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{{Other uses}}
{{Redirect|Asia Minor}}
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{{Infobox peninsulas
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* {{harvnb|McColl|2014|p=922}}: "Thrace, its European area, is about the size of VERMONT at 9,412 square mi (24,378 square km). Its Asian area (Asia Minor) is called Anatolia and covers 291,971 square mi (756,202 square km)"
* {{harvnb|Cohen|2008|p=125}}: "Anatolia, [Gr.=sunrise], Asiatic part of Turkey; its area covers 97% of all Turkey"
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* {{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Anatolia |title=Anatolia |website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |access-date=29 February 2024}}: "Anatolia, the peninsula of land that today constitutes the Asian portion of Turkey"
* {{harvnb|Steadman|McMahon|2011|p=466}}
* {{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=7}}
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'''Anatolia''' ({{lang-tr|Anadolu}}), also known as '''Asia Minor''',{{efn|Additional alternative names include '''Asian Turkey''', the '''Anatolian Peninsula''', and the '''Anatolian Plateau'''.}} is a large [[peninsula]] or a region in [[Turkey]], constituting most of its contemporary territory. Geographically, the Anatolian region is bounded by the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the south, the [[Aegean Sea]] to the west, the [[Turkish Straits]] to the north-west, and the [[Black Sea]] to the north. The eastern and southeastern boundary is either the southeastern and eastern borders of Turkey,<ref name=anatolia_definition/> or an imprecise line from the [[
Anatolia was an early centre for the development of farming during the [[Neolithic]] period following its origination in the adjacent [[Fertile Crescent]]. Beginning around 9,000 years ago there was major migration of [[Anatolian Neolithic Farmers]] into Europe, with their descendants coming to dominate Europe as far west as the Iberian Peninsula and the British Isles.
The ancient [[Anatolian peoples]] spoke the now-extinct [[Anatolian languages]] of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language family, which were largely replaced by the [[Greek language]] during [[classical antiquity]] as well as during the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]], [[Roman Empire|Roman]], and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] periods. The major Anatolian languages included [[Hittite language|Hittite]], [[Luwian language|Luwian]], and [[Lydian language|Lydian]], while other, poorly attested local languages included [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]] and [[Mysian language|Mysian]]. [[Hurro-Urartian languages]] were spoken in the southeastern kingdom of [[Mitanni]], while [[Galatian language|Galatian]], a [[Celtic languages|Celtic language]], was spoken in [[Galatia]], central Anatolia. Ancient peoples in the region included [[Galatians (people)|Galatians]], [[Hurrians]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Hattians]], [[Cimmerians]], as well as [[Ionians|Ionian]], [[Dorians|Dorian]], and [[Aeolic Greek]]s. The [[Turkification]] of Anatolia began under the rule of the [[Seljuk Empire]] in the late 11th century, continued under the [[Ottoman Empire]] between the late 13th and early 20th centuries, and continues today under the [[History of the Republic of Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]. However, various non-Turkic languages continue to be spoken by minorities in Anatolia, including [[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]], [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic|Neo-Aramaic]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[North Caucasian languages]], [[Laz language|Laz]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], and [[Greek language|Greek]].▼
▲The ancient [[Anatolian peoples]] spoke the now-extinct [[Anatolian languages]] of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language family, which were largely replaced by the [[Greek language]] during [[classical antiquity]] as well as during the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]], [[Roman Empire|Roman]], and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] periods. The major Anatolian languages included [[Hittite language|Hittite]], [[Luwian language|Luwian]], and [[Lydian language|Lydian]], while other, poorly attested local languages included [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]] and [[Mysian language|Mysian]]. [[Hurro-Urartian languages]] were spoken in the southeastern kingdom of [[Mitanni]], while [[Galatian language|Galatian]], a [[Celtic languages|Celtic language]], was spoken in [[Galatia]], central Anatolia. Ancient peoples in the region included [[Galatians (people)|Galatians]], [[Hurrians]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Armenians]], [[Hattians]], [[Cimmerians]], as well as [[Ionians|Ionian]], [[Dorians|Dorian]], and [[Aeolic Greek]]s. The [[Turkification]] of Anatolia began under the rule of the [[Seljuk Empire]] in the late 11th century, continued under the [[Ottoman Empire]] between the late 13th and early 20th centuries, and continues today under the [[History of the Republic of Turkey|Republic of
==Geography==
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Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to an indefinite line running from the [[Gulf of Alexandretta]] to the [[Black Sea]],<ref name="Niewohner2017">{{cite book|author=Philipp Niewohner|title=The Archaeology of Byzantine Anatolia: From the End of Late Antiquity until the Coming of the Turks|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cAUmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|date=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0190610470|pages=18–|access-date=7 December 2018|archive-date=11 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200311111958/https://books.google.com/books?id=cAUmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|url-status=live}}</ref> coterminous with the [[Anatolian Plateau]]. This traditional geographical definition is used, for example, in the latest edition of ''[[Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary]]''.<ref name="Merriam" /> Under this definition, Anatolia is bounded to the east by the [[Armenian Highlands]], and the [[Euphrates]] before that river bends to the southeast to enter [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name="Mitchell">Stephen Mitchell (1995). ''Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor. The Celts in Anatolia and the impact of Roman rule''. Clarendon Press, 266 pp. {{ISBN|978-0198150299}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=pUYtwuve40kC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329114033/https://books.google.com/books?id=pUYtwuve40kC|date=29 March 2017}}</ref> To the southeast, it is bounded by the ranges that separate it from the [[Orontes River|Orontes]] valley in [[Syria (region)|Syria]] and the Mesopotamian plain.<ref name="Mitchell"/>
Following the [[Armenian genocide]], [[Western Armenia]] [[Eastern Anatolia Region#Substitution with Armenia|was renamed]] the [[Eastern Anatolia Region]] by the newly established Turkish government.<ref name="Sahakyan">{{cite book|last=Sahakyan|first=Lusine|title=Turkification of the Toponyms in the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey|year=2010|publisher=Arod Books|location=Montreal|isbn=978-0969987970}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Hovannisian |first1=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K3monyE4CVQC |title=The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies |date=2007 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-1412835923 |location=New Brunswick, NJ |page=3 |access-date=10 September 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010030024/https://books.google.com/books?id=K3monyE4CVQC |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1941, with the [[First Geography Congress, Turkey|First Geography Congress]] which divided Turkey into [[geographical regions of Turkey|seven geographical regions]] based on differences in climate and landscape, the eastern [[provinces of Turkey]] were placed into the [[Eastern Anatolia Region]],<ref>[http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2167/irgee216.0 A Comparative Analysis Regarding Pictures Included in Secondary School Geography Textbooks Taught in Turkey]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413141440/http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2167/irgee216.0 |date=
The highest mountain in the [[Eastern Anatolia Region]] (also the highest peak in the [[Armenian Highlands]]) is [[Mount Ararat]] (5123 m).<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 42| issue = 2| pages = 143–149| last1 = Fevzi Özgökçe| last2 = Kit Tan| last3 = Vladimir Stevanović| title = A new subspecies of Silene acaulis (Caryophyllaceae) from East Anatolia, Turkey| journal = Annales Botanici Fennici|year = 2005| jstor = 23726860}}</ref> The [[Euphrates]], [[Aras (river)|Aras]], [[Karasu (Euphrates)|Karasu]] and [[Murat river]]s connect the Armenian Highlands to the [[South Caucasus]] and the Upper Euphrates Valley. Along with the [[Çoruh]], these rivers are the longest in the Eastern Anatolia Region.<ref name=palumbi>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0009| last = Palumbi| first = Giulio| title = The Chalcolithic of Eastern Anatolia| journal = The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia| volume = 1| access-date = 6 May 2018| date = 5 September 2011| url = http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195376142-e-9| editor1-last = McMahon| editor1-first = Gregory| editor2-last = Steadman| editor2-first = Sharon| archive-date = 12 May 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180512155433/http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195376142-e-9| url-status = live}}</ref>
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{{main|Prehistory of Anatolia}}
Human habitation in Anatolia dates back to the [[Paleolithic]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stiner |first=Mary C. |author2=Kuhn, Steven L. |author3= Güleç, Erksin |title=Early Upper Paleolithic shell beads at Üçağızlı Cave I (Turkey): Technology and the socioeconomic context of ornament life-histories |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |volume=64 |issue=5 |pages=380–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.01.008 |issn=0047-2484 |year=2013 |pmid=23481346|bibcode=2013JHumE..64..380S }}</ref> Neolithic settlements include [[Çatalhöyük]], [[Çayönü]], [[Nevali Cori]], [[Aşıklı Höyük]], [[Boncuklu Höyük]], [[Hacilar]], [[Göbekli Tepe]], [[Norşuntepe]], [[Köşk Höyük]], and [[Yumuktepe]]. Çatalhöyük (7.000 BCE) is considered the most advanced of these.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Whitehouse |first1=Harvey |last2=Martin |first2=Luther H. |title=Theorizing Religions Past: Archaeology, History, and Cognition |date=2004 |publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=978-0-7591-0621-5 |page=38 |language=en}}</ref>
[[Neolithic]] Anatolia has been [[Anatolian hypothesis|proposed]] as the [[Urheimat|homeland]] of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]], although linguists tend to favour a [[Kurgan hypothesis|later origin]] in the steppes north of the Black Sea. However, it is clear that the [[Anatolian languages]], the earliest attested branch of Indo-European, have been spoken in Anatolia since at least the 19th century BCE.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Indo-European Daughter Languages: Anatolian|url=https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesMiddEast/AnatoliaLanguage01.htm|access-date=26 January 2021|website=www.historyfiles.co.uk|archive-date=13 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513212533/https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesMiddEast/AnatoliaLanguage01.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Anatolian languages|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anatolian-languages|access-date=26 January 2021|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=6 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906190429/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anatolian-languages|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Ancient Anatolia===
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{{main|Classical Anatolia}}
In [[Classical antiquity]], Anatolia was described by the Ancient Greek historian [[Herodotus]] and later historians as divided into regions that were diverse in culture, language, and religious practices.<ref name=yavuz>{{Cite book| publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0195170726| last = Yavuz| first = Mehmet Fatih| title = The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome| chapter = Anatolia| access-date = 5 December 2018| date = 2010| chapter-url = http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001/acref-9780195170726-e-61| doi = 10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001| archive-date = 6 December 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181206102239/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001/acref-9780195170726-e-61| url-status = live}}</ref> The northern regions included [[Bithynia]], [[Paphlagonia]], and [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]]; to the west were [[Mysia]], [[Lydia]], and Caria; and [[Lycia]], [[Pamphylia]], and [[Cilicia]] belonged to the southern shore. There were also several inland regions: [[Phrygia]], [[Cappadocia]], [[Pisidia]], and [[Galatia]].<ref name=yavuz /> Languages spoken included the late surviving [[Anatolic languages]], [[Isaurian language|Isaurian]],<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5geoDQAAQBAJ&q=isaurian%20personal%20names&pg=PT64|title=Violence in Late Antiquity: Perceptions and Practices|last=Honey|first=Linda|isbn=978-1351875745|page=50|chapter=Justifiably Outraged or Simply Outrageous? The Isaurian Incident of Ammianus Marcellinus|date=5 December 2016|publisher=Routledge |access-date=8 November 2020|archive-date=19 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519052917/https://books.google.com/books?id=5geoDQAAQBAJ&q=isaurian%20personal%20names&pg=PT64|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Pisidian language|Pisidian]], Greek in western and coastal regions, [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]] spoken until the 7th century CE,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Swain|first1=Simon|last2=Adams|first2=J. Maxwell|last3=Janse|first3=Mark|title=Bilingualism in Ancient Society: Language Contact and the Written Word|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford [Oxfordshire]|year=2002 |pages=246–66|isbn=0199245061}}</ref> local variants of [[Thracian]] in the northwest, the [[Galatian language|Galatian variant of Gaulish]] in [[Galatia]] until the 6th century CE,<ref>Freeman, Philip, ''The Galatian Language'', Edwin Mellen, 2001, pp. 11–12.</ref><ref>Clackson, James. "Language maintenance and language shift in the Mediterranean world during the Roman Empire." Multilingualism in the Graeco-Roman Worlds (2012): 36–57. p. 46: The second testimonium for the late survival of Galatian appears in the Life of Saint Euthymius, who died in ad 487.</ref><ref>Norton, Tom. [https://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/402/1/TOM%20NORTON.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102201528/http://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/402/1/TOM%20NORTON.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/402/1/TOM%20NORTON.pdf|archive-date=9 October 2022
Anatolia is known as the birthplace of minted [[coin]]age (as opposed to unminted coinage, which first appears in [[Mesopotamia]] at a much earlier date) as a medium of exchange, some time in the 7th century BCE in Lydia. The use of minted coins continued to flourish during the [[Hellenistic period|Greek]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] eras.<ref>{{Cite book|isbn=978-0415089920|last=Howgego|first=C. J.|title=Ancient History from Coins|author-link=Christopher Howgego| year=1995|publisher=Routledge }}</ref><ref>[http://www.asiaminorcoins.com/ Asia Minor Coins] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317151148/https://www.asiaminorcoins.com/ |date=17 March 2020 }} – an index of Greek and Roman coins from Asia Minor (ancient Anatolia)</ref>
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[[File:Growth of the Ottoman Empire.jpg|thumb|[[Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire]] between 1359 and 1683]]
Among the [[Turkish people|Turkish]] leaders, the [[Ottoman dynasty|Ottomans]] emerged as great power under [[Osman I]] and his son [[Orhan]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Osman-I|title=Osman I {{!}} Ottoman sultan|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=23 April 2018|archive-date=24 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424073731/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Osman-I|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Orhan|title=Orhan {{!}} Ottoman sultan|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=23 April 2018|archive-date=10 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310140006/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Orhan|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Anatolian beyliks]] were successively absorbed into the rising [[Ottoman Empire]] during the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/new-cambridge-history-of-islam/rise-of-the-ottomans/015D10BC98EA8A2D69B29D54AC7241CC|title=The rise of the Ottomans (Chapter 11) – The New Cambridge History of Islam|pages=313–31|last=Fleet|first=Kate|publisher=Cambridge Core|language=en|access-date=23 April 2018|doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521839570.013|chapter=The rise of the Ottomans|year=2010|isbn=978-1139056151|archive-date=24 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424071602/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/new-cambridge-history-of-islam/rise-of-the-ottomans/015D10BC98EA8A2D69B29D54AC7241CC|url-status=live}}</ref> It is not well understood how the Osmanlı, or [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]], came to dominate their neighbours, as the history of medieval Anatolia is still little known.<ref>{{cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9cTHyUQoTyUC&pg=PA5 |year=2007 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0465008506 |page=5 |access-date=6 June 2013 |archive-date=2 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102002603/http://books.google.com/books?id=9cTHyUQoTyUC&pg=PA5 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Ottomans completed the conquest of the peninsula in 1517 with the taking of [[Halicarnassus]] (modern [[Bodrum]]) from the [[Knights of Saint John]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/halicarnassus|title=Halicarnassus |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |orig-date=
===Modern times===
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