Infant: Difference between revisions

An '''infant''' or '''baby''' is the very young [[offspring]] of [[human beings]]. ''Infant'' (from the Latin word ''infans'', meaning 'baby' or 'child'<ref>{{Cite web |title=Charlton T. Lewis, An Elementary Latin Dictionary, īnfāns |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0060:entry=infans |access-date=2023-04-05 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu |archive-date=2023-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423185413/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0060:entry=infans |url-status=live }}</ref>) is a formal or specialised synonym for the common term ''baby''. The terms may also be used to refer to [[Juvenile (organism)|juveniles]] of other organisms. A '''newborn''' is, in colloquial use, an infant who is only hours, days, or up to one month old. In medical contexts, a newborn or '''neonate''' (from Latin, ''neonatus'', newborn) is an infant in the first 28 days after birth;<ref name="mwn">{{cite web | title = Neonate | work = Merriam-Webster online dictionary | publisher = [[Merriam-Webster]] | url = http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=neonate | access-date = 2007-03-27 | url-status=live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070311003331/http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=neonate | archive-date = 2007-03-11 }}</ref> the term applies to [[Preterm birth|premature]], [[Pregnancy#Term|full term]], and [[Postterm pregnancy|postmature]] infants. In more embarassing cases of its popular usage (like by controversial activist, influencer and podcaster Charleston White<ref>{{Cite web |last=Elibert |first=Mark |title=Charleston White Arrested on Animal Cruelty and Aggravated Assault With Deadly Weapon Charges |url=https://www.complex.com/pop-culture/a/markelibert/charleston-white-arrested-on-animal-cruelty-aggravated |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=Complex |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last='' |date=2022-08-17 |title=Everything to know about Charleston White |url=https://www.the-sun.com/news/2929109/who-is-charleston-white/ |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=The US Sun |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-14 |title='I hate Asians': YouTuber Charleston White draws backlash over violent, vulgar anti-Asian rant |url=https://news.yahoo.com/hate-asians-youtuber-charleston-white-213511768.html |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=Yahoo News |language=en-US}}</ref>), it is used to mistakently define even pre-[[Adolescence|adolescents]].

Premature infants areInfants born prior to 37 weeks of gestation. are called "premature",<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nöcker-Ribaupierre |first=Monika |date=2015-06-01 |title=Originalbeiträge. Internationale musiktherapeutische Ansätze für frühgeborene Kinder/ International Music Therapy Approaches with premature Infants |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.13109/muum.2015.36.2.106 |journal=Musiktherapeutische Umschau |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=106–118 |doi=10.13109/muum.2015.36.2.106 |issn=0172-5505}}</ref> Full term infants arethose born between 39 and 40 weeks ofare gestation. Late"full term", infants arethose born through 41 weeks are "late term", and anything beyond 42 weeks is considered "post term".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of Term Pregnancy |url=https://www.acog.org/clinical/clinical-guidance/committee-opinion/articles/2013/11/definition-of-term-pregnancy |access-date=2023-12-20 |website=www.acog.org |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:初土俵入2.gif|thumb|ACrying cryingbaby<!--This infantis innot Japan in thea [[Naki Sumo Crying Baby Festival]] where you win or lose based on whether you cried or not.-->]]

As infants grow, [[food supplement]]s can be added. Many parents choose commercial, ready-made [[baby food]]s to supplement breast milk or formula for the child, while others adapt their usual meals for the dietary needs of their child. Whole cow's [[milk]] can be used at one year, but lower-fat milk is not recommended until the child is 2two to 3three years old. Weaning is the process through which breast milk is eliminated from the infant's diet through the introduction of solid foods in exchange for milk.<ref>{{cite book |last=Marriott and Foote |first=L.D. and K.D. |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofhu0001unse_f8u2 |title=Weaning of infants. (Review) |publisher=Academic OneFile. |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-4129-0475-9 |series=88.6 |author-link=Archives of Disease in Childhood |url-access=registration}}</ref> Until they are toilet-trained, infants in industrialized countries wear [[diaper]]s. The transition from diapers to training pants is an important transition in the development of an infant/baby to that of a toddler. Children need more sleep than adults—up to 18 hours for newborn babies, with a declining rate as the child ages. Until babies learn to walk, they are carried in the arms, held in slings or baby carriers, or transported in baby carriages or strollers. Most industrialized countries have laws requiring [[child safety seat]]s for babies in motor vehicles.

|pmid=33430544}}</ref> However, it is not advisable to use simplified "[[baby talk]]" (e.g. "Did you 'ouch'?" instead of, "Did you hurt yourself?").<ref>{{cite web|work=Gehirn&GeistSerie Kindesentwicklung No. 1, |date=February 2014, [|url=https://www.spektrum.de/inhaltsverzeichnis/babys-verstehen-und-foerdern-gehirn-und-geist-serie-kindesentwicklung-nr-1/913150 "|title=Püppi, muttu AA machen?"] {{Webarchive|urlarchiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202180540/https://www.spektrum.de/inhaltsverzeichnis/babys-verstehen-und-foerdern-gehirn-und-geist-serie-kindesentwicklung-nr-1/913150 |datearchivedate=2020-02-02 |page=63}}, p.&nbsp;63.</ref>

Infant sleep is not linear, ebbing and flowing with developmental milestones and age.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/142/6/e20174330/37494/Uninterrupted-Infant-Sleep-Development-and?autologincheck=redirected |title=Uninterrupted Infant Sleep, Development, and Maternal Mood |date=December 1, 2018 |access-date=2023-11-23 |website=publications.aap.org}}</ref>

[[Maternal sensitivity]] plays a particular role in the relationship with the infant and for favorable emotional development. This means being attentive to the infant's behavioral expressions, not misinterpreting the infant's expressions because of one's own moods, reacting immediately to the situation and finding a response that is appropriate to the context and the expressed needs. A secure [[Attachment theory|attachment]] is promoted through empathetic and adequate as well as prompt responses.<ref name="KS2010">{{cite web |first=Kathrin |last=Keller-Schuhmacher (|year=2010). [https://web.archive.org/web/20160623122611/|url=http://www.f-netz.ch/files/downloads/bdd914a66d88396709589536fbf79ede/bindung-text-mit-folien-referat-freiburg-10_11_08.pdf "|title=Bindung – von der Theorie zur Praxis: worauf kommt es an?"] |at=Presentation at the AWO Symposium of 8 November 2010, Freiburg im Breisgau |access-date=31 December 2020 |archive-date=23 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160623122611/http://www.f-netz.ch/files/downloads/bdd914a66d88396709589536fbf79ede/bindung-text-mit-folien-referat-freiburg-10_11_08.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Johnson2006">{{cite web |first=Helmut |last=Johnson (|year=2006). [https://web.archive.org/web/20111120050434/|url=http://www.institut-johnson.de/pdf/bindungsstoerungen.pdf ''|title=Bindungsstörungen Material zur Systemischen Arbeit in Erziehung und Betreuung''] |access-date=2020-12-31 |archive-date=2011-11-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111120050434/http://www.institut-johnson.de/pdf/bindungsstoerungen.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Kasten" /> In accordance with their basic needs, infants show an inborn behavior of seeking closeness to the mother – or to another primary caregiver – and thus in turn foster an attachment. When separated from the mother, infants protest by crying and by body movements.

[[Babywearing|Wearing]] has a calming effect on infants. A 2013 study showed that infants placed in a [[Cradle (bed)|cradle]] cried and kicked more often and had an [[increased heart rate]] (so the infants were stressed), while those picked up and carried by the mother while walking around calmed down significantly. The effect of being held motionless in the arm was intermediate between that of being carried around and that of being put down.<ref name="pmid23602481">{{cite journal | vauthors = Esposito G, Yoshida S, Ohnishi R, Tsuneoka Y, Rostagno Mdel C, Yokota S, Okabe S, Kamiya K, Hoshino M, Shimizu M, Venuti P, Kikusui T, Kato T, Kuroda KO | title = Infant calming responses during maternal carrying in humans and mice | journal = Current Biology | volume = 23 | issue = 9 | pages = 739–45 | date = May 2013 | pmid = 23602481 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2013.03.041| doi-access = free | bibcode = 2013CBio...23..739E }}</ref> That carrying (e.g., in a [[baby sling]]) makes infants more content and makes them cry less had already been shown in a randomized study in 1986.<ref>{{citation|surname1=Urs Hunziker, Ronald Barr|periodical=Pediatrics|title=Increased Carrying Reduces Infant Crying: A Randomized Controlled Trial|volume=77|issue=5|at=pp.&nbsp;641–648|issn=0031-4005|pmid=3517799|date=1986-05-01|url=https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/77/5/641|access-date=2020-02-02|archive-date=2020-02-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202182047/https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/77/5/641|url-status=live}}</ref>

Attachment theory is primarily an [[Adaptation|evolutionary]] and [[Ethology|ethological]] theory whereby the infant or child ''seeks proximity'' to a ''specified attachment figure'' in situations of alarm or distress for the purpose of survival.<ref name="Tronick et al.">{{cite journal|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.28.4.568|title=The Efe forager infant and toddler's pattern of social relationships: Multiple and simultaneous|year=1992|last1=Tronick|first1=Edward Z.|last2=Morelli|first2=Gilda A.|last3=Ivey|first3=Paula K.|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=28|issue=4|pages=568–577}} "|quote=Until recently, scientific accounts ... of the infant's early social experiences converged on the view that the infant progresses from a primary relationship with one individual... to relationships with a growing number of people... This is an epigenetic, hierarchical view of social development. We have labeled this dominant view the continuous care and contact model (CCC...). The CCC model developed from the writings of Spitz..., Bowlby..., and Provence and Lipton... on institutionalized children and is represented in the psychological views of Bowlby...[and others]. Common to the different conceptual frameworks is the belief that parenting practices and the infant's capacity for social engagement are biologically based and conform to a prototypical form. Supporters of the CCC model generally recognize that the infant and caregiver are able to adjust to a range of conditions, but they consider the adjustments observed to reflect biological variation. However, more extreme views (e.g., maternal bonding) consider certain variants as non adaptive and as compromising the child's psychological development. Bowlby's concept of monotropism is an exemplar of the CCC perspective...".}}</ref> The forming of attachments is considered to be the foundation of the infant/child's capacity to form and conduct relationships throughout life. Attachment is not the same as love or affection although they often go together. Attachment and attachment [[behavior]]s tend to develop between the age of 6 months and 3 years. Infants become [[Attachment in children|attached]] to adults who are sensitive and responsive in [[social interaction]]s with the infant, and who remain as consistent caregivers for some time. Parental responses lead to the development of patterns of attachment, which in turn lead to 'internal working models' which will guide the individual's feelings, thoughts, and expectations in later relationships.<ref name="Bretherton">Bretherton, I. and Munholland, K., A. Internal Working Models in Attachment Relationships: A Construct Revisited. ''Handbook of Attachment:Theory, Research and Clinical Applications'' 1999 eds Cassidy, J. and Shaver, P., R. Guilford press {{ISBN|1-57230-087-6}}{{page needed|date=July 2015}}</ref> There are a number of [[Attachment in children|attachment 'styles']] namely 'secure', 'anxious-ambivalent', 'anxious-avoidant', (all 'organized') and 'disorganized', some of which are more problematic than others. A lack of attachment or a seriously disrupted capacity for attachment could potentially amount to serious disorders.<ref>{{cite book|title=Child Maltreatment: Theory and Research on the Causes and Consequences of Child Abuse and Neglect|isbn = 9780521379694978-0-521-37969-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=74gyVSJhg5oC&q=baby+attachment+theory&pg=PA432|access-date=21 December 2018|last1 = Cicchetti|first1 = Dante|last2 = Carlson|first2 = Vicki|date = 30 June 1989| publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref>

Babyhood is a critical period in [[personality development]] when the foundations of adult personality are laid.<ref>''{{citation|title=Human Growth Development and Learning'' |edition=2004 Ed. p. |page=50. {{ISBN|isbn=971-23-3911-4}} |year=2004 "|quote=... is mainly through prespeech forms of crying, babbling, gesturing, and emotional expressions. In babyhood, understanding comes from a combination of sensory exploration, motor manipulation, and, toward the end of babyhood, from questions to answers. Babyhood is regarded as a critical period in personality development because it is the time when the foundations of adult personality are laid."}}</ref> In contrast [[toddler]] is used to denote a baby that has achieved relative independence, in moving about, and feeding.<ref>{{citation|title=Developmental Psychology. p. |page=121 {{ISBN|isbn=971-23-2463-X}} |year=1998 "|quote=However, Hurlock (1982) cites that infancy, compared to babyhood, is characterized by extreme helplessness. The word baby may likewise suggest a helpless individual; hence, the word toddler has been increasingly used to denote a baby that has achieved enough control of his body to permit relative independence, such as' moving about, feeding himself, etc. Characteristics of Babyhood The most important characteristics of babyhood are listed below: 1. It is the true foundation age .."}}</ref>

* [https://www.durham.ac.uk/research/institutes-and-centres/durham-infancy-sleep-centre/ Durham Infancy and Sleep Centre - Durham University]