Sound design: Difference between revisions

Plays were performed in medieval times in a form of theatre called ''[[Commedia dell'arte]]'', which used music and sound effects to enhance performances. The use of music and sound in the [[English Renaissance theatre|Elizabethan Theatre]] followed, in which music and sound effects were produced off -stage using devices such as bells, whistles, and horns. Cues would be written in the script for music and sound effects to be played at the appropriate time.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Kaye | first1 = Deena | last2 = Lebrecht | first2 = James | year = 1992 | title = Sound and Music For The Theatre | publisher = Back Stage Books, an imprint of Watson-Guptill Publications | isbn = 0-8230-7664-4 }}</ref>

Italian composer [[Luigi Russolo]] built mechanical sound-making devices, called "[[intonarumori]]," for [[futurism (music)|futurist]] theatrical and music performances starting around 1913. These devices were meant to simulate natural and man-made sounds, such as trains andor bombs. [[Luigi Russolo|Russolo's treatise]], [[The Art of Noises]], is one of the earliest written documents on the use of abstract noise in the theatre. After his death, his intonarumori' were used in more conventional theatre performances to create realistic sound effects.

Possibly the first use of recorded sound in the theatre was a phonograph playing a baby's cry in a London theatre in 1890.<ref>{{cite book | last = Booth | first = Michael R. | year = 1991 | title = Theatre In The Victorian | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 0-521-34837-4 }}</ref> Sixteen years later, [[Herbert Beerbohm Tree]] used recordings in his London production of [[Stephen Phillips’Phillips]]’ tragedy NERO. The event is marked in the Theatre Magazine (1906) with two photographs; one showing a musician blowing a bugle into a large horn attached to a disc recorder, the other with an actor recording the agonizing shrieks and groans of the tortured martyrs. The article states: “these sounds are all realistically reproduced by the gramophone”. As cited by [[Bertolt Brecht]], there was a play about [[Rasputin]] written in (1927) by [[Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy|Alexej Tolstoi]] and directed by [[Erwin Piscator]] that included a recording of [[Lenin]]'s voice. Whilst the term "sound designer" was not yet in use at this time, a number ofsome stage managers specialised as "effects men", creating and performing offstage sound effects using a mix of vocal mimicry, mechanical and electrical contraptions and gramophone records. A great deal of care and attention was paid to the construction and performance of these effects, both naturalistic and abstract.<ref>{{cite book | last = Napier | first = Frank | year = 1936 | title = Noises Off | publisher = Frederick Muller }}</ref> Over the course of the twentieth century the use of recorded sound effects began to take over fromreplace live sound effects, though often it was the [[Stage management|stage manager]]'s duty to find the [[sound effect]]s, and an [[electrician]] played the recordings during performances.

Between 1980 and 1988, [[Charlie Richmond (inventor)|Charlie Richmond]], USITT's first Sound Design Commissioner, oversaw efforts of their [[Sound Design Commission]] to define the duties, responsibilities, standards and procedures which might normally be expected of a theatre sound designer in [[North America]]. ThisHe subjectsummarized is still regularly discussed by that group, but during that time, substantialhis conclusions werein drawna anddocument he wrote a [<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20070308153444/http://www.richmondsounddesign.com/txt/sound-design.txt document]</ref> which, although now somewhat dated, provides a succinct record of what was then expected at that time. It was subsequently provided to both the ADC and [[David Goodman Croly|David Goodman]] at the Florida USA local when they were both planningplanned to represent sound designers in the 1990s.

[[Musical Instrument Digital Interface|MIDI]] and [[digital audio]] technology have contributed to the evolution of sound production techniques in the 1980s and 1990s. [[Digital audio workstation]]s (DAW) and a variety of digital signal processing algorithms applied in them allow more complicated sound trackssoundtracks with more tracks as well asand auditory effects to be realized. Features such as unlimited undo and sample-level editing allowallows fine control over the sound trackssoundtracks.

In [[theatre sound]], features of computerized theatre sound design systems have also been recognized as being essential for live [[show control]] systems at [[Walt Disney World]] and, as a result, Disney utilized systems of that type to control many facilities at their ''[[Disney's Hollywood Studios|Disney-MGM Studios]]'' theme park, which opened in 1989. These features were incorporated into the [[MIDI Show Control]] (MSC) specification, an open [[communications protocol]] usedfor to interactinteracting with diverse devices. The first show to fully utilize the MSC specification was the [[Magic Kingdom Parade]] at [[Walt Disney World]]'s [[Magic Kingdom]] in September, 1991.

The rise of interest in game audio has also brought more advanced interactive audio tools that are also accessible without a background in computer programming. Some of such software tools (termed "implementation tools" or "audio engines") feature a workflow that's similar to that in more conventional [[digital audio workstation]]DAW programs and can also allow the sound production personnel to undertake some of the more creative interactive sound tasks (that are considered to be part of sound design for computer applications) that previously would have required a computer programmer. Interactive applications have also given rise to a plethora ofmany techniques in "dynamic audio" thatwhich loosely means sound that's "parametrically" adjusted during the program's run-time of the program. This allows for a broader expression in sounds, more similar to that in films, because this way the sound designer can e.g. create footstep sounds that vary in a believable and non-repeating way and that also corresponds to what's seen in the picture. The digital audio workstation cannot directly "communicate" with game engines, because the game's events occur often occur in an unpredictable order, whereas traditional digital audio workstations as well as so called linear media (TV, film etc.) have everything occur in the same order every time the production is run. Especially, games have also brought in dynamic or adaptive mixing.

In motion picture production, a ''Sound Editor/Designer'' is a member of a [[film crew]] responsible for the entirety or some specific parts of a film's sound tracksoundtrack.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sound designer|url=http://filmsound.org/terminology/designer.htm|website=FilmSound.org|access-date=13 October 2015}}</ref> In the [[Cinema of the United States|American film industry]], the title ''Sound Designer'' is not controlled by any [[professional organization]], unlike titles such as [[film director|Director]] or [[Screenwriter]].

The terms ''sound design'' and ''sound designer'' began to be used in the motion picture industry in 1969. At that time, The title of ''Sound Designer'' was first granted to [[Walter Murch]] by [[Francis Ford Coppola]] in recognition for Murch's contributions to the film ''[[The Rain People]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ondaatje |first1=Michael |last2=Murch |first2=Walter |title=The conversations: Walter Murch and the art of editing film |date=2003 |publisher=Bloomsbury |location=London |page=53}}</ref> The original meaning of the title ''Sound Designer'', as established by Coppola and Murch, was "an individual ultimately responsible for all aspects of a film's audio track, from the [[dialogue]] and [[sound effects]] recording to the [[re-recording (sound/film)|re-recording]] (mix) of the final track".<ref name=reeves>{{cite web|last1=Reeves|first1=Alex|title=A Brief History of Sound Design|url=http://www.theawsc.com/2014/01/31/a-brief-history-of-sound-design/|website=Advertising Week Social Club|publisher=Advertising Week|access-date=13 October 2015|url-status=bot: unknown|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304084311/http://www.theawsc.com/2014/01/31/a-brief-history-of-sound-design/|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> The term ''sound designer'' has replaced monikers like ''supervising sound editor'' or ''re-recording mixer'' for what was essentially the same position: the head designer of the final sound track. Editors and mixers like Murray Spivack (''King Kong''), George Groves (''The Jazz Singer''), James G. Stewart (''Citizen Kane''), and Carl Faulkner (''Journey to the Center of the Earth'') served in this capacity during Hollywood's studio era, and are generally considered to be sound designers by a different name.

The advantage of calling oneself a sound designer beginning in later decades was two-fold. It strategically allowed for a single person to work as both an editor and mixer on a film without running into issues pertaining to the jurisdictions of editors and mixers, as outlined by their respective unions. Additionally, it was a rhetorical move that legitimatedlegitimised the field of post-production sound at a time when studios were downsizing their sound departments, and when producers were routinely skimping on budgets and salaries for sound editors and mixers. In so doing, it allowed those who called themselves sound designers to compete for contract work and to negotiate higher salaries. The position of Sound Designer therefore emerged in a manner similar to that of [[Production Designer]], which was created in the 1930s when [[William Cameron Menzies]] made revolutionary contributions to the craft of [[art director|art direction]] in the making of ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bordwell|first1=David|title=William Cameron Menzies: One Forceful, Impressive Idea|url=http://www.davidbordwell.net/essays/menzies.php|website=davidbordwell.net|access-date=13 October 2015}}{{sps|date=July 2016}}</ref>

* [[movie theater|Cinema]] [[Sound reinforcement system|sound system]]s became capable of [[high-fidelity]] reproduction, particularly after the adoption of [[Dolby Stereo]]. Before stereo soundtracks, film sound was of such low fidelity that only the dialogue and occasional sound effects were practical. These sound systems were originally devised as gimmicks to increase theater attendance, but their widespread implementation created a content vacuum that had to be filled by competent professionals. BeforeDolby's stereoimmersive soundtracks[[Dolby Atmos]] format, filmintroduced in 2012, provides the sound wasteam with 128 tracks of suchaudio lowthat fidelitycan be assigned to a 7.1.2 bed that onlyutilizes two overhead channels, leaving 118 tracks for audio objects that can be positioned around the dialoguetheater independent of the sound bed. Object positions are informed by metadata that places them based on X, Y, Z coordinates and occasionalthe number of speakers available in the room. This immersive sound effectsformat wereexpands practicalcreative opportunities for the use of sound beyond what was achievable with older 5.1 and 7.1 [[surround sound]] systems. The greater dynamic range of the new systems, coupled with the ability to produce sounds at the sides, behind, or behindabove the audience, provided the audio post-production team new opportunities for creative expression in film sound. <ref>{{cite web|url=https://professional.dolby.com/content-creation/Dolby-Atmos-for-content-creators/2|title=Dolby Atmos for content creators|access-date=January 6, 2022|archive-date=October 8, 2021|archive-url=

* New filmmakers made their early films outside the [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] [[the establishment|establishment]], away from the influence of film [[labor union]]s and the then rapidly dissipating [[studio system]].

Sound design for [[musical theatre|musicals]] often focuses on the design and implementation of a sound reinforcement system that will fulfilfulfill the needs of the production. If a sound system is already installed in the performance venue, it is the sound designer's job to tune the system for the best use for a particular production. Sound system tuning employs various methods including [[equalization (audio)|equalization]], delay, volume, speaker and [[microphone]] placement, and in some cases, the addition of new equipment. In conjunction with the director and musical director, if any, the sound reinforcement designer determines the use and placement of microphones for actors and musicians. The sound reinforcement designer ensures that the performance can be heard and understood by everyone in the audience, regardless of the shape, size or acoustics of the venue, and that performers can hear everything needed to enable them to do their jobs. While sound design for a musical largely focuses on the artistic merits of sound reinforcement, many musicals, such as ''Into the Woods'' also require significant sound scores (see Sound Design for Plays). Sound Reinforcement Design was recognized by the American Theatre Wing's Tony Awards with the Tony Award for Best Sound Design of a Musical until the 2014-15 season,<ref name="2010-2011 Tony Award Rules">{{cite web|title=2010-2011 Tony Award Rules|url=http://www.tonyawards.com/en_US/about/Rules-2010-2011FINAL.pdf|publisher=American Theatre Wing|access-date=26 December 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319152200/http://www.tonyawards.com/en_US/about/Rules-2010-2011FINAL.pdf|archive-date=19 March 2012}}</ref> later reinstating in the 2017-18 season.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.tonyawards.com/en_US/news/articles/2017-04-24/best_sound_design_categories_to_return_to_the_tony_awards.html|title=Best Sound Design Categories to Return to the Tony Awards|website=TonyAwards.com|language=en|access-date=2017-04-27}}</ref>

* The [[Association of Sound Designers]] is a trade association representing theatre sound designers in the UK.

* [[United Scenic Artists]] (USA) Local USA829, which is integrated within [[IATSE]], represents theatrical sound designers in the United States.

In the application of electroacoustic techniques (e.g. binaural sound) and sound synthesis for contemporary music or film music, a sound designer (often also an electronic musician) sometimes refers to an artist who works alongside a composer to realize the more electronic aspects of a musical production. This is because sometimes there exists a difference in interests between artists calling themselves composers and artists calling themselves electronic musicians or sound designers. The latter being sometimes more experienced as well as interestedspecialises in electronic music techniques, such as sequencing and synthesizers, but the former often wanting to use elements of electronic music in compositions but often beingis more experienced in writing music in a variety of genres. Since electronic music itself is quite broad in techniques and often separate from techniques applied in other genres, this kind of collaboration can be seen as fairly natural as well asand beneficial.

Notable examples of (recognized) sound design in music are the contributions of [[Michael Brook]] to the [[U2]] album ''[[The Joshua Tree]]'', [[George Massenburg]] to the [[Jennifer Warnes]] album ''[[Famous Blue Raincoat (album)|Famous Blue Raincoat]]'', [[Chris Thomas (record producer)|Chris Thomas]] to the [[Pink Floyd]] album ''[[The Dark Side of the Moon]]'', and [[Brian Eno]] to the [[Paul Simon]] album ''[[Surprise (Paul Simon album)|Surprise]]''.

In 1974, [[Suzanne Ciani]] started her own production company, Ciani/Musica. Inc., which became the #1 sound design music house in New York.<ref>[http{{Cite web|url=https://www.sevwave.com/electronic%20music.html] {{dead linkmusic|title=MUSIC|datewebsite=FebruarySuzanne 2021Ciani}}</ref>

Sound is widely used in a variety of [[human-computerhuman–computer interface]]s, in [[computer game]]s and [[video game]]s.<ref>{{cite conference | first1 = Viviane | last1 = Gal | first2 = Cécile | last2 = Le Prado | first3 = J. B. | last3 = Merland | first4 = Stéphane | last4 = Natkin | first5 = Liliana | last5 = Vega | title = Processes and tools for sound design in computer games | book-title = Proceedings of International Computer Music Conference | location = Goetborg | date = September 2002 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.78.5543 }}.</ref><ref>{{cite web | first1 = Olivier | last1 = Veneri | first2 = Stéphane | last2 = Natkin | first3 = Cécile | last3 = Le Prado | first4 = Marc | last4 = Emerit | title = A Game Audio Technology Overview | url = http://www.smcnetwork.org/files/proceedings/2006/10-A_Game_Audio_Technology_Overview.pdf | access-date = 2011-02-22 | archive-date = 2011-07-28 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110728031826/http://www.smcnetwork.org/files/proceedings/2006/10-A_Game_Audio_Technology_Overview.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref>  There are a few extra concerns and requirements for sound production for computer applications, including nonre-repetitivenessusability, interactivity and low memory and CPU usage. For example, the most computational resources are usually devoted to graphics, which in turn means that the sound playback is often limited to some upper memory consumption as well as CPU use limits. These have to be added to the concerns of audioAudio production, sinceshould itaccount is often not enough to merely "create good sound", but the sound also has to fit the givenfor computational limits, whilefor stillsound soundingplayback good, which may require e.g. the use ofwith audio compression or voice allocating systems. However, sound for computer applications also adds some new creative aspects to music and sound, because computer sound (especially in games) often involves the sound having or desired to be ''interactive''. Adding interactivity can involve using a variety of playback systems or logic, using tools that allow the production of interactive sound (e.g. Max/MSP, Wwise) and it also deviates from being just an art form to also requiring software or electrical engineering, since implementing interactivity of sound also requires engineering of the systems that play the sound or e.g. process user input. Therefore, in interactive applications, a sound designer often collaborates with an engineer (e.g. a sound programmer) who's concerned with designing the playback systems and their efficiency.

Sound designers have been recognized by awards organizations for some time, and new awards have emerged more recently in response to advances in sound design technology and quality. The [[Motion Picture Sound Editors]] and the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] recognizes the finest or most aesthetic sound design for a film with the Golden Reel AwardAwards for Sound Editing in the film, broadcast, and Musicgame editingindustries, and the [[Academy Award for Best Sound Editing]] respectively. In 2021, the 93rd Academy Awards merged Best Sound Editing and Best Sound Mixing into one general Best Sound category. In 2007, the [[Tony Award for Best Sound Design]] was created to honor the best sound design in American theatre on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]].<ref>{{cite news | title = Starting in 2007-08, Sound Designers Will Be Recognized by Tony Awards | url = http://www.playbill.com/news/article/108956.html | date = 19 Jun 2007 | first = Kenneth | last = Jones | work = Playbill.com | access-date = 2008-06-23 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070626051746/http://www.playbill.com/news/article/108956.html# | archive-date = 2007-06-26 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

* [[IEZA Framework]] -– a framework for conceptual game sound design

== References ==

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