Republic of Egypt (1953–1958): Difference between revisions

{{Infobox country

| p1 = Kingdom of Egypt

| common_name = Egypt

| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Egypt 1953(orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Egypt before 1956|[[File:EGY orthographic.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Egypt after 1956|default=1}}

| era = [[Arab Cold War]]

| flag_type = [[Flag of Egypt|Flag]]<br><nowiki> (1953–1958)</nowiki>

| image_coat = Coat of arms of Egypt (1953–1958).svg

| largest_city = Capital

| religion = [[Islam]]

| stat_year1 = 1953

| year_start = 1953

| year_end = 1958

| HDI =

| HDI_year =

| date_start = 18 June

| event1 = [[Egyptian Revolution of 1952]]

| event_start = [[Declaration of the Republic {{!}} Declaration of the Republic of Egypt]]

| year_leader1 = 1953–1954

| leader1 = [[Mohamed Naguib]]

| year_leader2 = 1954–1958

| title_leader = [[President of Egypt|President]]

| symbol_type = [[Coat of arms of Egypt|Coat of arms]]<br><nowiki> (1953–1958)</nowiki>

| date_end = 22 February

| date_event2 = 29 October 1956 – 7 November 1956

| area_sq_mi = 390,121

| s2 = Republic of the Sudan (1956–1969){{!}}'''1956'''<br> Republic of Sudan

| flag_s2 = Flag of Sudan (1956–1970).svg

| image_map_caption = {{legend|#336432|'''Republic of Egypt'''}}{{legend|#54a754|[[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]] ([[condominium (international law)|Condominium]])}}

}}

 

{{main|Egyptian revolution of 1952}}

The Free Officers's goals were to Abolish the [[Kingdom of Egypt]], to establish a republic, end the [[History of Egypt under the British|British Occupation of Egypt]] including the [[Suez Canal]], and to secure the independence of [[Republic of the Sudan (1956–1969)|Sudan]] from the British, who governed it as [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lahav|first=Pnina|author-link=Pnina Lahav|title=The Suez Crisis of 1956 and its Aftermath: A Comparative Study of Constitutions, Use of Force, Diplomacy and International Relations|url=https://scholarship.law.bu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1199&context=faculty_scholarship|journal=Boston University Law Review}}</ref> The revolutionary government adopted a staunchly [[Nationalism|nationalist]], [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] agenda, which came to be expressed chiefly through [[Arab nationalism]], and international [[Non-Aligned Movement|non-alignment]].

The revolution was faced with immediate threats from Western imperial powers, particularly the United Kingdom, which had occupied [[Sultanate of Egypt|Egypt]] since 1882, and France, both of whom were wary of rising nationalist sentiment in territories under their control throughout Africa and the [[Arab world]]. The ongoing [[Arab–Israeli conflict|State of War with Israel]] also posed a serious challenge, as the [[Free Officers Movement (Egypt)|Free Officers]] increased [[Kingdom of Egypt|Egypt]]'s already strong support of the [[Palestinians]]. These two issues conflated four years after the revolution when Egypt was invaded by [[British Empire|Britain]], France, and Israel in the [[Suez Crisis]] of 1956. Despite enormous military losses,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mart|first=Michelle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=siDi1WTHjOUC&pg=PA159|title=Eye on Israel: How America Came to View the Jewish State as an Ally|date=2006-02-09|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-6687-2|language=en}}</ref> the war was seen as a political victory for [[Republic of Egypt (1953-1958)|Egypt]], especially as it left the [[Suez Canal]] in uncontested Egyptian control for the first time since 1875, erasing what was seen as a mark of national humiliation. This strengthened the appeal of the revolution in other [[Arab world|Arab]] and African countries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Egypt - Revolution, Republic, Nile {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Egypt/The-revolution-and-the-Republic |access-date=2023-12-14 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

 

While the [[Free Officers Movement (Egypt)|Free Officers]] planned to overthrow the monarchy on 2–3 August, they decided to make their move earlier after their official leader, [[Mohamed Naguib|Muhammad Naguib]], gained knowledge, leaked from the Egyptian cabinet on 19 July, that [[Farouk of Egypt|King Farouk]] acquired a list of the dissenting officers and was set to arrest them. The officers thus decided to launch a preemptive strike and after finalizing their plans in meeting at the home of [[Khaled Mohieddin]], they began their coup on the night of 22 July. Mohieddin stayed in his home and [[Anwar Sadat]] went to the cinema.<ref>Alexander, 2005, p. 41.</ref>[[File:Nasser_and_Naguib,_1954.jpg|alt=Two smiling men in military uniform seated in an open-top automobile. The first man on the left is pointing his hand in a gesture. Behind the automobile are men in uniform walking away from the vehicle|thumb|Nasser (right) and [[Mohamed Naguib]] (left) during celebrations marking the second anniversary of the 1952 revolution, July 1954|left]]Meanwhile, the chairman of the Free Officers, [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], contacted the [[Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt|Muslim Brotherhood]] and the [[Communism|Communist]] [[Democratic Movement for National Liberation]] to assure their support. On the morning of 23 July, he and [[Abdel Hakim Amer]] left [[Khaled Mohieddin|Mohieddin]]'s home in civilian clothes and drove around [[Cairo]] in Nasser's automobile to collect men to arrest key royalist commanders before they reached their barracks and gain control over their soldiers. As they approached the el-Qoba Bridge, an artillery unit led by [[Youssef Seddik (revolutionary)|Youssef Seddik]] met with them before he led his battalion to take control the Military General Headquarters to arrest the royalist army chief of staff, [[Hussein Sirri Amer]] and all the other commanders who were present in the building. At 6:00&nbsp;am the Free Officers [[Air force]] units began patrolling [[Cairo]]'s skies.<ref>Alexander, p. 42.</ref>

By the 25th of July, the army had occupied [[Alexandria]], where the [[Farouk of Egypt|King]] was in residence at the [[Montaza Palace]]. Terrified, Farouk abandoned [[Montaza Palace|Montaza]] and fled to [[Ras El Tin Palace|Ras Al-Teen Palace]] on the waterfront. [[Mohamed Naguib|Naguib]] ordered the captain of [[Farouk of Egypt|Farouk]]'s [[yacht]], ''[[El Mahrousa|al-Mahrusa]]'', not to sail without orders from the [[Egyptian Army|army]].{{citation needed|date= December 2023}}

{{main|Mohamed Naguib|Egyptian revolution of 1952}}

[[File:Naguib and Nasser.jpg|alt=Naguib and Nasser|thumb|[[Mohamed Naguib|Naguib]] and [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]]]]

 

[[Mohamed Naguib|Naguib]] was forced to resign in 1954 by [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] – a [[Pan-Arabism|Pan-Arabist]] and the main architect of the [[Free Officers Movement (Egypt)|1952 movement]] – and was later put under [[house arrest]]. After [[Mohamed Naguib|Naguib]]'s resignation, the position of [[President of Egypt|President]] was vacant until the [[1956 Egyptian referendum|election]] of [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] in [[1956 Egyptian referendum|1956]].

{{main|Gamal Abdel Nasser}}

[[File:Land_distribution_ceremony_in_Minya.jpg|left|thumb|Nasser handing documents to an Egyptian ''[[Fellahin|fellah]]'' in a land distribution ceremony in [[Minya, Egypt|Minya]], 1954]]

After the three-year transition period ended with [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]]'s official assumption of power, his domestic and independent foreign policies increasingly collided with the regional interests of the UK and France. The latter condemned his strong support for [[Algerian War|Algerian independence]], and the UK's [[Anthony Eden|Eden government]] was agitated by [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]]'s campaign against the [[Baghdad Pact]].<ref name="Dekmejian45">{{Harvnb|Dekmejian|1971|p=45}}</ref> In addition, [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]]'s adherence to neutralism regarding the [[Cold War]], [[List of historical unrecognized states and dependencies|recognition]] of [[History of the People's Republic of China (1949–1976)|Communist China]], and [[Egyptian–Czechoslovak arms deal|arms deal with the Eastern bloc]] alienated the United States. On 19 July 1956, the US and UK abruptly withdrew their offer to finance construction of the [[Aswan Dam]],<ref name="Dekmejian45" /> citing concerns that Egypt's economy would be overwhelmed by the project.<ref>{{Harvnb|James|2008|p=149}}</ref>

In October 1954, [[Egyptian Republic (1953-1958)|Egypt]] and the [[British Empire]] agreed to abolish the [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement]] of 1899 and grant [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Sudan]] independence to become the [[Republic of the Sudan (1956–1969)|Republic of The Sudan]]; the agreement came into force on 1 January 1956.

[[File:Nasser_voting_constitutional_referendum.jpg|alt=A man wearing a suit inserting a piece of paper into a box. He is being photographed by cameramen|thumb|Nasser submitting his vote for the referendum of the proposed constitution, 23 June 1956]]

[[File:Suez nationalization.ogv|thumb|thumbtime=2:16|[[Movietone News]]reels reporting [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]]'s nationalization of the [[Suez Canal]] and both domestic and Western reactions|left]]

The nationalization announcement was greeted very emotionally by the audience and, throughout the [[Arab world]], thousands entered the streets shouting slogans of support.<ref name="Aburish108">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=108}}</ref> US ambassador [[Henry A. Byroade]] stated, "I cannot overemphasize [the] popularity of the Canal Company nationalization within Egypt, even among Nasser's enemies."<ref name="Jankowski68" /> Egyptian political scientist Mahmoud Hamad wrote that, prior to 1956, Nasser had consolidated control over Egypt's military and civilian bureaucracies, but it was only after the canal's nationalization that he gained near-total popular legitimacy and firmly established himself as the "charismatic leader" and "spokesman for the masses not only in Egypt, but all over the Third World".<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamad|2008|p=96}}</ref> According to Aburish, this was Nasser's largest pan-Arab triumph at the time and "soon his pictures were to be found in the tents of [[Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen|Yemen]], the souks of [[Marrakesh]], and the posh villas of [[Second Syrian Republic|Syria]]".<ref name="Aburish108" /> The official reason given for the nationalization was that funds from the canal would be used for the construction of the [[Aswan Dam|dam]] in [[Aswan]].<ref name="Jankowski68" /> That same day, Egypt closed the canal to [[Israel]]i [[Freight transport|shipping]].<ref name="BBC: 1956: Egypt Seizes Suez Canal" />[[File:Nasser_and_RCC_members_welcomed_by_Alexandria,_1954.jpg|alt=A man standing in an open-top vehicle and waving to a crowd of people surrounding the vehicle. There are several men seated in the vehicle and in another trailing vehicle, all dressed in military uniform|right|thumb|Nasser greeted by crowds in Alexandria one day after his announcement of the British withdrawal and the assassination attempt against him, 27 October 1954.]]The nationalisation surprised Britain and its [[British Commonwealth|Commonwealth]]. There had been no discussion of the canal at the [[Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference]] in London in late June and early July. Egypt's action, however, threatened British economic and military interests in the region. Prime Minister Eden was under immense domestic pressure from Conservative MPs who drew direct comparisons between the events of 1956 and those of the [[Munich Agreement]] in 1938. Since the U.S. government did not support the British protests, the British government decided in favour of military intervention against Egypt to avoid the complete collapse of British prestige in the region.{{citation needed|date= December 2023}}

Eden was hosting a dinner for [[List of kings of Iraq|King]] [[Faisal II of Iraq|Faisal II]] of [[Kingdom of Iraq|Iraq]] and his Prime Minister, [[Nuri al-Said]], when he learned the canal had been nationalised. They both unequivocally advised Eden to "hit Nasser hard, hit him soon, and hit him by yourself" – a stance shared by the vast majority of the British people in subsequent weeks. "There is a lot of humbug about Suez," [[Guy Millard]], one of Eden's private secretaries, later recorded. "People forget that the policy at the time was extremely popular." Opposition leader [[Hugh Gaitskell]] was also at the dinner. He immediately agreed that military action might be inevitable, but warned Eden would have to keep the Americans closely informed. After a session of the House of Commons expressed anger against the Egyptian action on 27 July, Eden justifiably believed that Parliament would support him; Gaitskell spoke for his party when he called the nationalisation a "high-handed and totally unjustifiable step". When Eden made a ministerial broadcast on the nationalisation, Labour declined its right to reply.<ref>{{Cite web |last=majalla |first=This day in history: The birth of the Egyptian Republic |title=This day in history: The birth of the Egyptian Republic |url=https://en.majalla.com/node/293796/documents-memoirs/day-history-birth-egyptian-republic}}</ref>

 

{{main|Suez Crisis}}

On 29 October, Israel invaded the [[Egypt]]ian [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]]. [[British Empire|Britain]] and France issued a joint ultimatum to cease fire, which was ignored. On 5 November, [[British Empire|Britain]] and France landed paratroopers along the [[Suez Canal]]. While the [[Egyptian Armed Forces|Egyptian forces]] were defeated, they had blocked the [[Suez Canal|Canal]] to all shipping. It later became clear that Israel, France and [[British Empire|Britain]] had conspired to plan out the invasion. The three allies had attained a number of their military objectives, but the [[Suez Canal|Canal]] was useless. Heavy political pressure from the United States and the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] led to a withdrawal. U.S. President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] had strongly warned [[British Empire|Britain]] not to invade; he threatened serious damage to the British financial system by selling the [[Federal government of the United States|US government]]'s [[Pound sterling]] bonds. Historians conclude the [[Suez Crisis|Crisis]] "signified the end of [[British Empire|Great Britain]]'s role as one of the world's major powers".<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Peden|first=G. C.|date=December 2012|title=SUEZ AND BRITAIN'S DECLINE AS A WORLD POWER*|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/historical-journal/article/abs/suez-and-britains-decline-as-a-world-power/8C2895C3991DA5FA44E67E96BF180287|journal=The Historical Journal|language=en|volume=55|issue=4|pages=1073–1096|doi=10.1017/S0018246X12000246|s2cid=162845802 |issn=0018-246X}}</ref>

 

[[File:M4A4-Sherman-latrun-2.jpg|alt=Israeli M4A4 Shermans were also used in the Sinai campaign.|thumb|Israeli M4A4 Shermans were also used in the Sinai campaign.]]

Operation Kadesh received its name from ancient [[Kadesh (Israel)|Kadesh]], located in the northern [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]] and mentioned several times in the Hebrew [[Pentateuch]]. Israeli military planning for this operation in the Sinai hinged on four main military objectives; [[Sharm el-Sheikh]], [[Arish]], [[Abu Uwayulah]] ([[Abu Ageila]]), and the [[Gaza Strip]]. The Egyptian blockade of the [[Tiran Straits]] was based at [[Sharm el-Sheikh]] and, by capturing the town, Israel would have access to the Red Sea for the first time since 1953, which would allow it to restore the trade benefits of secure passage to the Indian Ocean.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-14 |title=Suez Crisis {{!}} Definition, Summary, Location, History, Dates, Significance, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Suez-Crisis |access-date=2023-12-14 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Gaza Strip]] was chosen as another military objective because Israel wished to remove the training grounds for [[Fedayeen]] groups, and because Israel recognised that Egypt could use the territory as a staging ground for attacks against the advancing Israeli troops. Israel advocated rapid advances, for which a potential Egyptian [[Flanking manoeuvre|flanking attack]] would present even more of a risk. [[Arish]] and [[Abu Uwayulah]] were important hubs for soldiers, equipment, and centres of command and control of the Egyptian Army in the Sinai.

Capturing them would deal a deathblow to the Egyptian's strategic operation in the entire Peninsula. The capture of these four objectives were hoped to be the means by which the entire Egyptian Army would rout and fall back into Egypt proper, which British and French forces would then be able to push up against an Israeli advance, and crush in a decisive encounter. On 24 October, Dayan ordered a partial mobilisation. When this led to a state of confusion, Dayan ordered full mobilisation, and chose to take the risk that he might alert the Egyptians. As part of an effort to maintain surprise, Dayan ordered Israeli troops that were to go to the Sinai to be ostentatiously concentrated near the border with Jordan first, which was intended to fool the Egyptians into thinking that it was Jordan that the main Israeli blow was to fall on.

On 28 October, [[Operation Tarnegol]] was effected, during which an Israeli [[Gloster Meteor]] NF.13 intercepted and destroyed an Egyptian [[Ilyushin Il-14]] carrying Egyptian officers en route from Syria to Egypt, killing 16 Egyptian officers and journalists and two crewmen. The Ilyushin was believed to be carrying Field Marshal Abdel Hakim Amer and the Egyptian General Staff; however this was not the case.

The conflict began on 29 October 1956. At about 3:00&nbsp;pm, Israeli Air Force Mustangs launched a series of attacks on Egyptian positions all over the Sinai. Because Israeli intelligence expected [[Jordan]] to enter the war on Egypt's side, Israeli soldiers were stationed along the Israeli-Jordanian frontier. The [[Israel Border Police]] militarised the Israel-Jordan border, including the [[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]] with the [[West Bank]], during the first few hours of the war. [[Arab citizens of Israel|Israeli-Arab]] villages along the Jordanian border were placed under curfew. This resulted in the killings of 48 civilians in the Arab village of [[Kafr Qasim]] in an event known as the [[Kafr Qasim massacre]]. The border policemen involved in the killings were later tried and imprisoned, with an Israeli court finding that the order to shoot civilians was "blatantly illegal". This event had major effects on Israeli law relating to the ethics in war and more subtle effects on the legal status of [[Arab citizens of Israel]], who at the time were regarded as a [[fifth column]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=What Was The Suez Crisis? |url=https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/what-was-the-suez-crisis |access-date=2023-12-14 |website=Imperial War Museums |language=en}}</ref>

It later became clear that Israel, France and [[British Empire|Britain]] had conspired to plan out the invasion. The three allies had attained a number of their military objectives, but the [[Suez Canal|Canal]] was useless. Heavy political pressure from the United States and the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] led to a withdrawal. U.S. President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] had strongly warned [[British Empire|Britain]] not to invade; he threatened serious damage to the British financial system by selling the [[Federal government of the United States|US government]]'s [[Pound sterling]] bonds. Historians conclude the [[Suez Crisis|Crisis]] "signified the end of [[British Empire|Great Britain]]'s role as one of the world's major powers".<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Peden|first=G. C.|date=December 2012|title=SUEZ AND BRITAIN'S DECLINE AS A WORLD POWER*|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/historical-journal/article/abs/suez-and-britains-decline-as-a-world-power/8C2895C3991DA5FA44E67E96BF180287|journal=The Historical Journal|language=en|volume=55|issue=4|pages=1073–1096|doi=10.1017/S0018246X12000246|s2cid=162845802 |issn=0018-246X}}</ref>

 

{{main|Gamal Abdel Nasser}}

[[File:Nasser_announcing_UAR.flac|right|thumb|Nasser's announcement of the United Arab Republic, 23 February 1958]]

[[File:1958-02-03_Egypt,_Syria_Merge_In_New_Arab_Republic.webm|right|thumb|Newsreel clip about [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]] and [[Shukri al-Quwatli|Quwatli]]'s establishment of [[United Arab Republic]]]]

On a surprise visit to [[Damascus]] to celebrate the union on 24 February, [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]] was welcomed by crowds in the hundreds of thousands.<ref name="Dawisha202-3">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|pp=202–203}}</ref> Crown Prince [[Muhammad al-Badr|Imam Badr]] of [[Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen|North Yemen]] was dispatched to [[Damascus]] with proposals to include his country in the new republic. [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]] agreed to establish a loose federal union with [[Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen|Yemen]]—the [[United Arab States]]—in place of total integration.<ref name="Aburish158">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=158}}</ref> While [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]] was in [[Second Syrian Republic|Syria]], [[Saud of Saudi Arabia|King Saud]] planned to have him assassinated on his return flight to [[Cairo]].<ref name="Dawisha190">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=190}}</ref> On 4 March, [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]] addressed the masses in [[Damascus]] and waved before them the [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]] check given to Syrian security chief and, unbeknownst to the [[Saudis]], ardent [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]] supporter [[Abdel Hamid al-Sarraj|Abdel Hamid Sarraj]] to shoot down [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]]'s plane.<ref name="Aburish160-1">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=160–161}}</ref> As a consequence of Saud's plot, he was forced by senior members of the Saudi royal family to informally cede most of his powers to his brother, [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia|King Faisal]], a major Nasser opponent who advocated [[Pan-Islamism|pan-Islamic unity]] over [[pan-Arabism]].<ref name="Aburish161-2">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=161–162}}</ref>

A day after announcing the attempt on his life, [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]] established a new provisional constitution proclaiming a 600-member National Assembly (400 from Egypt and 200 from Syria) and the dissolution of all political parties.<ref name="Aburish161-2" /> Nasser gave each of the provinces two vice-presidents: Boghdadi and [[Abdel Hakim Amer|Amer]] in Egypt, and [[Sabri al-Asali]] and [[Akram al-Hawrani]] in Syria.<ref name="Aburish161-2" /> Nasser then left for Moscow to meet with [[Nikita Khrushchev]]. At the meeting, Khrushchev pressed Nasser to lift the ban on the Communist Party, but Nasser refused, stating it was an internal matter which was not a subject of discussion with outside powers. Khrushchev was reportedly taken aback and denied he had meant to interfere in the UAR's affairs. The matter was settled as both leaders sought to prevent a rift between their two countries.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=163}}</ref>

 

{{reflist}}

==Sources==

*{{Citation |last=Dawisha |first=Adeed |title=Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century: From Triumph to Despair |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|location=Princeton |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-691-10273-3}}

*{{Citation |last=Dekmejian |first=Richard Hrair |author-link=Richard Dekmejian |title=Egypt Under Nasir: A Study in Political Dynamics|location=Albany |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]] |year=1971 |isbn=978-0-87395-080-0}}

*{{Citation |last=Jankowski |first=James P. |title=Nasser's Egypt, Arab Nationalism, and the United Arab Republic |publisher=[[Lynne Rienner Publishers]]|location=Boulder |year=2001 |isbn=1-58826-034-8}}

*{{Citation |last=Podeh |first=Elie |title=The Decline of Arab Unity: The Rise and Fall of the United Arabic Republic |publisher=Sussex Academic Press|location=Portland |year=1999 |isbn=1-902210-20-4}}

{{Egypt topics}}

{{Former Monarchies}}

[[Category:Former kingdoms|Egypt]]

[[Category:20th century in Egypt]]

[[Category:1953 establishments in Egypt]]

[[Category:1958 disestablishments in Egypt]]