Content deleted Content added
restored chronological order of map descrptions; the map should have its descritpion first, that's just logical. there is no "close paraphrsing" in ordering things chronologically. |
Ira Leviton (talk | contribs) m Fixed PMC parameters in citations. Category:CS1 maint: PMC format |
||
| (26 intermediate revisions by 16 users not shown) | |||
Line 2:
{{Other uses}}
{{Redirect|Asia Minor}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=
{{Infobox peninsulas
Line 100:
'''Anatolia''' ({{lang-tr|Anadolu}}), also known as '''Asia Minor''',{{efn|Additional alternative names include '''Asian Turkey''', the '''Anatolian Peninsula''', and the '''Anatolian Plateau'''.}} is a large [[peninsula]] or a region in [[Turkey]], constituting most of its contemporary territory. Geographically, the Anatolian region is bounded by the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the south, the [[Aegean Sea]] to the west, the [[Turkish Straits]] to the north-west, and the [[Black Sea]] to the north. The eastern and southeastern boundary is either the southeastern and eastern borders of Turkey,<ref name=anatolia_definition/> or an imprecise line from the [[Black Sea]] to [[Gulf of Iskenderun]].<ref name=Merriam/> Topographically, the [[Sea of Marmara]] connects the Black Sea with the Aegean Sea through the [[Bosporus]] strait and the [[Dardanelles]] strait, and separates Anatolia from [[Thrace]] in the [[Balkans|Balkan peninsula]] of [[Southeastern Europe]].
Anatolia was an early centre for the development of farming during the [[Neolithic]] period following its origination in the adjacent [[Fertile Crescent]]. Beginning around 9,000 years ago there was major migration of [[Anatolian Neolithic Farmers]] into Europe, with their descendants coming to dominate Europe as far west as the Iberian Peninsula and the British Isles.
The ancient [[Anatolian peoples]] spoke the now-extinct [[Anatolian languages]] of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language family, which were largely replaced by the [[Greek language]] during [[classical antiquity]] as well as during the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]], [[Roman Empire|Roman]], and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] periods. The major Anatolian languages included [[Hittite language|Hittite]], [[Luwian language|Luwian]], and [[Lydian language|Lydian]], while other, poorly attested local languages included [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]] and [[Mysian language|Mysian]]. [[Hurro-Urartian languages]] were spoken in the southeastern kingdom of [[Mitanni]], while [[Galatian language|Galatian]], a [[Celtic languages|Celtic language]], was spoken in [[Galatia]], central Anatolia. Ancient peoples in the region included [[Galatians (people)|Galatians]], [[Hurrians]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Hattians]], [[Cimmerians]], as well as [[Ionians|Ionian]], [[Dorians|Dorian]], and [[Aeolic Greek]]s. The [[Turkification]] of Anatolia began under the rule of the [[Seljuk Empire]] in the late 11th century, continued under the [[Ottoman Empire]] between the late 13th and early 20th centuries, and continues today under the [[History of the Republic of Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]. However, various non-Turkic languages continue to be spoken by minorities in Anatolia, including [[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]], [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic|Neo-Aramaic]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[North Caucasian languages]], [[Laz language|Laz]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], and [[Greek language|Greek]].▼
▲The ancient [[Anatolian peoples]] spoke the now-extinct [[Anatolian languages]] of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language family, which were largely replaced by the [[Greek language]] during [[classical antiquity]] as well as during the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]], [[Roman Empire|Roman]], and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] periods. The major Anatolian languages included [[Hittite language|Hittite]], [[Luwian language|Luwian]], and [[Lydian language|Lydian]], while other, poorly attested local languages included [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]] and [[Mysian language|Mysian]]. [[Hurro-Urartian languages]] were spoken in the southeastern kingdom of [[Mitanni]], while [[Galatian language|Galatian]], a [[Celtic languages|Celtic language]], was spoken in [[Galatia]], central Anatolia. Ancient peoples in the region included [[Galatians (people)|Galatians]], [[Hurrians]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Armenians]], [[Hattians]], [[Cimmerians]], as well as [[Ionians|Ionian]], [[Dorians|Dorian]], and [[Aeolic Greek]]s. The [[Turkification]] of Anatolia began under the rule of the [[Seljuk Empire]] in the late 11th century, continued under the [[Ottoman Empire]] between the late 13th and early 20th centuries, and continues today under the [[History of the Republic of Turkey|Republic of
==Geography==
Line 109 ⟶ 111:
Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to an indefinite line running from the [[Gulf of Alexandretta]] to the [[Black Sea]],<ref name="Niewohner2017">{{cite book|author=Philipp Niewohner|title=The Archaeology of Byzantine Anatolia: From the End of Late Antiquity until the Coming of the Turks|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cAUmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|date=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0190610470|pages=18–|access-date=7 December 2018|archive-date=11 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200311111958/https://books.google.com/books?id=cAUmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|url-status=live}}</ref> coterminous with the [[Anatolian Plateau]]. This traditional geographical definition is used, for example, in the latest edition of ''[[Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary]]''.<ref name="Merriam" /> Under this definition, Anatolia is bounded to the east by the [[Armenian Highlands]], and the [[Euphrates]] before that river bends to the southeast to enter [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name="Mitchell">Stephen Mitchell (1995). ''Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor. The Celts in Anatolia and the impact of Roman rule''. Clarendon Press, 266 pp. {{ISBN|978-0198150299}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=pUYtwuve40kC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329114033/https://books.google.com/books?id=pUYtwuve40kC|date=29 March 2017}}</ref> To the southeast, it is bounded by the ranges that separate it from the [[Orontes River|Orontes]] valley in [[Syria (region)|Syria]] and the Mesopotamian plain.<ref name="Mitchell"/>
Following the [[Armenian genocide]], [[Western Armenia]] [[Eastern Anatolia Region#Substitution with Armenia|was renamed]] the [[Eastern Anatolia Region]] by the newly established Turkish government.<ref name="Sahakyan">{{cite book|last=Sahakyan|first=Lusine|title=Turkification of the Toponyms in the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey|year=2010|publisher=Arod Books|location=Montreal|isbn=978-0969987970}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Hovannisian |first1=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K3monyE4CVQC |title=The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies |date=2007 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-1412835923 |location=New Brunswick, NJ |page=3 |access-date=10 September 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010030024/https://books.google.com/books?id=K3monyE4CVQC |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1941, with the [[First Geography Congress, Turkey|First Geography Congress]] which divided Turkey into [[geographical regions of Turkey|seven geographical regions]] based on differences in climate and landscape, the eastern [[provinces of Turkey]] were placed into the [[Eastern Anatolia Region]],<ref>[http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2167/irgee216.0 A Comparative Analysis Regarding Pictures Included in Secondary School Geography Textbooks Taught in Turkey]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413141440/http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2167/irgee216.0 |date=
The highest mountain in the [[Eastern Anatolia Region]] (also the highest peak in the [[Armenian Highlands]]) is [[Mount Ararat]] (5123 m).<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 42| issue = 2| pages = 143–149| last1 = Fevzi Özgökçe| last2 = Kit Tan| last3 = Vladimir Stevanović| title = A new subspecies of Silene acaulis (Caryophyllaceae) from East Anatolia, Turkey| journal = Annales Botanici Fennici|year = 2005| jstor = 23726860}}</ref> The [[Euphrates]], [[Aras (river)|Aras]], [[Karasu (Euphrates)|Karasu]] and [[Murat river]]s connect the Armenian Highlands to the [[South Caucasus]] and the Upper Euphrates Valley. Along with the [[Çoruh]], these rivers are the longest in the Eastern Anatolia Region.<ref name=palumbi>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0009| last = Palumbi| first = Giulio| title = The Chalcolithic of Eastern Anatolia| journal = The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia| volume = 1| access-date = 6 May 2018| date = 5 September 2011| url = http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195376142-e-9| editor1-last = McMahon| editor1-first = Gregory| editor2-last = Steadman| editor2-first = Sharon| archive-date = 12 May 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180512155433/http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195376142-e-9| url-status = live}}</ref>
Line 142 ⟶ 144:
{{main|Prehistory of Anatolia}}
Human habitation in Anatolia dates back to the [[Paleolithic]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stiner |first=Mary C. |author2=Kuhn, Steven L. |author3= Güleç, Erksin |title=Early Upper Paleolithic shell beads at Üçağızlı Cave I (Turkey): Technology and the socioeconomic context of ornament life-histories |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |volume=64 |issue=5 |pages=380–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.01.008 |issn=0047-2484 |year=2013 |pmid=23481346|bibcode=2013JHumE..64..380S }}</ref> Neolithic settlements include [[Çatalhöyük]], [[Çayönü]], [[Nevali Cori]], [[Aşıklı Höyük]], [[Boncuklu Höyük]], [[Hacilar]], [[Göbekli Tepe]], [[Norşuntepe]], [[Köşk Höyük]], and [[Yumuktepe]]. Çatalhöyük (7.000 BCE) is considered the most advanced of these.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Whitehouse |first1=Harvey |last2=Martin |first2=Luther H. |title=Theorizing Religions Past: Archaeology, History, and Cognition |date=2004 |publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=978-0-7591-0621-5 |page=38 |language=en}}</ref>
[[Neolithic]] Anatolia has been [[Anatolian hypothesis|proposed]] as the [[Urheimat|homeland]] of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]], although linguists tend to favour a [[Kurgan hypothesis|later origin]] in the steppes north of the Black Sea. However, it is clear that the [[Anatolian languages]], the earliest attested branch of Indo-European, have been spoken in Anatolia since at least the 19th century BCE.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Indo-European Daughter Languages: Anatolian|url=https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesMiddEast/AnatoliaLanguage01.htm|access-date=26 January 2021|website=www.historyfiles.co.uk|archive-date=13 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513212533/https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesMiddEast/AnatoliaLanguage01.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Anatolian languages|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anatolian-languages|access-date=26 January 2021|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=6 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906190429/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anatolian-languages|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Ancient Anatolia===
Line 216 ⟶ 218:
{{main|Classical Anatolia}}
In [[Classical antiquity]], Anatolia was described by the Ancient Greek historian [[Herodotus]] and later historians as divided into regions that were diverse in culture, language, and religious practices.<ref name=yavuz>{{Cite book| publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0195170726| last = Yavuz| first = Mehmet Fatih| title = The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome| chapter = Anatolia| access-date = 5 December 2018| date = 2010| chapter-url = http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001/acref-9780195170726-e-61| doi = 10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001| archive-date = 6 December 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181206102239/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001/acref-9780195170726-e-61| url-status = live}}</ref> The northern regions included [[Bithynia]], [[Paphlagonia]], and [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]]; to the west were [[Mysia]], [[Lydia]], and Caria; and [[Lycia]], [[Pamphylia]], and [[Cilicia]] belonged to the southern shore. There were also several inland regions: [[Phrygia]], [[Cappadocia]], [[Pisidia]], and [[Galatia]].<ref name=yavuz /> Languages spoken included the late surviving [[Anatolic languages]], [[Isaurian language|Isaurian]],<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5geoDQAAQBAJ&q=isaurian%20personal%20names&pg=PT64|title=Violence in Late Antiquity: Perceptions and Practices|last=Honey|first=Linda|isbn=978-1351875745|page=50|chapter=Justifiably Outraged or Simply Outrageous? The Isaurian Incident of Ammianus Marcellinus|date=5 December 2016|publisher=Routledge |access-date=8 November 2020|archive-date=19 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519052917/https://books.google.com/books?id=5geoDQAAQBAJ&q=isaurian%20personal%20names&pg=PT64|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Pisidian language|Pisidian]], Greek in western and coastal regions, [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]] spoken until the 7th century CE,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Swain|first1=Simon|last2=Adams|first2=J. Maxwell|last3=Janse|first3=Mark|title=Bilingualism in Ancient Society: Language Contact and the Written Word|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford [Oxfordshire]|year=2002 |pages=246–66|isbn=0199245061}}</ref> local variants of [[Thracian]] in the northwest, the [[Galatian language|Galatian variant of Gaulish]] in [[Galatia]] until the 6th century CE,<ref>Freeman, Philip, ''The Galatian Language'', Edwin Mellen, 2001, pp. 11–12.</ref><ref>Clackson, James. "Language maintenance and language shift in the Mediterranean world during the Roman Empire." Multilingualism in the Graeco-Roman Worlds (2012): 36–57. p. 46: The second testimonium for the late survival of Galatian appears in the Life of Saint Euthymius, who died in ad 487.</ref><ref>Norton, Tom. [https://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/402/1/TOM%20NORTON.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102201528/http://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/402/1/TOM%20NORTON.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/402/1/TOM%20NORTON.pdf|archive-date=9 October 2022
Anatolia is known as the birthplace of minted [[coin]]age (as opposed to unminted coinage, which first appears in [[Mesopotamia]] at a much earlier date) as a medium of exchange, some time in the 7th century BCE in Lydia. The use of minted coins continued to flourish during the [[Hellenistic period|Greek]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] eras.<ref>{{Cite book|isbn=978-0415089920|last=Howgego|first=C. J.|title=Ancient History from Coins|author-link=Christopher Howgego| year=1995|publisher=Routledge }}</ref><ref>[http://www.asiaminorcoins.com/ Asia Minor Coins] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317151148/https://www.asiaminorcoins.com/ |date=17 March 2020 }} – an index of Greek and Roman coins from Asia Minor (ancient Anatolia)</ref>
Line 254 ⟶ 256:
[[File:Growth of the Ottoman Empire.jpg|thumb|[[Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire]] between 1359 and 1683]]
Among the [[Turkish people|Turkish]] leaders, the [[Ottoman dynasty|Ottomans]] emerged as great power under [[Osman I]] and his son [[Orhan]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Osman-I|title=Osman I {{!}} Ottoman sultan|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=23 April 2018|archive-date=24 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424073731/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Osman-I|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Orhan|title=Orhan {{!}} Ottoman sultan|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=23 April 2018|archive-date=10 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310140006/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Orhan|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Anatolian beyliks]] were successively absorbed into the rising [[Ottoman Empire]] during the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/new-cambridge-history-of-islam/rise-of-the-ottomans/015D10BC98EA8A2D69B29D54AC7241CC|title=The rise of the Ottomans (Chapter 11) – The New Cambridge History of Islam|pages=313–31|last=Fleet|first=Kate|publisher=Cambridge Core|language=en|access-date=23 April 2018|doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521839570.013|chapter=The rise of the Ottomans|year=2010|isbn=978-1139056151|archive-date=24 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424071602/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/new-cambridge-history-of-islam/rise-of-the-ottomans/015D10BC98EA8A2D69B29D54AC7241CC|url-status=live}}</ref> It is not well understood how the Osmanlı, or [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]], came to dominate their neighbours, as the history of medieval Anatolia is still little known.<ref>{{cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9cTHyUQoTyUC&pg=PA5 |year=2007 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0465008506 |page=5 |access-date=6 June 2013 |archive-date=2 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102002603/http://books.google.com/books?id=9cTHyUQoTyUC&pg=PA5 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Ottomans completed the conquest of the peninsula in 1517 with the taking of [[Halicarnassus]] (modern [[Bodrum]]) from the [[Knights of Saint John]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/halicarnassus|title=Halicarnassus |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |orig-date=
===Modern times===
| |||