Drug-related crime: Difference between revisions

In the United States, [[IllegalA '''drug trade|illegal drugs]] are -related to crime in multiple ways. Most directly, it''' is a [[crime]] to possess, manufacture, or distribute drugs classified as having a potential for [[Drug abuse|abuse]] (such as [[cocaine]], [[heroin]], [[morphine]] and [[amphetamines]]). Drugs are also related to crime as [[Illegal drug trade|drug trafficking]] and drug production are often controlled by [[drug cartels]], [[organized crime|organised crime]] and [[gang]]s. Some drug-related crime involves crime against the person such as robbery or sexual assaults.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Marc B, Baudry F, Vaquero P, Zerrouki L, Hassnaoui S, Douceron H |title=Sexual assault under benzodiazepine submission in a Paris suburb |journal=Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics |volume=263 |issue=4 |pages=193–7 |date=April 2000 |pmid=10834331 |doi= 10.1007/s004040050282|s2cid=11093298 }}</ref>

[[Drug abuse]] and [[Substance dependence|addiction]] is associated with drug-related crimes. In the [[United States|U.S.]] several jurisdictions have reported that [[drug misuse|benzodiazepine misuse]] by criminal detainees has surpassed that of opiates.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1081/JA-120016569 | pmid = 12602810 | title = Correlates of Drug use among a sample of arrestees surveyed through the Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (ADAM) Program | author = Yacoubian GS. | volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=127–39 |date=January 2003 | journal = Substance Use & Misuse| s2cid = 25817581 }}</ref> Patients reporting to two emergency rooms in Canada with violence-related injuries were most often found to be intoxicated with alcohol and were significantly more likely to test positive for benzodiazepines (most commonly [[temazepam]]) than other groups of individuals, whereas other drugs were found to be insignificant in relation to violent injuries.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0376-8716(98)00184-7 | pmid = 10402149 | title = Demographic and substance use factors related to violent and accidental injuries: results from an emergency room study | author = Macdonald S |author2=Wells S |author3=Giesbrecht N |author4=Cherpitel CJ. | volume=55 |issue= 1–2 |pages= 53–61 | date = June 1, 1999 | journal = Drug and Alcohol Dependence }}</ref>

Research carried out on drug-related crime found that drug misuse is associated with various crimes that are in part related to the feelings of invincibility, which can become particularly pronounced with abuse. Problematic crimes associated include [[shoplifting]], [[property crime]], [[drug dealing]], [[violence]] and [[aggression]] and [[driving whilst intoxicated]].<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.ndlerf.gov.au/pub/Mono%2021%20Summary.pdf | title = Benzodiazepine and pharmaceutical opioid misuse and their relationship to crime | accessdateaccess-date = 27 December 2008 | author = Australian Government | author2 = National Drug Law Enforcement Research Fund | year = 2007 | formatpublisher = PDFNDLERF | publisherarchive-date = NDLERF21 May 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090521190420/http://www.ndlerf.gov.au/pub/Mono%2021%20Summary.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> In Scotland among the 71% of suspected criminals testing positive for controlled drugs at the time of their arrest benzodiazepines (over 85% are temazepam cases) are detected more frequently than [[opiates]] and are second only to [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], which is the most frequently detected drug.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2000/07/fa87fd94-22bc-4f95-826f-cc8ab786b182 | title = Interviewing and Drug Testing of Arrestees in Scotland: A Pilot of the Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Methodology (ADAM) | accessdateaccess-date = 27 December 2008 | author = The Scottish Government Publications | date = 25 July 2000}}</ref>

Research carried out by the Australian government found that benzodiazepine users are more likely to be violent, more likely to have been in contact with the police, and more likely to have been charged with criminal behavior than those using opiates. Illicit benzodiazepines mostly originate from medical practitioners but leak onto the illicit scene due to diversion and [[doctor shopping]]. Although only a very small number originate from thefts, forged prescriptions, armed robberies, or [[ram raids]], it is most often benzodiazepines, rather than opiates, that are targeted in part because benzodiazepines are not usually locked in vaults and or do not have as strict laws governing prescription and storage of many benzodiazepines. Temazepam accounts for most benzodiazepine sought by forgery of prescriptions and through pharmacy burglary in Australia.<ref>{{cite web |title= Injecting Temazepam: The facts&nbsp;— Temazepam Injection and Diversion |url= http://www.health.vic.gov.au/drugservices/pubs/temazepam/facts.htm |date= 29 March 2007 |publisher= Victorian Government Health Information |accessdateaccess-date= 2007-11-25 |deadurlurl-status= yesdead |archiveurlarchive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080107121907/http://www.health.vic.gov.au/drugservices/pubs/temazepam/facts.htm |archivedatearchive-date= 7 January 2008 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.ndlerf.gov.au/pub/Monograph_21.pdf |format=PDF | title = Benzodiazepine and pharmaceutical opioid misuse and their relationship to crime - An examination of illicit prescription drug markets in Melbourne, Hobart and Darwin | accessdateaccess-date = 27 December 2008 | author = National Drug Strategy | author2 = National Drug Law Enforcement Research Fund | year = 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120625104655/http://www.ndlerf.gov.au/pub/Monograph_21.pdf | archive-date = 25 June 2012 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

Benzodiazepines have been used as a tool of murder by serial killers, and other murderers, such as those with the condition [[Munchausen syndrome by proxy|Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy]].<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 7979864 | title = [Serial homicide in the Vienna-Lainz hospital] | author = Missliwetz J | volume=194 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–7 |date=Jul–AugustJuly–August 1981 | journal = Archiv für Kriminologie}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 9290875 | title = Clinical and toxicological findings in two young siblings and autopsy findings in one sibling with multiple hospital admissions resulting in death. Evidence suggesting Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy | author = Valentine JL | volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=276–81 |author2=Schexnayder S |author3=Jones JG |author4=Sturner WQ. |date=September 1997 | journal = The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology | doi=10.1097/00000433-199709000-00009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 9399131 | title = A case of homicidal poisoning involving several drugs | author = Saito T | volume=21 |issue=7 |pages=584–6 |author2=Takeichi S |author3=Nakajima Y |author4=Yukawa N |author5=Osawa M. |date=Nov–DecemberNovember–December 1997 | journal = Journal of Analytical Toxicology | doi=10.1093/jat/21.7.584|doi-access= }}</ref> Benzodiazepines have also been used to facilitate [[rape]] or [[robbery]] crimes, and [[benzodiazepine dependence]] has been linked to shoplifting due to the [[fugue state]] induced by the chronic use of the drug.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.3109/15563659609013835 | pmid = 8941203 | title = Urine benzodiazepines screening of involuntarily drugged and robbed or raped patients | author = Boussairi A | volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=721–4 |author2=Dupeyron JP |author3=Hernandez B |author4=Delaitre D |author5=Beugnet L |author6=Espinoza P |author7=Diamant-Berger O. | year = 1996 | journal = Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 8918097 | title = Shoplifting and robbery in a fugue state | volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=265–8 |author=Tang CP |author2=Pang AH |author3=Ungvari GS. |date=July 1996 | journal = Medicine, Science, and the Law| doi = 10.1177/002580249603600315 | s2cid = 77259419 }}</ref> When benzodiazepines are used for criminal purposes against a victim they are often mixed with food or drink.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 16087387 | title = A case of drug-facilitated sexual assault by the use of flunitrazepam | volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=44–5 |author=Ohshima T. |date=January 2006 | doi = 10.1016/j.jcfm.2005.05.006 | journal = Journal of Clinical Forensic Medicine}}</ref>

[[Temazepam]] and [[midazolam]] are the most common benzodiazepines used to facilitate [[date rape]].<ref>{{cite journal |author= Negrusz A |author2=Gaensslen RE. |date=August 2003 |title= Analytical developments in toxicological investigation of drug-facilitated sexual assault |journal= Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry |volume= 376 | issue= 8 |pages= 1192–7 |pmid= 12682705 | doi = 10.1007/s00216-003-1896-z |urls2cid=34401047 }}</ref> [[Alprazolam]] has been abused for the purpose of carrying out acts of [[incest]] and for the corruption of adolescent girls.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 16139113 | title = Identification of alprazolam in hair in two cases of drug-facilitated incidents | volume=153 |issue=2–3 |pages=222–6 |author=Kintz P |author2=Villain M |author3=Chèze M |author4=Pépin G. | date = October 29, 2005 | doi = 10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.10.025 | journal = Forensic Science International }}</ref> However, alcohol remains the most common drug involved in cases of [[drug rape]].<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 11468961 | url = http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/165/1/80 | title = Drug-facilitated date rape | journal = Canadian Medical Association Journal | volume=165 |issue=1 |pages=80 |author=Weir E. | date = July 10, 2001 | pmc = 81265 }}</ref> Although benzodiazepines and [[ethanol]] are the most frequent drugs used in [[sexual assaults]], [[gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid|GHB]] is another potential [[date rape drug]] that has received increased media focus.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 16886708 | url = | title = [Chemical submission: a literature review] | doi = 10.2515/therapie:2006028 | volume=61 |issue=2 |pages=145–50 |author=Saint-Martin P |author2=Furet Y |author3=O'Byrne P |author4=Bouyssy M |author5=Paintaud G |author6=Autret-Leca E. |date=Mar–AprilMarch–April 2006 | journal = Thérapie}}</ref>

Some benzodiazepines are more associated with crime than others especially when abused or taken in combination with alcohol. The potent benzodiazepine [[flunitrazepam]] (Rohypnol), which has strong amnesia-producing effects can cause abusers to become ruthless and also cause feelings of being invincible. This has led to some acts of extreme violence to others, often leaving abusers with no recollection of what they have done in their drug-induced state. It has been proposed that criminal and violent acts brought on by [[benzodiazepine abuse]] may be related to lowered [[serotonin]] levels via enhanced [[GABA]]ergic effects.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 10093441 | title = [Rohypnol should be classified as a narcotic] | doi = | author = Dåderman A |author2=Lidberg L. | volume=96 |issue= 9 |pages= 1005–7 | date = March 3, 1999 | journal = Läkartidningen}}</ref>

{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0379-0738(03)00273-1 | pmid = 14550609 | title = The importance of a urine sample in persons intoxicated with flunitrazepam--legal issues in a forensic psychiatric case study of a serial murderer | author = Dåderman AM |author2=Strindlund H |author3=Wiklund N |author4=Fredriksen SO |author5=Lidberg L. | volume=137 |issue= 1 |pages= 21–7 | date = October 14, 2003 | journal = Forensic Science International }}</ref> A study on forensic psychiatric patients who had abused flunitrazepam at the time of their crimes found that the patients displayed extreme violence, lacked the ability to think clearly, and experienced a loss of empathy for their victims while under the influence of flunitrazepam, and it was found that the abuse of alcohol or other drugs in combination with flunitrazepam compounded the problem. Their behaviour under the influence of flunitrazepam was in contrast to their normal psychological state.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 12108561 | title = Violent behavior, impulsive decision-making, and anterograde amnesia while intoxicated with flunitrazepam and alcohol or other drugs: a case study in forensic psychiatric patients | author = Dåderman AM |author2=Fredriksson B |author3=Kristiansson M |author4=Nilsson LH |author5=Lidberg L. | volume=30 |issue= 2 |pages= 238–51 | year = 2002 | journal = Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law}}</ref>

== Criticisms ==

The concept of drug-related crime has been criticized for being too blunt, especially in its failure to distinguish between three types of crime associated with drugs:<ref name=ncvc>[{{cite web |url=http://www.ncvc.org/ncvc/main.aspx?dbName=DocumentViewer&DocumentID=32348 |title=Drug-Related Crime], |date=2008 |publisher=The National Center for Victims of Crime |access-date=2023-06-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081126233752/http://www.ncvc.org/ncvc/main.aspx?dbName=DocumentViewer&DocumentID=32348 |archive-date=2008-11-26}}</ref>

Drug-related crime may be used as a justification for prohibition, but, in the case of system-related crime, the acts are only crimes because of prohibition.{{cn|date=June 2023}} In addition, some consider even user-related and economic-related aspects of crime as symptomatic of a broader problem.{{cn|date=June 2023}}

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070814144503/http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/040223/d040223a.htm Drug-related crime Canada]

* [http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/dudsfp04.pdf PDF version of Drug-related crime U.S. Department of Justice] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916224915/http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/dudsfp04.pdf |date=2012-09-16 }}

* [httphttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1576896/Young-people-drive-under-influence-of-drugs.html Driving under the influence of drugs]