Muhammad Ali finally accepted the terms of the Convention on 27 November 1840. He renounced his claims over [[Crete]] and the [[HejazHabesh VilayetEyalet|Hijaz]] and agreed to downsize his naval forces and his standing army to 18,000 men, provided thatif he and his descendants would enjoy [[hereditary]] [[governance|rule]] over Egypt and [[Sudan]] —, an unheard-of status for an [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[viceroy]].<ref>Morroe Berger, ''Military Elite and Social Change: Egypt Since Napoleon'', (Princeton, New Jersey: Center for International Studies, 1960), 11.</ref> Indeed, Aa ''[[Firmanfirman (decree)|firman]]'', subsequentlywas issued by the sultan, indeedand confirmed Muhammad Ali's rule over Egypt and the Sudan. HeMuhammad Ali withdrew from [[Ottoman Syria|Syria]], the Hijaz, the Holy Land, Adana, and Crete, and handed back the Ottoman fleet.

* [[History of Ottoman Egypt]]

* [[Ottoman Empire|History of the Ottoman Empire]]

* [[History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty]]

[[Category:19thDiplomatic centurycrises inof Egyptthe 19th century]]