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Line 2: {{use British English\|date=January 2023}} {{Redirect\|Explorer\|other uses\|Explorer (disambiguation)\|and\|Explorations (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=April 2024}} '''Exploration''' is the process of exploring, an activity which has some [[Expectation (epistemic)\|expectation]] of [[Discovery (observation)\|discovery]]. Organised exploration is largely a human activity, but exploratory activity is common to most organisms capable of directed [[Animal locomotion\|locomotion]] and the ability to learn, and has been described in, amongst others, [[social insect]]s foraging behaviour, where feedback from returning individuals affects the activity of other members of the group.<ref name="Biesmeijer and de Vries 2001" /> ~~Exploration has been defined as:~~ To travel somewhere in search of discovery.<ref name="Wiktionary" /> To examine or investigate something systematically.<ref name="Wiktionary" /> To examine diagnostically.<ref name="Wiktionary" /> To (seek) experience first hand.<ref name="Wiktionary" /> To wander without any particular aim or purpose.<ref name="Wiktionary" /> In all these definitions there is an implication of novelty, or unfamiliarity or the expectation of discovery in the exploration, whereas a [[Survey (disambiguation)\|survey]]<!-- Disambiguation page intended --> implies directed examination, but not necessarily discovery of any previously unknown or unexpected information. The activities are not mutually exclusive, and often occur simultaneously to a variable extent. The same field of investigation or region may be explored at different times by different explorers with different motivations, who may make similar or different discoveries. ~~[[Intrinsic exploration]] involves activity that is not directed towards a specific goal other than the activity itself.<ref name="Hughes 1997" />~~ ~~[[Extrinsic exploration]] has the same meaning as [[appetitive behavior]].<ref name="Wood-Gush and Vestergaard 1989" />{{clarify\|date=January 2023}} It is directed towards a specific goal.~~ ~~==Motivation==~~ ~~{{See also\|Curiosity}}~~ Curiosity is a quality related to inquisitive [[thinking]] and activities such as exploration, investigation, and [[learning]], evident by observation in humans and other animals.<ref name="Berlyne 1954" /><ref name="Berlyne 1955" /> Curiosity has been found to be a strong motivation for exploration. When the potential external rewards are uncertain or unclear, an intrinsic drive is more likely to motivate exploration sufficiently to achieve results. Factors suggested to underlie curiosity include gain of information, utility of the information, perceived progress, and novelty.<ref name="Poli et al 2022" /> [[Exploratory behavior]] is the movements of people and other animals while becoming familiar with new environments, even when there is no obvious biological advantage to it. A lack of exploratory behaviour may be considered an indication of fearfulness or emotionality.<ref name="APA" /> [[Inspective exploration]] or [[specific exploration]] is directed towards reducing uncertainty, reducing anxiety, or fear, associated with novel stimuli, and thus decreasing arousal.<ref name="APA inspective" /> [[Diversive exploration]] is exploratory behavior seeking seeking novel or otherwise activating stimuli and thus increasing arousal.<ref name="APA diversive" /> [[Affective exploration]] is behaviour directed towards maintaining a desired hedonic level of stimulation.<ref name="Piccone 1999" /> ==Types== ===Geographical=== ~~===Travelling in search of discovery===~~ Travelling with the expectation of discovery is often motivated by a combinion of aspects of inspective and diversive exploration. There are three major subdivisions of this class of exploration, based on the technology involved. ~~====Geographical====~~ {{main\|Geographical exploration}} [[File:OrteliusWorldMap1570.jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.35\|[[Abraham Ortelius\|Ortelius]]'s 1570 world map, the world's first modern atlas]] Line 39 ⟶ 17: Early writings about exploration date back to the 4th millennium B.C. in [[ancient Egypt]]. One of the earliest and most impactful thinkers on exploration was [[Ptolemy]] in the 2nd century AD. Between the 5th century and 15th century AD, most exploration was done by Chinese and Arab explorers. This was followed by the [[Age of Discovery]] after European scholars rediscovered the works of early Latin and Greek geographers. While the Age of Discovery was partly driven by land routes outside of Europe becoming unsafe,<ref name="Age of discovery" /> and a desire for conquest, the 17th century also saw exploration driven by nobler motives, including scientific discovery and the expansion of knowledge about the world.<ref name="RGS 2008" /><!-- citation applies to the entire paragraph (see the Royal Geographic Society Atlas's Foreword page) --> This broader knowledge of the world's geography meant that people were able to make [[world map]]s, depicting all land known. The first modern [[atlas]] was the {{lang\|la\|[[Theatrum Orbis Terrarum]]}}, published by [[Abraham Ortelius]], which included a world map that depicted all of Earth's continents.<ref name="GLO Chapter 2" />{{rp\|page=32}} ====Underwater==== {{main\|Underwater exploration}} [[File:ALVIN submersible.jpg\|thumb\|DSV ''Alvin'', a crewed submersible, much used for underwater exploration]] Underwater exploration is the exploration of any [[underwater environment]], either by direct observation by the explorer, or by remote observation and measurement under the direction of the investigators. Systematic, targeted exploration, with simultaneous survey, and recording of data, followed by data processing, interpretation and publication, is the most effective method to increase understanding of the ocean and other underwater regions, so they can be effectively managed, conserved, regulated, and their resources discovered, accessed, and used. Less than 10% of the ocean has been mapped in any detail, even less has been visually [[Observation\|observed]], and the total diversity of life and distribution of populations is similarly incompletely known.<ref name="NOAA/NOS" /> ====Space==== {{main\|Space exploration}} [[File:AS11-40-5964 (21037459754).jpg\|thumb\|[[Buzz Aldrin]] taking a [[core sample]] of the [[Moon]] during the [[Apollo 11]] mission]] [[File:PIA16239 High-Resolution Self-Portrait by Curiosity Rover Arm Camera square.jpg\|thumb\|[[Self-portrait]] of [[Curiosity (rover)\|''Curiosity'' rover]] on [[Mars]]'s surface]] Space exploration is the use of [[astronomy]] and [[space technology]] to explore [[outer space]].<ref name="NASA" /> While the exploration of space is currently carried out mainly by [[astronomer]]s with [[telescope]]s, its physical exploration is conducted both by [[robotic spacecraft\|uncrewed robotic space probes]] and [[human spaceflight]]. Space exploration, like its classical form [[astronomy]], is one of the main sources for [[space science]]. Line 53 ⟶ 31: While the observation of objects in space, known as astronomy, predates reliable [[recorded history]], it was the development of large and relatively efficient [[rocket]]s during the mid-twentieth century that allowed physical extraterrestrial exploration to become a reality. Common rationales for exploring space include advancing scientific research, national prestige, uniting different nations, ensuring the future survival of humanity, and developing military and strategic advantages against other countries.<ref name="NYT-20150828" /> ===Urban=== ~~===Systematic examination or investigation===~~ ~~{{Main\|Science\|Prospecting}}~~ Systematic investigation is done in an orderly and organised manner, generally following a plan, though it should be a flexible plan, which is amenable to rational adaptation to suit circumstances, as the concept of exploration accepts the possibility of the unexpected being encountered, and the plan must survive such encounters to remain useful.{{citation needed\|date=January 2023}}<!-- Somewhat obvious, but a ref would be nice for completeness--> {{main\|Urban exploration}} Science is a rigorous, [[Scientific method\|systematic]] endeavor that builds and organizes [[knowledge]] in the form of [[Testability\|testable]] [[explanation]]s and [[prediction]]s about the world.<ref name="EOWilson1999a2" /><ref name="Heilbron" /> Modern science is typically divided into three major branches:<ref name="cohen2021" /> [[natural science]]s (e.g., [[physics]], [[chemistry]], and [[biology]]), which study the [[Universe\|physical world]]; the [[social science]]s (e.g., [[economics]], [[psychology]], and [[sociology]]), which study [[individual]]s and [[Society\|societies]];<ref name="colanderhunt2019" /><ref name="nisbetgreenfeld2021" /> and the [[formal science]]s (e.g., [[logic]], [[mathematics]], and [[theoretical computer science]]), which study [[formal system]]s, governed by [[axiom]]s and rules.<ref name="löwe2002" /><ref name="rucker2019" /> There is disagreement whether the formal sciences are science disciplines,<ref name="Bishop1991" /><ref name="nickles2013" /><ref name="Bunge 19982" /> because they do not rely on [[empirical evidence]].<ref name="Fetzer2013" /><ref name="nickles2013" /> [[Applied science]]s are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as in [[engineering]] and [[medicine]].<ref name="fischer20142" /><ref name="sinclair19932" /><ref name="mbunge1966" /> Urban exploration is the exploration of manmade structures, usually abandoned ruins or hidden components of the manmade environment. Photography and historical interest/documentation are heavily featured in the hobby, sometimes involving trespassing onto private property.<ref name="SFGATE_062008">{{cite news\|title=The Art of Urban Exploration\|last=Nestor\|first=James\|date=19 August 2007\|work=San Francisco Chronicle\|access-date=20 June 2008\|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/08/19/CMA4QVBMQ.DTL\|archive-date=9 April 2008\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409084159/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/08/19/CMA4QVBMQ.DTL\|url-status=live}}</ref> Prospecting for [[mineral]]s is an example of systematic investigation and of inspective exploration. Traditionally prospecting relied on direct observation of [[Mineralization (geology)\|mineralisation]] in rock outcrops or in sediments, but more recently also includes the use of [[geologic]], [[geophysical]], and [[geochemical]] tools to search for anomalies which can narrow the search area. The area to be prospected should be covered sufficiently to minimise the risk of missing something important, but can take into account previous experience that certain geological evidence correlates with a very low probability of finding the desired minerals, and other evidence indicates a high probability, making it efficient to concentrate on the areas of high probability when they are found, and to skip areas of very low probability. Once an anomaly has been identified and interpreted to be a prospect, more detailed exploration of the potential reserve can be done by [[soil sampling]], drilling, seismic surveys, and similar methods to assess the most appropriate method and type of [[mining]] and the economic potential.<ref name="Britannica" /> The activity presents various risks, including physical danger and, if done illegally and/or without permission, the possibility of arrest and punishment. Some activities associated with urban exploration violate local or regional laws and certain broadly interpreted [[Anti-terrorism legislation\|anti-terrorism laws]], or can be considered [[trespass]]ing or invasion of privacy.<ref name="trespassingUE_93009">{{cite news\|title=Complete Guide to Urban Exploration\|last=Haeber\|first=Jonathan\|date=21 December 2008\|publisher=Bearings\|access-date=30 September 2009\|url=http://www.terrastories.com/bearings/urban-exploration-guide\|archive-date=1 May 2021\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501105329/https://www.terrastories.com/bearings/urban-exploration-guide\|url-status=live}}</ref> ~~===Diagnostical examination===~~ ~~{{main\|Science\|Medicine\|Forensics}}~~ [[Diagnosis]] is the identification of the nature and cause of a given phenomenon. Diagnosis is used in many different [[academic discipline\|disciplines]], such as medicine, [[forensic science]] and engineering [[failure analysis]], with variations in the use of logic, [[analytics]], and experience, to determine [[causality]].<ref name="Greg Stanley" /> A diagnostic examination explores the available evidence to try to identify likely causes for observed effects, and may also investigate further with the intention to discover additional relevant evidence. This is an instance of inspective and extrinsic exploration. ===Geological=== ~~===To seek experience first hand===~~ {{main\|Exploration geophysics}} ~~{{See also\|Recreation\|Learning}}~~ Exploration as the pursuit of first hand experience and knowledge is often an example of diversive and intrinsic exploration when done for personal satisfaction and entertainment, though it may also be for purposes of learning or verifying the information provided by others, which is an extrinsic motivation, and which is likely to be characterised by a relatively systematic approach. As the personal aspect of the experience is central to this type of exploration, the same region or range of experiences may be explored repeatedly by different people, for each can have a reasonable expectation of personal discovery. ~~{{expand section\|date=January 2023}}~~ Traditionally, [[mineral exploration]] relied on direct observation of [[Mineralization (geology)\|mineralisation]] in rock outcrops or in sediments. More recently, however, mineral exploration also includes the use of [[geologic]], [[geophysical]], and [[geochemical]] tools to search for anomalies, which can narrow the search area. The area to be prospected should be covered sufficiently to minimize the risk of missing something important, but it can take into account previous experience that certain geological evidence correlates with a very low probability of finding the desired minerals. Other evidence indicates a high probability, making it efficient to concentrate on the areas of high probability when they are found, and for the skipping areas of very low probability. Once an anomaly has been identified and interpreted to be a prospect, more detailed exploration of the potential reserve can be done by [[soil sampling]], drilling, seismic surveys, and similar methods to assess the most appropriate method and type of [[mining]] and the economic potential.<ref name="Britannica" /> ~~===Wandering without any particular aim or purpose===~~ ~~{{see also\|Play (activity)\|Recreation}}~~ Wandering about in the hope or expectation of serendipitous discovery may also be considered a form of diversive exploration. This form of exploration may be done in a physical or information environment, such as exploring the internet, also known as web surfing.<ref name="Muylle et al 1999" /> ~~{{expand section\|date=January 2023}}~~ ==~~Other animals~~Modes== ~~{{See also\|Exploratory behavior}}~~ Exploratory behavior has been defined as behavior directed toward getting information about the environment,<ref name="Meyer 1998" /> or to locate things such as food or individuals. Exploration usually follows a sequence, in which four stages can be identified.<ref name="mousebehavior" /> The first phase is search, in which the subject moves around to contact relevant stimuli, to which the subject pays attention, and may approach and investigate. The sequence may be interrupted by flight if danger is recognised, or a return to search if the stimulus is not interesting or useful.<ref name="mousebehavior search" /><ref name="mousebehavior investigate" /><ref name="mousebehavior attend" /><ref name="mousebehavior approach" /> ;Systematic examination or investigation A tendency to explore a new environment has been recognised in a wide range of free-moving animals from invertebrates to primates. Various forms of exploratory behaviour in animas have been analysed and categorised since 1960.<ref name="Hughes 1997" /> :Systematic investigation is done in an orderly and organised manner, generally following a plan, though it should be a flexible plan, which is amenable to rational adaptation to suit circumstances, as the concept of exploration accepts the possibility of the unexpected being encountered, and the plan must survive such encounters to remain useful.{{citation needed\|date=January 2023}}<!-- Somewhat obvious, but a ref would be nice for completeness--> ;Diagnostical examination :[[Diagnosis]] is the identification of the nature and cause of a given phenomenon. Diagnosis is used in many different [[academic discipline\|disciplines]], such as medicine, [[forensic science]] and engineering [[failure analysis]], with variations in the use of logic, [[analytics]], and experience, to determine [[causality]].<ref name="Greg Stanley" /> A diagnostic examination explores the available evidence to try to identify likely causes for observed effects, and may also investigate further with the intention to discover additional relevant evidence. This is an instance of inspective and extrinsic exploration. ;To seek experience first hand :Exploration as the pursuit of first hand experience and knowledge is often an example of diversive and intrinsic exploration when done for personal satisfaction and entertainment, though it may also be for purposes of learning or verifying the information provided by others, which is an extrinsic motivation, and which is likely to be characterised by a relatively systematic approach. As the personal aspect of the experience is central to this type of exploration, the same region or range of experiences may be explored repeatedly by different people, for each can have a reasonable expectation of personal discovery. ;Exploratory behavior in animals :[[Exploratory behavior]] has been defined as behavior directed toward getting information about the environment,<ref name="Meyer 1998" /> or to locate things such as food or individuals. Exploration usually follows a sequence, in which four stages can be identified.<ref name="mousebehavior" /> The first phase is search, in which the subject moves around to contact relevant stimuli, to which the subject pays attention, and may approach and investigate. The sequence may be interrupted by flight if danger is recognised, or a return to search if the stimulus is not interesting or useful.<ref name="mousebehavior search" /><ref name="mousebehavior investigate" /><ref name="mousebehavior attend" /><ref name="mousebehavior approach" /> In all these definitions there is an implication of novelty, or unfamiliarity or the expectation of discovery in the exploration, whereas a [[Survey (disambiguation)\|survey]]<!-- Disambiguation page intended --> implies directed examination, but not necessarily discovery of any previously unknown or unexpected information. The activities are not mutually exclusive, and often occur simultaneously to a variable extent. The same field of investigation or region may be explored at different times by different explorers with different motivations, who may make similar or different discoveries. ==See also== Line 96 ⟶ 75: {{Reflist\|refs= <ref name="Age of discovery" >{{Cite web \|title=European exploration -– The Age of Discovery {{!}} Britannica \|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/European-exploration/The-Age-of-Discovery \|access-date=6 October 2022~~-10-06~~ \|website=www.britannica.com \|archive-date=6 October 2022~~-10-06~~ \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006160236/https://www.britannica.com/topic/European-exploration/The-Age-of-Discovery \|url-status=live }}</ref> <!-- Refs not being used <ref name="APA" >{{cite web \|url=https://dictionary.apa.org/exploratory-behavior \|title=exploratory behavior \|website=APA Dictionary of Psychology \|publisher=American Psychological Association \|access-date=25 January 2023 \|archive-date=28 December 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221228011206/https://dictionary.apa.org/exploratory-behavior \|url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="APA diversive" >{{cite web \|url=https://dictionary.apa.org/diversive-exploration \|title=diversive exploration \|website=APA Dictionary of Psychology \|publisher=American Psychological Association \|access-date=25 January 2023 \|quote=defined by [[Daniel Berlyne\|Daniel E. Berlyne]] \|archive-date=26 January 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126025409/https://dictionary.apa.org/diversive-exploration \|url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="APA inspective" >{{cite web \|url=https://dictionary.apa.org/exploratory-behavior \|title=inspective exploration \|website=APA Dictionary of Psychology \|publisher=American Psychological Association \|access-date=25 January 2023 \|quote=defined by Daniel E. Berlyne \|archive-date=28 December 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221228011206/https://dictionary.apa.org/exploratory-behavior \|url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Berlyne 1954">{{Cite journal\| author = Berlyne DE. \| title = A theory of human curiosity. \| journal = Br J Psychol \| volume = 45 \| issue = 3 \| pages = 180–91 \| year = 1954 \| pmid = 13190171 \| doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1954.tb01243.x}}</ref> <ref name="Berlyne 1955" >{{Cite journal\| author = Berlyne DE. \| title = The arousal and satiation of perceptual curiosity in the rat. \| journal = J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. \| volume = 48 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 238–246 \| year = 1955 \| pmid = 13252149 \| doi=10.1037/h0042968}}</ref> --> <ref name="Berlyne 1955" >{{Cite journal\| author = Berlyne DE. \| title = The arousal and satiation of perceptual curiosity in the rat. \| journal = J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. \| volume = 48 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 238–246 \| year = 1955 \| pmid = 13252149 \| doi=10.1037/h0042968}}</ref> <ref name="Biesmeijer and de Vries 2001" >{{cite journal \|last1=Biesmeijer \|first1=J. \|last2=de Vries \|first2=H. \|title=Exploration and exploitation of food sources by social insect colonies: a revision of the scout-recruit concept \|journal=Behav Ecol Sociobiol \|volume=49 \|pages=89–99 \|date=2001 \|issue=2–3 \|doi=10.1007/s002650000289 \|hdl=1874/1185 \|s2cid=37901620 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> <ref name="~~Bishop1991~~Britannica" >{{~~cite~~Cite ~~book~~web \|~~last1~~url=~~Bishop \|first1=Alan~~https://www.britannica.com/technology/mining \|title=~~Mathematical~~Mining ~~Enculturation:~~– AProspecting ~~Cultural Perspective on Mathematics~~and ~~Education~~exploration \|~~publisher~~website=~~Kluwer~~Encyclopedia ~~Academic Publishers~~Britannica \|~~year=1991 \|isbn=978~~access-~~0-7923-1270-3 \|location~~date=~~Norwell,~~29 ~~Massachusetts~~February ~~\|pages=20–59~~2020 \|~~chapter=Environmental activities and mathematical culture \|access~~archive-date=~~March~~6 ~~24,~~April ~~2018 \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AgrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA54~~2020 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/~~20201225195821~~20200406135253/https://~~books~~www.~~google~~britannica.com/~~books?id=9AgrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA54 \|archive-date=December 25, 2020~~technology/mining \|url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="~~Britannica~~Fernández-Armesto 2007" >{{Cite ~~web~~book \|last=Fernández-Armesto \|first=Felipe \|url=https://~~www~~books.~~britannica~~google.com/~~technology/mining~~books?id=6bYQAAAAQBAJ \|title=~~Mining~~Pathfinders: -A ~~Prospecting~~Global ~~and~~History ~~exploration~~of Exploration \|~~website~~date=~~Encyclopedia~~17 ~~Britannica~~October 2007 \|publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] \|isbn=978-0-393-24247-8 \|language=en \|via=[[Google Books]] \|access-date=296 ~~February~~October ~~2020~~2022 \|archive-date=616 ~~April~~October ~~2020~~2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/~~20200406135253~~20221016144552/https://~~www~~books.~~britannica~~google.com/~~technology/mining~~books?id=6bYQAAAAQBAJ \|url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="GLO Chapter 2">{{cite report \|title=Global Land Outlook \|date=2017 \|publisher=[[United Nations Convention on Desertification]] \|isbn=978-92-95110-48-9 \|access-date=3 November 2022 \|chapter-url=https://www.unccd.int/sites/default/files/2018-06/GLO%20English_Ch2.pdf \|chapter=Chapter 2 - Brief History of Land Use— \|archive-date=15 November 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221115002604/https://www.unccd.int/sites/default/files/2018-06/GLO%20English_Ch2.pdf \|url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Bunge 19982">{{cite book \|last1=Bunge \|first1=Mario \|title=Philosophy of Science \|volume=1, From Problem to Theory \|date=1998 \|publisher=Routledge \|isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6 \|edition=revised \|location=New York \|pages=3–50 \|chapter=The Scientific Approach}}</ref> <ref name="~~cohen2021~~Greg Stanley" >{{cite ~~book \|last=Cohen \|first=Eliel~~web \|url=~~https~~http://~~www.routledge~~gregstanleyandassociates.com/~~The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century~~whitepapers/~~Cohen~~FaultDiagnosis/~~p/book/9780367562984~~faultdiagnosis.htm \|title=~~The~~A ~~University~~Guide ~~and~~to ~~its~~Fault ~~Boundaries:~~Detection ~~Thriving or Surviving in the 21st~~and ~~Century~~Diagnosis \|publisher=~~Routledge~~gregstanleyandassociates.com \|~~year=2021 \|isbn=978~~access-~~0-367-56298-4 \|location~~date=~~New~~27 ~~York~~January ~~\|pages=14–41~~2023 \|~~chapter=The boundary lens: theorising academic actitity \|access~~archive-date=~~May~~17 4,September ~~2021~~2019 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/~~20210505045450~~20190917035723/~~https~~http://~~www.routledge~~gregstanleyandassociates.com/~~The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century~~whitepapers/~~Cohen~~FaultDiagnosis/~~p/book/9780367562984 \|archive-date=May 5, 2021~~faultdiagnosis.htm \|url-status=live }}</ref> <!-- <ref name="Hughes 1997" >{{cite journal \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376635797000557 \|journal=Behavioural Processes \|volume=41 \|issue=3 \|date=December 1997 \|pages=213–226 \|title=Intrinsic exploration in animals: motives and measurement \|doi=10.1016/S0376-6357(97)00055-7 \|first=Robert N \|last=Hughes \|pmid=24896854 \|s2cid=23321360 \|access-date=24 January 2023 \|archive-date=24 January 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124155304/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376635797000557 \|url-status=live \|url-access=subscription }}</ref> --> <ref name="colanderhunt2019">{{cite book \|last1=Colander \|first1=David C. \|title=Social Science: An Introduction to the Study of Society \|last2=Hunt \|first2=Elgin F. \|date=2019 \|publisher=Routledge \|edition=17th \|location=New York, NY \|pages=1–22 \|chapter=Social science and its methods}}</ref> <ref name="EOWilson1999a2">{{Cite book \|last=Wilson \|first=E.O. \|url=https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135 \|title=Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge \|publisher=Vintage \|year=1999 \|isbn=978-0-679-76867-8 \|edition=Reprint \|location=New York \|pages=[https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135/page/n55 49]–71 \|chapter=The natural sciences \|url-access=limited}}</ref> <ref name="Fernández-Armesto 2007" >{{Cite book \|last=Fernández-Armesto \|first=Felipe \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6bYQAAAAQBAJ \|title=Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration \|date=October 17, 2007 \|publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] \|isbn=978-0-393-24247-8 \|language=en \|via=[[Google Books]] \|access-date=October 6, 2022 \|archive-date=October 16, 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016144552/https://books.google.com/books?id=6bYQAAAAQBAJ \|url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="Fetzer2013">{{cite book \|last1=Fetzer \|first1=James H. \|title=Computers and Cognition: Why Minds are not Machines \|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers \|year=2013 \|isbn=978-1-4438-1946-6 \|location=Newcastle, United Kingdom \|pages=271–308 \|chapter=Computer reliability and public policy: Limits of knowledge of computer-based systems}}</ref> <ref name="fischer20142">{{Cite journal \|last1=Fischer \|first1=M.R. \|last2=Fabry \|first2=G \|year=2014 \|title=Thinking and acting scientifically: Indispensable basis of medical education \|journal=GMS Zeitschrift für Medizinische Ausbildung \|volume=31 \|issue=2 \|pages=Doc24 \|doi=10.3205/zma000916 \|pmc=4027809 \|pmid=24872859}}</ref> <ref name="GLO Chapter 2">{{cite report \|title=Global Land Outlook \|date=2017 \|publisher=[[United Nations Convention on Desertification]] \|isbn=978-92-95110-48-9 \|access-date=November 3, 2022 \|chapter-url=https://www.unccd.int/sites/default/files/2018-06/GLO%20English_Ch2.pdf \|chapter=Chapter 2 - Brief History of Land Use— \|archive-date=November 15, 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221115002604/https://www.unccd.int/sites/default/files/2018-06/GLO%20English_Ch2.pdf \|url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Greg Stanley" >{{cite web \|url=http://gregstanleyandassociates.com/whitepapers/FaultDiagnosis/faultdiagnosis.htm \|title=A Guide to Fault Detection and Diagnosis \|publisher=gregstanleyandassociates.com \|access-date=2023-01-27 \|archive-date=2019-09-17 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190917035723/http://gregstanleyandassociates.com/whitepapers/FaultDiagnosis/faultdiagnosis.htm \|url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Heilbron">{{cite book \|last=Heilbron \|first=J.L. \|title=The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|year=2003 \|isbn=978-0-19-511229-0 \|location=New York \|pages=vii–x \|chapter=Preface \|quote=...modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by mathematics; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions. \|display-authors=etal \|author-link=J. L. Heilbron}}</ref> <ref name="Hughes 1997" >{{cite journal \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376635797000557 \|journal=Behavioural Processes \|volume=41 \|issue=3 \|date=December 1997 \|pages=213–226 \|title=Intrinsic exploration in animals: motives and measurement \|doi=10.1016/S0376-6357(97)00055-7 \|first=Robert N \|last=Hughes \|pmid=24896854 \|s2cid=23321360 \|access-date=2023-01-24 \|archive-date=2023-01-24 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124155304/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376635797000557 \|url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="löwe2002">{{cite journal \|last=Löwe \|first=Benedikt \|author-link=Benedikt Löwe \|date=2002 \|title=The formal sciences: their scope, their foundations, and their unity \|journal=Synthese \|volume=133 \|issue=1/2 \|pages=5–11 \|doi=10.1023/A:1020887832028 \|s2cid=9272212}}</ref> <ref name="mbunge1966">{{Cite book \|last=Bunge \|first=M \|title=Contributions to a Philosophy of Technology \|chapter=Technology as Applied Science \|publisher=Springer \|year=1966 \|isbn=978-94-010-2184-5 \|editor-last=Rapp \|editor-first=F. \|location=Dordrecht, Netherlands \|pages=19–39 \|doi=10.1007/978-94-010-2182-1_2\|s2cid=110332727 }}</ref> <ref name="Meyer 1998" >{{cite book \|title=Handbook of Developmental Neurotoxicology \|date=1998 \|pages=403–426 \|first=Jerrold S. \|last=Meyer \|chapter=22 - Behavioral Assessment in Developmental Neurotoxicology: Approaches Involving Unconditioned Behaviors Pharmacologic Challenges in Rodents \|doi=10.1016/B978-012648860-9.50029-7 }}</ref> Line 152 ⟶ 109: <ref name="mousebehavior search" >{{cite web \|url=https://mousebehavior.org/search/ \|title=Search \|website=mousebehavior.org \|access-date=25 January 2023 \|archive-date=25 January 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230125081658/https://mousebehavior.org/search/ \|url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Muylle et al 1999" >{{cite journal\|first1=Steve \|last1=Muylle \|first2=Rudy \|last2=Moenaert \|first3=Marc \|last3=Despontin \|date=1999 \|title=A grounded theory of World Wide Web search behaviour \|journal=Journal of Marketing Communications \|volume=5 \|issue=3 \|pages=143–155 \|doi=10.1080/135272699345644 }}</ref> <ref name="NASA" >{{cite web \|url=http://adc.gsfc.nasa.gov/adc/education/space_ex/exploration.html \| title = How Space is Explored \| publisher = NASA \| url-status = dead \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090702153058/http://adc.gsfc.nasa.gov/adc/education/space_ex/exploration.html \| archive-date = 2 July 2009 }}</ref> <ref name="NASA" >{{cite web \| url = http://adc.gsfc.nasa.gov/adc/education/space_ex/exploration.html \| title = How Space is Explored \| publisher = NASA \| url-status = dead \| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090702153058/http://adc.gsfc.nasa.gov/adc/education/space_ex/exploration.html \| archive-date = 2009-07-02 }}</ref> <ref name="nickles2013">{{cite book \|last1=Nickles \|first1=Thomas \|title=Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem \|publisher=The University of Chicago Press \|year=2013 \|location=Chicago \|page=104 \|chapter=The Problem of Demarcation}}</ref> <ref name="nisbetgreenfeld2021">{{cite encyclopedia \|title=Social Science \|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica \|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. \|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-science \|access-date=May 9, 2021 \|date=October 16, 2020 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220202193947/https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-science \|archive-date=February 2, 2022 \|last2=Greenfeld \|first2=Liah \|last1=Nisbet \|first1=Robert A. \|url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="NOAA/NOS" >{{cite web \|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/exploration.html \|title=How much of the ocean have we explored? \|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov \|access-date=6 January 2023 \|archive-date=20 May 2020 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200520101936/https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/exploration.html \|url-status=live }}</ref> Line 165 ⟶ 116: <ref name="NYT-20150828">{{cite news \|last=Roston \|first=Michael \|title=NASA's Next Horizon in Space \|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/08/25/science/space/nasa-next-mission.html \|date=28 August 2015 \|work=[[The New York Times]] \|access-date=28 August 2015 \|archive-date=29 August 2015 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150829045031/http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/08/25/science/space/nasa-next-mission.html \|url-status=live }}</ref> <!-- <ref name="Piccone 1999" >{{cite web \|url=http://www.csun.edu/~vcpsy00h/students/curious.htm \|title=Curiosity and Exploration \|first=Jason \|last=Piccone \|date=Spring 1999 \|publisher=California State University, Northridge \|website=www.csun.edu \|access-date=26 January 2023 \|quote=Wohlwill (1981) \|archive-date=26 January 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126023037/http://www.csun.edu/~vcpsy00h/students/curious.htm \|url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Poli et al 2022" >{{cite journal \|last1=Poli \|first1=F. \|last2=Meyer. \|first2=M. \|last3=Mars. \|first3=R.B. \|last4=Hunnius \|first4=S. \|title=Contributions of expected learning progress and perceptual novelty to curiosity-driven exploration \|journal=Cognition \|date=August 2022 \|volume=225 \|page=105119\|doi=10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105119 \|pmid=35421742 \|pmc=9194910 }}</ref> --> <ref name="RGS 2008">{{Cite book \|author=[[Royal Geographical Society]] \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uo8SAQAAIAAJ \|title=Atlas of Exploration \|date=2008 \|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] \|isbn=978-0-19-534318-2 \|language=en \|access-date=6 October 2022 \|archive-date=16 October 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016144552/https://books.google.com/books?id=uo8SAQAAIAAJ \|url-status=live \|via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> <ref name="Poli et al 2022" >{{cite journal \|last1=Poli \|first1=F. \|last2=Meyer. \|first2=M. \|last3=Mars. \|first3=R.B. \|last4=Hunnius \|first4=S. \|title=Contributions of expected learning progress and perceptual novelty to curiosity-driven exploration \|journal=Cognition \|date=August 2022 \|volume=225 \|page=105119\|doi=10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105119 \|pmid=35421742 \|pmc=9194910 }}</ref> <!-- <ref name="Wood-Gush and Vestergaard 1989" >{{cite journal \|last1=Wood-Gush \|first1=D.G.M. \|last2=Vestergaard \|first2=K. \|title=Exploratory behavior and the welfare of intensively kept animals \|journal=Journal of Agricultural Ethics \|volume=2 \|pages=161–169 \|date=1989 \|issue=2 \|doi=10.1007/BF01826929 \|s2cid=144112548 }}</ref> --> <ref name="RGS 2008">{{Cite book \|author=[[Royal Geographical Society]] \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uo8SAQAAIAAJ \|title=Atlas of Exploration \|date=2008 \|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] \|isbn=978-0-19-534318-2 \|language=en \|access-date=October 6, 2022 \|archive-date=October 16, 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016144552/https://books.google.com/books?id=uo8SAQAAIAAJ \|url-status=live \|via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> }} <ref name="rucker2019">{{cite book \|last=Rucker \|first=Rudy \|url=http://www.rudyrucker.com/infinityandthemind/#calibre_link-328 \|title=Infinity and the Mind: The Science and Philosophy of the Infinite \|publisher=Princeton University Press \|year=2019 \|isbn=978-0-691-19138-6 \|edition=Reprint \|location=Princeton, New Jersey \|pages=157–188 \|chapter=Robots and souls \|author-link=Rudy_Rucker \|access-date=May 11, 2021 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226212447/http://www.rudyrucker.com/infinityandthemind/#calibre_link-328 \|archive-date=February 26, 2021 \|url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="sinclair19932">{{Cite journal \|last=Sinclair \|first=Marius \|year=1993 \|title=On the Differences between the Engineering and Scientific Methods \|url=https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html \|url-status=live \|journal=The International Journal of Engineering Education \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115220102/https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html \|archive-date=November 15, 2017 \|access-date=September 7, 2018}}</ref> <ref name="Wiktionary" >{{cite web \|author=((Wiktionary contributors)) \|title=explore \|publisher=Wiktionary, The Free Dictionary \|date=30 November 2022 \|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=explore&oldid=70015629 \|access-date=29 December 2022 \|archive-date=29 December 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229051047/https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=explore&oldid=70015629 \|url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Wood-Gush and Vestergaard 1989" >{{cite journal \|last1=Wood-Gush \|first1=D.G.M. \|last2=Vestergaard \|first2=K. \|title=Exploratory behavior and the welfare of intensively kept animals \|journal=Journal of Agricultural Ethics \|volume=2 \|pages=161–169 \|date=1989 \|issue=2 \|doi=10.1007/BF01826929 \|s2cid=144112548 }}</ref> }} ==Further reading== ~~{{Further\|Age of Discovery}}~~ =='''General==''' {{Refbegin}} * Baker, J. N. L. ''A History of Geographical Discovery and Exploration.'' Rev. ed. New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1967. Line 215 ⟶ 159: {{Refend}} =='''Pre-Renaissance==''' {{Refbegin}} * Sauer, Carl O. ''Northern Mists.'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968. Line 222 ⟶ 166: * Scammell, G. V. ''The World Encompassed: The First European Maritime Empires c. 800–1650.'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981. {{Refend}} ~~==Exploration and Empire==~~ '''Exploration and Empire''' {{Refbegin}} * Aldrich, Robert. ''Greater France: A History of French Oversea Expansion.'' New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996. Line 255 ⟶ 200: {{Refend}} =='''The Continents==''' {{Refbegin}} * Alexander von Humboldt. ''Netzwerke des Wissens.'' Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz, 1999. Line 271 ⟶ 216: * Ferreiro, Larrie D. ''Measure of the Earth: The Enlightenment Expedition That Reshaped Our World.'' New York: Basic Books, 2011. * Ford, Corey. ''Where the Sea Breaks its Back: The Epic Story of Early Naturalist Georg Steller and the Russian Exploration of Alaska.'' Boston: Little, Brown, 1966. * Goetzmann, William H. ''Army Exploration in the American West, ~~1803-1863~~1803–1863.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959. * Goetzmann, William H. "The Role of Discovery in American History," in ''American Civilization,'' ed. Daniel J. Boorstin. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1972. * Jeal, Tim. Stanley: ''The Impossible Life of Africa’s Greatest Explorer.'' New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2007. Line 283 ⟶ 228: * Stegner, Wallace. ''Beyond the Hundredth Meridian: John Wesley Powell and the Second Opening of the West.'' Boston: Houghton Mifflin and Company, 1953. * Vigil, Ralph H. "Spanish Exploration and the Great Plains in the Age of Discovery: Myth and Reality." ''Great Plains Quarterly'' 10, no. 1 (1990): 3–17. * Weber, David J. ''Richard H. Kern: Expeditionary Artist in the Far Southwest, ~~1848-1853~~1848–1853.'' Fort Worth: Amon Carter Museum, 1985. {{Refend}} =='''The Oceans==''' {{Refbegin}} * Ballard, Robert, with Will Hively. ''The Eternal Darkness: A Personal History of Deep-Sea Exploration.'' Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000. Line 303 ⟶ 248: {{Refend}} =='''The Poles==''' {{Refbegin}} * Beattie, Owen, and John Geiger. ''Frozen in Time: The Fate of the Franklin Expedition.'' Toronto: Greystone Books, 1998. Line 314 ⟶ 259: {{Refend}} =='''Space==''' {{Refbegin}} * Burrows, William E. ''Exploring Space: Voyages in the Solar System and Beyond.'' New York: Random House, 1990. Line 339 ⟶ 284: * Wilkins, Don E. ''To a Rocky Moon: A Geologist’s History of Lunar Exploration.'' Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1993. * Wilson, J. Tuzo. IGY: ''The Year of the New Moons.'' New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1961. {{Refend}} Line 345 ⟶ 292: [[Category:Exploration\| ]] [[Category:Human activities]] [[Category:Discoveries]] [[Category:Field research]] [[Category:Geography]] [[Category:History by topic]] [[Category:Types of travel]]