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[[File:Infant babbling in crib.ogv|thumb|A babbling infant, age 6 months, making ''ba'' and ''ma'' sounds (15 seconds)]]▼
'''Babbling''' is a stage in child development and a state in [[language acquisition]] during which an [[infant]] appears to be experimenting with uttering articulate sounds, but does not yet [[Speech production|produce]] any recognizable words. Babbling begins shortly after birth and progresses through several stages as the infant's repertoire of sounds expands and vocalizations become more speech-like.<ref>Oller, D. K. ''The Emergence of the Speech Capacity''. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000.</ref> Infants typically begin to produce recognizable words when they are around 12 months of age, though babbling may continue for some time afterward.<ref name="Social Feedback 7">{{cite journal|last=Goldstein|first=Michael H.|author2=Schwade, Jennifer A.|title=Social Feedback to Infants' Babbling Facilitates Rapid Phonological Learning|journal=Psychological Science|year=2008|volume=19|issue=5|pages=515–523|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02117.x|pmid=18466414|s2cid=17373701}}</ref>▼
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▲'''Babbling''' is a [[child development stages|stage]] in [[child development]] and a state in [[language acquisition]] during which an [[infant]] appears to be experimenting with uttering articulate sounds, but does not yet [[
Babbling can be seen as a precursor to [[language development]] or simply as vocal experimentation. The physical structures involved in babbling are still being developed in the first year of a child's life.<ref name=":3" /> This continued physical development is responsible for some of the changes in abilities and variations of sound babies can produce. Abnormal developments such as certain medical conditions, developmental delays, and hearing impairments may interfere with a child's ability to babble normally. Though there is still disagreement about the uniqueness of [[language]] to humans, babbling is not unique to the human species.<ref name=":5" />
== Typical development ==
Babbling is a stage in language acquisition. Babbles are separated from language because they do not convey meaning or refer to anything specific like words do. Human [[infants]] are not necessarily excited or upset when babbling; they may also babble spontaneously and incessantly when they are emotionally calm.
The sounds of babbling are produced before an infant begins to construct recognizable [[words]].<ref name="How do infants attain first signs 4">{{cite journal|last=Takei|first=Waturu|title=How do deaf infants attain first signs?|journal=Developmental Science|year=2001|volume=4|pages=71–78|doi=10.1111/1467-7687.00150}}</ref> This can be partly attributed to the immaturity of the [[vocal tract]] and [[neuromusculature]] at this age in life.<ref name="6 influences">{{cite journal|last=Werker|first=Janet F|author2=Tees, Richard C.|title=Influences on infant speech processing: Toward a new synthesis.|journal=Annual Review of Psychology|year=1999|volume=50|pages=509–535|doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.509|pmid=10074686}}</ref> Infants first begin vocalizing by crying, followed by cooing and then vocal play. These first forms of sound production are the easiest for children to use because they contain natural, reflexive, mostly [[vowel]] sounds.
Babbling
The [[consonants]] that babbling infants produce tend to be any of the following: {{IPA|/p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, s, h, w, j/}}. The following consonants tend to be infrequently produced during [[phonological development]]: {{IPA|/f, v, θ, ð, ʃ, tʃ, dʒ, l, r, ŋ/}}. The complexity of the sounds that infants produce makes them difficult to categorize, but the above rules tend to hold true regardless of the language to which children are exposed.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Contemporary linguistic analysis: An Introduction|editor1-last=O'Grady |editor1-first=W. |editor2-last=Archibald |editor2-first=J. |name-list-style=amp|publisher=Pearson|year=2011|isbn=9781256320258|location=Boston}}</ref>
The sounds produced in babble have been categorised relative to their components. For
If babbling occurs during the first year of life, it can typically be concluded that the child is developing speech normally. As babies grow and change, their vocalizations will change as well.
=== Timeline of typical vocal development ===
Infants follow a general timeline of vocal developments in childhood.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title = Language Development: An Introduction|url = https://archive.org/details/languagedevelopm0000owen|url-access = registration|last = Owens|first = R. E.|publisher = Pearson|year = 2005|location = Boston|pages = [https://archive.org/details/languagedevelopm0000owen/page/125 125]–136}}</ref> This timeline provides a general outline of expected developments from birth to age one. Babbling usually lasts 6–9 months in total.<ref name=":5" /> The babbling period ends at around 12 months because it is the age when first words usually occur. However, individual children can show large variability, and this timeline is only a guideline.
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=== Manual babbling ===
[[Manual babbling]] is structurally identical to vocal babbling in its development.<ref name="Petitto">{{cite journal |last1=Petitto |first1=L. |last2=Marentette |first2=P. |title=Babbling in the manual mode: evidence for the ontogeny of language |journal=Science |date=22 March 1991 |volume=251 |issue=5000 |pages=1493–1496 |doi=10.1126/science.2006424 |pmid=2006424 |bibcode=1991Sci...251.1493P |s2cid=9812277 }}</ref> Just as hearing and/or speaking infants babble with their mouths, infants who grow up with a [[sign language]] babble with their hands.<ref name="Petitto" /> If a hearing infant has deaf and/or mute parents or parents who otherwise use a sign language, they will still imitate the signs that they see their parents displaying. This is evidence that manual babbling is possible in both hearing and deaf infants, and in both speaking and mute infants.<ref name="Petitto" />
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Children are able to produce signs correctly, which is important since many articulation tendencies of manual babbling transfer to the children’s early sign production.<ref name="Cheek" /> Children acquire signs for the same concepts as speaking children's words, and in the same stage of development.<ref name="Cheek" />
== Transition from babbling to language ==
Two hypotheses have been devised in order to explain how babbling is related to language development.<ref name=":5" />
* '''Discontinuity hypothesis''' – This early hypothesis suggests that babbling has absolutely no relationship to language development.<ref name=":5" /> If true, infants would produce a full range of random sounds in no particular order during the babbling stage. However, it has been demonstrated that early babbling is quite limited.<ref name=":5" /> Supporters of this hypothesis also thought that children might drop certain sounds only to pick them up again in later months. Supporters proposed it would be possible for babies to incorrectly and inconsistently use sounds that they had already mastered in the early babbling stages later in life or even lose sounds altogether before learning how to speak. The hypothesis also implies that when children finally reach the age where they are able to learn their native language, they develop phonological sounds in an orderly manner. Over time, infants will relearn sounds and develop words in a specific language. Current evidence does not support these claims.<ref name=":5" />
Contemporary research supports the notion that babbling is directly related to the development of language as discussed in The Continuity Hypothesis.
*'''Continuity hypothesis''' – According to this hypothesis, babbling is a direct forerunner to language. At first, infants produce universal sounds that exist in all areas of the world and in all languages. Reduplicated canonical babbling<ref name="Role audition 3 babbling page">{{cite journal|
== Physiology of babbling ==
The human mouth moves in distinct ways during speech production. When producing each individual sound out loud, humans use different parts of their mouths, as well as different methods to produce particular sounds. During the beginnings of babbling, infants tend to have greater mouth openings on the right side. This finding suggests that babbling is controlled by the left hemisphere of the brain.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Holowka |first1=S. |last2=Petitto |first2=L. A. |name-list-style=amp|date=2002|title=Left hemisphere cerebral specialization for babies while babbling|journal=Science |volume=297 |issue=5586 |page=1515 |doi=10.1126/science.1074941|pmid=12202820|s2cid=35314696 }}</ref> The [[larynx]], or voicebox, is originally high in the throat which allows the baby to continue to breathe while swallowing. It descends during the first year of life, allowing the [[pharynx]] to develop and facilitates the production of adult-like [[speech]] sounds.<ref name=":3">{{cite book |first=Naomi S. |last=Baron |title=Growing up with Language: How Children Learn to Talk |location=Reading, Massachusetts |publisher=Addison-Wesley |year=1992 |pages=
Reduplicated babbling (such as 'bababa') involves a rhythmic opening and closing of the jaw.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dolata|first1=Jill K.|last2=Davis|first2=Barbara L.|last3=MacNeilage|first3=Peter F.|title=Characteristics of the rhythmic organization of vocal babbling: Implications for an amodal linguistic rhythm|journal=Infant Behavior and Development|volume=31|issue=3|pages=422–431|doi=10.1016/j.infbeh.2007.12.014|pmid=18289693|year=2008}}</ref> According to the frame dominance theory, when the [[mandible]] (jaw) is elevated, a [[consonant]] sound will be produced. When the mandible is lowered, a [[vowel]]-like sound is produced. Therefore, during a reduplicated sequence of sounds, the consonant and vowels are alternated as the mandible elevates and depresses. The opening and closing of the mouth alone will not produce babbling, and [[phonation]] (or voicing) is necessary during the movement in order to create a meaningful sound. Other important oral structures involved in articulation, such as the tongue, lips and teeth remain in a stable resting position during babbling.<ref name="3 co-occurence">{{cite journal|last1=Schauwers|first1=Karen|first2=Paul J. |last2=Govaerts |first3=Steven |last3=Gillis |title=Co-occurrence patterns in the babbling of children with a cochlear implant|journal=The Syllable in Speech Production|year=2008|pages=187–204}}</ref> Sometimes during the babbling period, the motions can be made without any vocalization at all.<ref name=Cheek /> Signing infants produce manual babbling through similar rhythmic alternations, but they perform with their hands instead of their mouths. As a baby goes beyond the reduplicated sequences of babbling, they exhibit equal sized mouth or hand openings on the right and left sides.<ref name=Petitto />
== Abnormal development ==
Typically by 6 months of age, all normally developing children will babble.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Encyclopedia of Human Development|url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediahuma00salk|url-access = limited|last = Salkind|first = N. J.|publisher = Sage |year = 2006|location = Thousand Oaks, California|pages = [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediahuma00salk/page/n189 151]|isbn = 9781412904759}}</ref> However, infants with certain medical conditions or developmental delays may exhibit a delay or an absence of babbling. For example, infants who have had a [[tracheotomy]] typically do not babble because they are unable to phonate.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = Encyclopedia of Human Development|url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediahuma00salk|url-access = limited|last = Salkind|first = N. J.|publisher = Sage |year = 2006|location = Thousand Oaks, California|pages = [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediahuma00salk/page/n190 152]|isbn = 9781412904759}}</ref> Following decannulation, it has been found that these infants do produce more vocalizations, but the sounds or syllables are not as diverse as those found in typically developing infant's canonical babbling behaviour.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Babbling and early speech: continuity and individual differences|last = Locke|first = J. L.|date = 1989|journal = First Language|volume = 9|issue = 6|pages = 191–205|doi = 10.1177/014272378900900606|s2cid = 145364002}}</ref> Infants with severe [[Apraxia of speech|apraxia]] may not babble, and may fail to produce first words. Communication by infants with apraxia may instead be in the form of grunting and pointing.<ref name=":0" /> Infants with [[Autism spectrum|autism]] may show a delay in babbling, and in some cases it may be completely absent.<ref name=":0" /> Babbling in children with autism tends to occur less frequently than in typically developing children, and with a smaller range of syllables produced during the canonical babbling stage.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Vocal Patterns in Infants with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Canonical Babbling Status and Vocalization Frequency|journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders|date = 2014-01-31|issn = 0162-3257|pmc = 4117826|pmid = 24482292|pages = 2413–2428|volume = 44|issue = 10|doi = 10.1007/s10803-014-2047-4|first1 = Elena|last1 = Patten|first2 = Katie|last2 = Belardi|first3 = Grace T.|last3 = Baranek|first4 = Linda R.|last4 = Watson|first5 = Jeffrey D.|last5 = Labban|first6 = D. Kimbrough|last6 = Oller}}</ref> Babbling may also be delayed in individuals who are born with [[Down syndrome]]. The canonical stage may emerge two months later for individuals with Down syndrome compared to other infants, although, when produced, it is similar to babbling in typically developing infants.<ref name=":0" />
=== Vocal babbling in deaf infants ===
Research has been conducted to determine whether or not infants with impaired hearing can demonstrate typical vocal sounds. Babbling can appear at the same age and in similar forms in hearing and deaf child, however, further continuation of babbling and speech development depends upon the ability for the child to hear themselves. For this reason, deaf children stop babbling vocally earlier than hearing children.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Babbling and the deaf child: a commentary on Lenneberg et al. (1965) and Lenneberg (1967)|journal = Journal of Child Language|date = 1982-06-01|issn = 1469-7602|pages = 511–515|volume = 9|issue = 2|doi = 10.1017/S0305000900004840|pmid = 7119048|first = John H. V.|last = Gilbert| s2cid=38338506 }}</ref> Babbling should appear if the child is exposed to language, but vocal babbling can be delayed or non-existent for deaf children.<ref name="Cheek" /> It is not clear whether spoken language can develop fully without auditory experience.<ref name="Role audition 3 babbling page" /> Deaf children are not only significantly delayed in spoken language development in comparison to their hearing counterparts, but they also produce fewer noises.<ref name="5 rel of aud">{{cite journal|last=Bass-Ringdahl|first=Sandie M.|year=2010|title=The Relationship of Audibility and the Development of Canonical Babbling in Young Children With Hearing Impairment|journal=Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education|volume=15|issue=3|pages=287–310|doi=10.1093/deafed/enq013|pmid=20457674|pmc=2912640}}</ref> This suggests that auditory experience is necessary in spoken language development. Some researchers have taken these findings as evidence against the hypothesis that language is an [[Innateness hypothesis|innate human capability]].<ref name="3 co-occurence" />
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A number of solutions have been used for hearing-impaired humans to gain auditory experience, one of which is [[hearing aids]]; they can be used to help infants reach babbling stages earlier.<ref name="Role audition 3 babbling page" /> [[Cochlear implants]] have also been tested. Once the surgical implantation is complete, an infant has the opportunity to experience spoken language input. Once language has been heard, the infant begins to babble and speak in rhythmic patterns just as hearing infants do.<ref name="3 co-occurence" />
== Evidence across species ==
Though there is disagreement about the uniqueness of [[language]] to humans, babbling is not unique to the human species.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title = The Psychology of Language 2Ed|last = Harley|first = Trevor|publisher = Psychology Press|year = 2001|isbn = 978-0-86377-867-4|location = New York|url-access = registration|url = https://archive.org/details/psychologyoflang0000harl_q7q3}}</ref> Many animals produce similar ranges of sounds to human infants. These ranges of sounds are used in the young of many species to experiment with sound-making capabilities, or to practice for future vocal behavior. Similar to human infants, animal babbling is restricted by physiological development.<ref name=":4" />
=== Songbirds ===
Not only are [[songbird]] and human language parallel regarding neural and molecular factors, they also are similar in how their communication is initially produced. Observations about these similarities can be traced back to [[Charles Darwin]] and his studies. [[Bird|Avian]] and [[mammalian]] brains are similar in form and connectivity and there may even be a [[gene]] that is relevant to speech found in both organisms. The learning of a song is produced through a mix of interaction, experience, and predisposition. Young songbirds will imitate their species' call when presented with songs from their own and another species. They are physically capable of producing either song, but do not. Humans learn language through similar means, which is why this early vocalization in songbirds is considered babbling.<ref name=Bolhuis>{{cite journal|last1=Bolhuis|first1=J. J.|last2=Okanoya |first2=K. |last3=Scharff |first3=C. |title=Twitter evolution: Converging mechanisms in birdsong and human speech|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|year=2010|volume=11|issue=11|pages=747–759|doi=10.1038/nrn2931|pmid=20959859|s2cid=924972}}</ref>
Songbirds produce varieties of immature songs that are referred to as babbling because the immature songs precede those that are fully developed. As with humans, if these songs are reinforced with positive social feedback, they are more likely to recur. Other conspecifics provide feedback, especially the females in species for which only the males produce song. If females provide more social signals as feedback, males will develop more mature songs at a faster rate than other male birds. Young birds require reinforcement from adults in order to finalize their songs. Another relation to human infants is that the amount of vocalizations is not key, but rather the quality of the sounds that is retained and resembles the final produce of language.<ref name="Song birds second source">{{cite journal|
The physiology of the animal is important. The properties of the ear and vocal tract, as well as the brain regions used in analyzing and processing information are critical determinants of how song is interpreted and later produced. In studies using isolated birds that have not had exposure to song, they produce an abnormal 'isolate song' that nevertheless contains species-specific aspects. This shows that the neural pathways have predetermined features that allow for such a phenomenon to occur. The pathways are able to allow for plasticity of the songs that can be learned in the future.<ref name=Bolhuis />
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There is an important phase in development when song learning is best accomplished. This phase is called the 'sensitive period' and the amount of change that a songbird experiences in adulthood varies by species. Young birds have a production phase after a listening phase of development. The production of song is called 'subsong' where vocalizations resemble that of an adult as time passes. Memory for songs is able to form before the period where learning to sing occurs. Social interaction is important in vocal learning where non-singing females can even influence an infant through feedback.<ref name=Bolhuis />
=== Pygmy marmoset (''Cebuella pygmaea'') ===
[[Pygmy marmoset]]s have been studied and found to produce complex vocalizations 2–3 weeks after birth. Both sexes are capable of creating calls at a rate of 3 calls/second and each bout of calls can last up to 6 or 7 minutes. A normal series of calls by a pygmy marmoset contains approximately 10 different call types. This variety of call forms produced by this creature is comparable to babbling in human infants for a number of reasons. Like reduplicative babbling in humans, the call is often repeated several times before a new sequence of sounds is produced. The vocalizations gain attention from caregivers and provide practice for future vocal behavior. For these reasons, pygmy marmoset calls are seen as babbling behavior.<ref name=Snowdon>{{cite journal|last1=Snowdon|first1=C. T.|last2=Elowson |first2=A. M.|title='Babbling' in pygmy marmosets: Development after infancy|journal=Behaviour|year=2001|volume=138|issue=10|pages=1235–1248|doi=10.1163/15685390152822193}}</ref>
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There are a total of 16 call types in pygmy marmoset babbling language. Different calls serve different survival functions such as when desiring food, social interaction or during times of alarm. As human infants have, marmoset babies have higher rates of social interaction when producing babbling sounds. During the juvenile age, marmosets often regress back to babbling stages if a new infant is born. It is suggested that their production of babbling calls increases because they are seeking attention and social interaction. Another babbling occurrence during the juvenile age is the addition of territorial calls and mild threat vocalizations. Although babbling is important for practising adult calls during the juvenile age, babbling decreases with age in pygmy marmosets. Overall, babbling progresses through a series of stages from infancy to adulthood and slowly leads to the construction of adult calls.<ref name=Snowdon />
=== Sac-winged bat (''Saccopteryx bilineata'') ===
Babbling-like behavior in songbirds, humans and some nonhuman primates has been previously researched, but it has not been researched until recently in non-primate mammals. The [[sac-winged bat]] (''Saccopteryx bilineata'') is a social creature and the vocalizations that it produces depend on the social situation that the animal is in. This bat has a large repertoire of vocalizations with males being more vocal than females. [[Animal echolocation|Echolocation]] pulses, barks, chatters, and screeches are used in various social situations including courtship and territorial defense. Infants produce isolation calls if their mothers are absent, but the pups also produce vocalizations that mirror those of adults. Both sexes of infants babble, even though as an adult, the vocalizations are solely produced by males. Social context, mothers, and surrounding bats do not influence pups because the multiple vocalizations are combined regardless of the situation. Since there is not a social aspect correlated with the vocalizations, the productions of the sounds suggest that the pups vocalize for training. The pups repeat and combine adult vocalizations so that they resemble babbling in what humans, other primates and some songbirds do as infants. However, while human babbling increases social interactions, there are no social responses to babbling in bats. Babbling is common in infants that have a large repertoire of adult vocalizations to learn and this is seen in the pups of sac-winged bat.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Knornschild|first1=M. |last2=Behr |first2=O. |last3=Von Helversen |first3=O.|title=Babbling behavior in the sac-winged bat (Saccopteryx bilineata)|journal=Naturwissenschaften|year=2006|volume=93|issue=9 |pages=451–454|doi=10.1007/s00114-006-0127-9|pmid=16736178|bibcode=2006NW.....93..451K |s2cid=33556162 }}</ref>
== See also ==
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* {{annotated link|Crib talk}}
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*
* [[Motor babbling]]▼
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* {{annotated link|Mama and papa}}
== References ==
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